Future proofing construction detailing

This report has been prepared in order to suggest solutions for improvement of the timber frame kit houses that should comply with future building regulation and keep satisfying a high SAP2009 rating.

Student:

Fahimeh Rezvani

Matriculation Number: 10019743 Module leader: Julio Bros-Williamson, University of Napier Edinburgh

Contents
introduction
The methodology of the report

building regulation scenario

As a first step a target for 2010 further improvement in 2013 Finally, zero carbon by 2016,

Target Emissions Rate code for sustainable homes

achieving a sustainability rating

standard assessment procedure

Methodology

Sap 2005 Roadmap to achieving SAP 2009

Main changes between SAP 2005 and SAP 2009 1. Party walls 2.Thermal bridges
Accredited Construction Details

3. Cooling and air-conditioning 4.Thermal mass 5. Hot water SEDBUK 6. Multiple heating or ventilation systems

7. Heat pumps Ground Source Heat Pumps 8. Innovative technologies 9.co2 emission factors 10. Internal lighting conventions

Air Tightness and Ventilation

Air leakage Airtightness testing of dwellings

Mechanical Systems with Heat Recovery (MVHR)

Earth Tubes

Incorporating Low & Zero Carbon Technology

Micro wind solar electric (photovoltaics) solar water heating syste Biomass Biomass room heaters CHP

Typical timber kit construction

Basic Building Regulation Standard. Enhanced Kit Construction (2010 Standard) Enhanced (High Thermal Mass) Timber High Insulation (2013 Standard) Low Emissions (Aiming for 2016 Standard)

Conclusion Reference

Introduction
The UK government target that zero carbon homes will be standard by 2016 and use building regulation section6Energy.The intention of section 6 is to ensure that effective measures for the conservation of fuel and power are incorporated in dwellings and buildings consisting of dwellings. In addition to limiting energy demand, by addressing the performance of the building fabric and fixed building services, a carbon dioxide emissions standard obliges a designer of new dwellings to consider building design in a holistic way. Improvements set out within this section will result in a greater need to consider the benefits which localised or building-integrated low carbon equipment (LCE) (e.g. photovoltaics, solar water heating, combined heat and power and heat pumps) can make towards meeting standards. Although the focus is primarily on lowering carbon dioxide emissions from dwellings in use, the measures within this section also reduce energy demand and continue to ensure that, for new homes and new building work, use of energy and fuel costs arising from this are both minimised.

The methodology
This report aim is to propose new methods for client to meet new guidelines of Building regulations, SAP2009 and CfSH focusing on future trends. It map out current building regulations and SAP2005 standards for reducing energy and carbon and use section6 energy for achieving zero carbon homes in the code for sustainable homes (CfSH) level 6 ,it also Map out current TER (Target emission rates) and describe new target .and then indicates the Roadmap to achieving SAP 2009 and the key different between SAP 2005 and SAP 2009.It consider the air tightness and focus on continue thermal bridge and ventilation. It finally describe the advantage use on LZCT (Low & Zero Carbon Technology) to achieve to the 2016 Zero Carbon Standard. And suggest microwind, solar electric (photovoltaics), solar water heating ,biomass and CHP and describe the method and show change of cost. Key discussed are the envelope performance so look building regulation for a typical Timber Kit Construction. So at the end in the table consider all the element for several timber kit.

BUILDING REGULATION SCENARIO

Building Regulations set an overall energy/carbon target for the dwelling (known as the SAP or Standard Assessment Procedure rating) but allow flexibility in how that standard is met. SAP target ratings can be met by: improving the fabric of the building, e.g. through better insulation and sealing of the fabric, draught-proofing of windows and doors; improving the efficiency of heating and lighting; and through the use of lower carbon fuels and heating appliances. The Code takes a similar approach, but also covers the energy/carbon use for appliances in the home. Building regulations have already improved energy/carbon performance. Energy efficiency standards for new homes are 40% better than those before 2002 and 70% better than in 1990. But there is still some way to go before the UK meets the standards of the best in Europe, and before we start to move towards zero carbon buildings.

The table.1 below shows the levels of improved energy/carbon performance Date
Energy/carbon improvement as compared to Part L (Building Regulations 2006)

2010 25% Code level 3

2013 44 % Code level 4

2016 Zero carbon Code level 6

Equivalent energy/carbon standard in the Code Source : Building a Greener Future: policy statement, 23 July 2007

As a first step a target for 2010

As shown in the table above, the energy/carbon performance of building regulations improves by 25% by 2010. It should be achievable through some further improvement in the fabric of the dwellings and in the efficiency of heating and lighting. It is also require that all new homes built by Registered Social Landlords (RSLs), or others with Housing Corporation funding, will comply with Level 3 of the Code, together with homes developed by English Partnerships or with the direct funding support from the Department's housing growth programmes. This requirement, which reflects the Labour Party manifesto commitment regarding the Code in 2005, has an important demonstration value, in showing to the wider development industry and public what can be achieved.

There would then be a further improvement in 2013

As a next step, we are proposing that there is a further improvement to the energy/carbon performance of building regulations in 2013. This will require homes to be 44% more energy/carbon efficient as compared to 2006 levels. It will require some form of low or zero carbon energy use, which we believe will help drive the technological innovation required to get us to the next step. This could be at the development level (e.g. CHP) or at the building level (e.g. solar hot water heating).

Finally, by 2016, we would get to zero carbon for new homes

As a final step, we are proposing that all new homes are zero carbon by 2016. For a new home to be genuinely zero carbon it will need to deliver zero carbon (net over the year) for all energy use in the home cooking, washing and electronic entertainment appliances as well as space heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting and hot water. This will require renewable or very low carbon energy in addition to high levels of insulation, etc. Again it could be at the development or building level.

Target Emissions Rate

To gain compliance with Building Regulations AD Part L1A a percentage reduction of the Dwelling Emission Rate (DER) under the Target Emission Rate (TER) is required. (TER) Target Emission RateThe target emission rate is the maximum allowable CO2 emissions per m2 (KgCO2/m2/year) arising from energy used in heating, cooling, hot water and lighting which would demonstrate compliance with Criterion 1 of AD L1A.
DER: The estimated annual carbon dioxide emissions per m of floor area, for space heating,

water heating, ventilation and internal fixed lighting less the emissions generated by any energy saving technologies. The DER/TER performance requirements are present in the Code for Sustainable Homes under Category 1: Energy and Carbon Dioxide Emissions.

Assessment criteria

Table.2 Information Required to Demonstrate Compliance Note: performance requirements are equivalent to those in previous scheme versions but are now measured using the AD L1A 2010 TER as the baseline.
*2 *1

up to nine credits are awarded on a sliding scale is based on increments of 0.1 credits, distributed equally between the benchmarks defined in this table. Source: (Department for Communities and Local Government) http://www.codewizard.co.uk/products/catspec.php?code=ENE1

CODE FOR SUSTAINABLE HOMES

The Code for Sustainable Homes has been developed to enable a step change in sustainable building practice for new homes. It has been prepared by the Government in close working consultation with the Building Research Establishment (BRE) and Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA), and through consultation with a Senior Steering Group consisting of Government, industry and NGO representatives. The Code measures the sustainability of a home against design categories, rating the whole home as a complete package. Those familiar with building regulations, will recognise this as a major and welcome departure from current practice. The design categories included within the Code are: energy/CO2 pollution water health and well-being materials management surface water run-off ecology waste A standard which builds upon existing systems The Code for Sustainable Homes has been developed using the Building Research Establishments (BRE) EcoHomes System, which has already achieved success in reducing the impact of affordable housing projects, in particular within the social housing sector. The Code builds upon EcoHomes in a number of ways, for example: the Code introduces minimum standards for energy and water efficiency at every level of the Code, therefore requiring high levels of sustainability performance in these areas for achievement of a high Code rating; the Code uses a simpler system of awarding points, with more complex weightings removed; the Code includes new areas of sustainability design, such as Lifetime Homes and inclusion of composting facilities; BRE will continue to maintain and operate the EcoHomes scheme during the transition to the Code. The Code sits alongside the planning system which guides sustainability in broader locational and aesthetic issues.

Achieving a sustainability rating the Code is completely flexible; developers can choose which and how many standards they implement to obtain points under the Code in order to achieve a higher sustainability rating. The table below shows the nine design categories and the degree of flexibility afforded by each: flexibility of the code .

Table.3 : shows the nine design categories and the degree of flexibility afforded by each Categories Energy/ CO2 Water Materials Surface water run-off Waste Pollution No minimum standards Health and well-being Management Ecology Flexibility Minimum standards at each level of the Code Minimum standard at Code entry level

No minimum standards

Note: In order to achieve a particular code level and the associated sustainability rating, a home must integrate minimum standards, and additional points for other design features must be attained. Source : Department for Communities and Local Government, The Code for Sustainable Homes Setting the standard in sustainability for new homes, February 2008

Flexibility of the Code The table 4 shows the minimum standards, and number of points required in order to achieve each level of the Code:

Achieving a sustainability rating Minimum standards water Energy Code level standard points standard points (percenta awarded (litres per awarded ge person Better per year) than Part L 2006) 1( ) 10 1.2 120 1.5 2( ) 18 3.5 120 1.5 3( ) 25 5.8 105 4.5 4( ) 44 9.4 105 4.5 5( ) 1002 16.4 80 7.5 6( ) A zero 17.6 80 7.5 carbon home3

other points require d

33.3 43.0 46.7 54.1 60.1 64.9

Notes 1. Building Regulations: Approved Document L (2006) Conservation of Fuel and Power. 2. Zero emissions in relation to Building Regulations issues (i.e. zero emissions from heating, hot water, ventilation and lighting). 3. A completely zero carbon home (i.e. zero net emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) from all energy use in the home). 4. All points in this document are rounded to one decimal place. Source: Source : Department for Communities and Local Government, The Code for Sustainable Homes Setting the standard in sustainability for new homes, February 2008

benefits for social housing providers

Lower running costs: Homes built to Code standard will have lower running costs through greater energy and water efficiency than homes not built to the Code standard, so helping to reduce fuel poverty. Improved comfort and satisfaction: Homes built to the Code will enhance the comfort and satisfaction of tenants. Costs may be saved in dealing with complaints. Raised sustainability credentials: The Code will enable social housing providers to demonstrate their sustainability credentials to the public, tenants and funding bodies.

benefits for consumers

Assisting choice: The Code will provide valuable information to homebuyers on the sustainability performance of different homes, assisting them in their choice of a new home. Reducing environmental footprint: By asking for a new home which meets the Code standard, consumers will be able to encourage industry to build more sustainable homes, and reduce their own footprint on th e environment. Lower running costs: Homes built to Code standard will have lower running costs through greater energy and water efficiency than homes not built to the Code standard, so helping to reduce fuel poverty. Improved well-being: Homes built to Code standard will provide a more pleasant and healthy place to live, for example with more natural light, and adaptability for future needs.

STANDARD ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE

SAP is the governments standard assessment procedure for the energy rating of dwelling. Its purpose is to calculate energy performance and co 2 emissions for individual selfcontained dwellings in Britain. It can be applied to both newly build and existing dwellings of common types (houses, flats, bungalows, ect) in a wide range of size. The main outputs are annual estimates of : The energy consumption per unit of floor area of the dwelling, Energy costs ( the SAP rating ) The co2 emission rate( used for building regulation compliance purposes), and And environmental impact rating ( based on co 2 emission). SAP analyses the energy consumption of a dwelling using specific assumptions about usage and occupancy related to size. It is not a design tool. Nor is it an approvals scheme, and there is no such thing as a SAP approved building or product.

Methodology SAP is derived from the Building Research Establishment Domestic Energy Model (BREDEM) and is consistent with the European standards BS EN 8322 and BS EN ISO 137903. The methodology is set out in the form of a worksheet, with accompanying tables, and the calculation can either be undertaken by hand following the steps shown, or (more usually because of the complexity), by an approved computer program that implements the worksheet. BRE software on behalf of DECC (the Department of Energy and Climate Change), CLG (Communities and Local Government), the Scottish Executive, the Welsh Assembly Government, and the Department of Finance and Personnel in Northern Ireland.

Figure 1 Note: The schematic above illustrates the key factor that feature in the energy balance of a dwelling. Energy losses through the building fabric are balanced by the energy supplied by the heating system, plus the internal and solar gains. It is this energy balance that is of concern to almost all building energy assessment models, including BREDEM and Sap Source : Will Griffiths, SAP FOR BEGINNERSAn introductory guide for building professionals, Information Paper 10/10

Energy performance certificates The calculation is based on the energy balance taking into account a range of factors that contribute to energy efficiency: materials used for construction of the dwelling thermal insulation of the building fabric ventilation characteristics of the dwelling and ventilation equipment efficiency and control of the heating system(s) solar gains through openings of the dwelling the fuel used to provide space and water heating, ventilation and lighting renewable energy technologies

Figure 2 The energy cost ( the SAP rating_ and the Environmental impact rating have been mapped on the an A to G label format, similar to that for white goods, in order to improve their visibility and as an aid to understanding. An example of how these rating appear on an Energy Performance Certificate is shown. Figure guide to the governments standard assessment procedure for energy rating of dwelling SAP

SAP Assumed Occupancy

Note : In very small dwellings(10m-25m2) occupancy has increased, then the same as 2005 up to around 75m2, then significantly decreased number of occupants per m2 over this size. Source : ( Stroma certification, Dan Dunn Technical Consultant )

Sap 2005
SAP 2005 was published in 2005 and became the only acceptable route for demonstration of dwelling specification compliance against the amended Building Regulations, Part L1A which was introduced on 6 April 2006. SAP 2005 was extended to include a supplementary calculation for Stamp Duty Land Tax (SLDT) exemption for zero- carbon dwellings in 2007. In order to produce Energy Performance Certificates (EPCs) for existing dwellings, SAP 2005 includes a Reduced-data SAP (RdSAP) methodology for existing dwellings. This is needed because of the difficulty and expense of supplying the complete set of data required for a full SAP calculation. RdSAP consists of a system of data collection, together with defaults and inference procedures that generates a complete set of input data for SAP calculation.

Roadmap to achieving SAP 2009

The Governments approved methodology for asses sing the energy performance of new dwellings. The current version is SAP 2009 version 9.90, dated March 2010, rev October 2010. The 2009 edition of the Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP 2009) applies from October 2010 for compliance with building regulations in England & Wales (Part L) and in Scotland (Section 6).

Main changes in the calculation between SAP 2005 and SAP 2009
1. Party walls Cavity party walls to require filling and sealing to reach a zero U-value In SAP 2005, heat loss through party walls is assumed to be zero. In SAP 2009, the U-value of a cavity party wall will be set to between 0.0 and 0.5W/m2K, depending upon the specification. Party walls have not previously been considered as heat loss elements (AD L1A 2006) It is now recognised that party cavity walls may not be zero heat-loss walls because the air-flow in the cavity provides a heat loss mechanism. (figure) Developers must now design and build so as to eliminate air movement - for example, fully filling the party cavity in conjunction with edge sealing and possibly adding a 'cavity sock'. The U-values assumed by SAP 2009 are therefore taken as 0.50 for an unfilled, unsealed cavity, 0.20 for a sealed, unfilled cavity and 0.0 for a fully filled and sealed cavity.

Figure 3: Ventilation stack effect in party wall Note: The stack effect shown here demonstrates how heat is lost via the cavity and through the roof from all rooms in contact with the party wall. Cool air is drawn in this case from below the suspended floor, and then rises as it absorbs heat from the surrounding rooms eventually lost through the roof. In addition the problems dont stop here - during summer additional heat from lower levels can be transferred to roof rooms adding to possible overheating. Source: (Diagram UCL & Leeds Met)

Significant heat losses through party wall cavities in load-bearing masonry construction Huge amount of heat leaving dwellings through this.

Figure 3 Infra-red and visible spectrum images showing heat flux through a party wall Note: in the loft space. (external temperature 3-5C) Photo courtesy of above research.Source: Complex Built Environment Systems Group, University College London, UK Buildings and Sustainability Group, Leeds Metropolitan University.(RJ Lowe D, J Wingfield, M Bell, JM Bell)

Solutions Heat loss can be reduced by measures that restrict air movement through the cavity by means of fully filling the cavity and/or providing effective sealing around the perimeter. Fully filling party wall cavities may have implications on sound transmission. It will be necessary to prove to the BCB that the requirements of Part E have been met through adopting Robust Details or undertaking site based testing.
Figure 4 Full fill cavity Knauf Insulation

U-values for Party Walls The table 5 indicates the assumed U values within SAP 2009 and AD L1A 2010 for the type of construction adopted. U-values for Party Walls

Party Wall Construction type

U-value (W/m2K)

Solid Unfilled cavity with no edge sealing Unfilled cavity with effective sealing around all exposed edges, and in line with insulation layers in butting elements.

0.0 0.5 0.2

Fully filled cavity with effective sealing at all exposed edges, and in line with insulation layers in abutting elements.

0.0

Note: Currently timber frame party walls contain acoustic insulation in both leaves between the timber studs, and insulated cavity barriers around the perimeter of the party wall cavity. This should allow a U-value of 0.2 W/mK to be assumed for the party walls, based on the criteria set out in SAP 2009. However, this is not a particularly desirable option, because it is still far worse than a perfect wall with no assumed heat loss. As such, it is likely that thermal insulation will need to be installed between the studs as well as in the cavity between the two leaves of the wall, allowing zero heat loss to be assumed. Source : ( Stroma certification, Dan Dunn Technical Consultant )

Thermal bridges
Thermal bridges have a significant impact on the thermal and energy performance of a building. Thermal bridging is defined as linear thermal transmittance () - This is the rate of heat flow per degree - per unit length of the bridge.

Changes to Thermal Bridging Calculations: Heat loss through building elements will be considerably higher as junctions with party walls are now included in thermal bridging calculation. There are significant changes in the procedures for demonstrating compliance (as explained in Part L). Observations from construction practice have identified a number of areas where thermal bridges commonly occur as a result of issues associated with design, build ability and construction practice. These areas include: Around windows, doors and roof lights Timber studwork in timber frame construction and in pre -fabricated panels Stainless steel cavity wall ties Bridged cavity masonry construction Discontinuities in thermal insulation Complex detailing Around steel I-beams All of these thermal bridges can be attributed to issues associated with the design of the building and the thermal envelope and /or issues associated with the way in which the dwellings have been constructed.

Solution Accredited Construction Details Accredited Construction Details (ACDs) provide continuity of insulation and therefore apply a significant improvement factor on the energy performance of a dwelling. The heat loss of an average dwelling through thermal bridging amounts to approximately 15% of the total heat loss of the building. A thermal bridge is defined as a component, or assembly of components, in a building envelope through which heat is transferred at a substantially higher rate than through the surrounding envelope area.

Two examples of accredited construction details

Figure 5 : accredited construction details source: ( Stroma certification, Dan Dunn Technical Consultant )

Figure 7 : accredited construction details. source: ( Stroma certification, Dan Dunn Technical Consultant )

Thermal bridges cannot be completely avoided but the goal is to bring their negative effects to a point that is tolerable and does not create any damage. At the design level, it is imperative to choose construction processes and components that reduce surface losses as much as possible and integrate the smallest possible losses in the junctions of these surfaces. Whatever insulation systems are used, there are relevant thermal, acoustic and/or fire safety solutions. Interior thermal insulation is well known to create many thermal bridges that could be completely avoided by doing exterior thermal insulation or by building with large clay blocks.

Figure 6. Note: Thermal bridge created by the junction of the floor and the wall in case of interior thermal insulation. Note that in case of exterior thermal insulation or in case of use of large clay block, no thermal bridge is created.Source: http://www.beodom.com/

Terraces and balconies, the most common source of thermal bridges Balcony or terrace connections are the most common source of geometrical thermal bridges. Their reinforced concrete slab has a high thermal conductivity factor and cut through the thermal insulation layer. They cause a thermal outflow, leading to a drop in the inside surface temperature. Regardless of the type of thermal insulation, balconies always create a thermal bridge that cannot be fixed easily (see figure below). It requires additional care, and therefore, additional cost.

Figure 7.Note: Thermal bridge created by a balcony or a terrace in all types of wall system. Source: http://www.beodom.com/

Solution
Use load-bearing thermal insulation elements which form a thermal break between the balcony and the internal floor. These elements are made specifically to transfer load and maintain full structural integrity. They associates polystyrene hard foam for the thermal break and stainless steel to maintain structural integrity.

Figure 8 load bearing thermal elements .Source http://www.beodom.com

Figure 9 detail of thermal bridge Source http://www.beodom.com/

Typical balcony detail

Figure 10 Cross section through balcony doors

Source : http://www.beodom.com/

Installation Installation sequence: 1 site reinforcement placed on formwork - note: longitudinal bars and links are essential 2 elements placed in position note: tension bars are placed above top steel in slab 3 balcony top steel placed under element top steel 4 concrete poured to floor slab and balcony

Figure 11 in-situ balcony Source : http://www.beodom.com/

Installation sequence: 1 floor slab reinforcement placed on formwork - note: longitudinal bars and links are essential 2 pre-cast balcony placed in position with elements projecting 3 concrete poured to floor slab
Figure 12 Pre-cast balcony Source ; http://www.beodom.com/

3. Cooling and air-conditioning

Air-conditioning to affect energy use and carbon emissions, in a way that varies by region. SAP 2009 assesses a dwellings need for space cooling - and includes the associated emissions from energy use from fixed mechanical cooling air-conditioning systems. Homes fitted with airconditioning will therefore see an increased DER. As these systems run on electricity, the associated CO2 emissions can be substantial. Electricity is now given a higher emissions factor so will impact more severely on DER. Increase will depend on the area cooled and the characteristics of system Cooling load now takes into account thermal mass, and regional and seasonal weather data. Sap 2009 assumes dwelling only needs cooling down to 24C

Figure 13 note : Cooling load varies with region Source : Austin Baggett & Dyfrig Hughes, National Energy Services (The SAP MethodologySAP 2009)

4.Thermal mass

Figure 14 : improve thermal mass

Variant SAP and DER ratings according to whether buildings are 'heavyweight' or 'lightweight' The Thermal Mass Parameter (TMP) relates to the thermal capacity of the dwelling and is used within the heating and cooling calculations Closely linked to energy demand and summer overheating potential. The TMP is informed by the actual construction elements of walls, floors and roofs (including internal walls, floors and ceilings). It is defined as the sum of (area x heat capacity) over all construction elements by total floor area.

TMP Changes in SAP 2009 The TMP was implicit (fixed) in SAP 2005 it is now explicit (i.e. can now manually inputted into SAP 2009) Party walls are now included in the TMP. Provides a more accurate representation of heating and cooling potential

solution Lightweight timber frame Heavyweight heavy blocks & concrete floors Reduced cooling demand Solar gains more useful

5. Hot water
Improved SAP/DER for dwellings that control water usage efficiently SEDBUK SEDBUK forms the basis for the minimum energy efficiency standards in building services. SAP 2005 uses SEDBUK as the measure of efficiency of gas and oil boilers. SEDBUK ratings rely on data generated under laboratory conditions to determine the annual average energy performance of space and water heating over winter and summer conditions, Evidence has emerged that manufacturers boiler efficiencies are significantly upwardly biased (too high) compared to efficiencies recorded in independent tests. The Carbon Trust and Energy Saving Trust have found that installed efficiency is around 5% lower then current SEDBUK values. SAP 2009 includes an offset of 2.3% - 5% that increases with efficiency.

Table 6 : New recommended minimum energy efficiency standards for condensing boilers in SEDBUK 2009 Building Service Seasonal efficiency SEDBUK 2005 Seasonal efficiency SEDBUK 2009 88%

Gas fired wet central heating systems Condensing Boilers

90%

Oil fired space heating and hot water systems Condensing Boilers

90%

88%

Note: SEDBUK Banding replaced by minimum efficiency standards only boilers that meet these standards can be installed after 1st October 2010 Seasonal efficiency is accounted for more accurately hot water is the only requirement during the months that heating is not switched on. leads to a 2% reduction in efficiency for SEDBUK 2009 values. Source : source: ( Stroma certification, Dan Dunn Technical Consultant )

Water Heating Efficiencies The current SEDBUK methodology combines the winter and summer efficiencies by assuming a summer water heating proportion of 9% over four summer months. However, the proportion of water heating energy required in the summer varies considerably with building design. (5% - 25%). The annual efficiency is now separated into winter (combined space and water heating) and summer (hot water only) efficiencies. SAP 2009 also takes into consideration the impact of the revised Part G (Water efficiency) and associated reduction of hot water energy demand for new homes: The annual average hot water usage is reduced by 5% if the dwelling is designed to achieve a water use target of not more that 125 litres per person per day (all water use, hot and cold). In addition the domestic hot water usage calculation now includes: An assumed number of occupants. Annual average of hot water usage in litres per day Monthly factors for hot water use The energy content of water (Temperature rise of hot water drawn off) Distribution losses

6. Multiple heating or ventilation systems

Option to enter multiple heating systems and mechanical ventilation systems In SAP 2005, you could only have one central heating system, backed up by one room heater. SAP 2009 enables you to have two central heating systems or boilers running on different fuels. The heat load is split between two separate systems according to the floor area served. It is not quite clear how it will be split when two different boilers serve the same heating circuit. Community heating schemes can now also be accommodated that have two boilers (or two sets of boilers) running on different fuels in addition to a combined heat and power (CHP) plant. Similarly, a dwelling can now be served by two different mechanical ventilation systems.

7. Heat pumps
A database of heat pumps with specific coefficients of performance Heat pumps provide space and/or water heating with efficiencies in excess of 100% as they transfer heat from outside the heated envelope of the dwelling, usually from: Ground Source Air Source

The performance of heat pump systems depends on temperature conditions, running hours, its output rating, the design heat loss of the dwelling and the emitter type. There are four emitter types used within SAP: radiators, radiators with fans, under-floor heating or warm-air. Heat pump packages are now categorized by hot water provision: 1) Integral hot water store 2) Separate cylinder as specified in the database 3) Separate cylinder not specified in the database 4) Not provided by heat pump package. There are no longer fixed COP values in SAP 2009. The performance data for heat pumps can now be obtained from:
Figure 16 ground heat pomp Source : Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing ,the Energy Saving Trust on behalf of the Government,march 2004
Figure 15 heat pomp

a) The Product Characteristics Database.

b) Table 4a of the SAP 2009 document.

If the heat pump provides domestic hot water heating an electric immersion should be assumed to operate in conjunction with the heat pump - unless it is known that the heat pump can provide 100% of the water heating requirement. Any space heating requirements not met by the heat pump package is to be provided by secondary heating. If a secondary heating system is not specified direct electric heaters must be specified.

Ground Source Heat Pumps In the UK, the earth - a few metres below our feet - keeps a constant temperature of about 11-12C throughout the year.

Figure 17 ground heat pomp

Source : Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing ,the Energy Saving Trust on behalf of the Government, march 2004

Because of the ground's high thermal mass, it stores heat from the sun during the summer. Ground source heat pumps (GSHP) can transfer this heat from the ground into a building to provide space heating and, in some cases, pre-heating domestic hot water. For every unit of electricity used to pump the heat, 34 units of heat are produced. As well as ground source heat pumps, air source and water source heat pumps are also possible. There are three important elements to a GSHP: Ground loop - comprises lengths of pipe buried in the ground, either in a borehole or a horizontal trench. Heat pump - although we may not know it, heat pumps are very familiar to us - fridges and air conditioners are both examples. A heat pump has three main components: Evaporator - takes the heat from the water in the ground loop. Compressor - moves the refrigerant round the heat pump and compresses the gaseous refrigerant to the temperature needed for the heat distribution circuit. Condenser - gives up heat to a hot water tank which feeds the distribution system. Heat distribution system - consists of under floor heating or radiators for space heating and in some cases water storage for hot water supply.

Cooling
Most water-to-air heat pumps are reversible so a forced air distribution system can readily be adapted to provide cooling as well as heating. A reversible water-to-water heat pump coupled to an underfloor distribution system can also be designed to supply space cooling in summer. Even with water-to-water heat pumps designed for heating only, a limited amount of passive summer cooling can be provided by direct use of the ground loop for example by by-passing the heat pump, and circulating fluid from the ground coil through a fan convector.

cost
Installation costs: The installed cost of a GSHP, for a professional installation, ranges from about 800-1,400 per kW of peak heat output, excluding the cost of the distribution system. Trench systems are cheaper so tend to be at the lower end of this range, and the price per kW gets lower as the systems get larger. The installed cost of a typical 8kW system would vary between 8,00012,000 plus the cost of the distribution system. .

8. Innovative technologies
Ability to enter multiple systems SAP 2005 introduced the Appendix Q feature. This was to enable newly available innovative technologies to be included within a SAP calculation without having to wait until the next SAP revision. This appears to have worked well, although the number of technologies added since SAP 2005 came out has been fairly small. SAP 2009 allows more than one system Figure 18 Community Boilers and CHP to be added at one time. So for example, Source : http://sustainablecalderdale.wordpress.com/ it will be possible to add a system that recovers heat from boiler flue gases as well as a system that recovers heat from waste water produced by showers.

Figure 20 Multiple Wind Turbines Source : http://sustainablecalderdale.wordpress.com/

Figure 19 Multiple Heat recovery from boiler and show Source : http://sustainablecalderdale.word press.com/

9.Co2 emission factors

The Emissions factors for the NCM have been revised in SAP 2009 They now: Take into account the impact of CO2 and other greenhouse gasses (N2O and CH4) Include fugitive emissions as well as emissions from energy used during sourcing, extraction, processing, transportation and supply. Recognize liquid biofuel as an alternative to mineral oil Including: used vegetable oil, biodiesel, bio-ethanol, rape seed oil These factors will be fixed for the life of SAP 2009 (2010 2013) Although these changes will most likely be masked in Building Regulations due to the TER/DER approach, they will generally make it more difficult to achieve low and zero carbon with individual heating systems and easier with community heating systems. They will also change the relative performance of systems running on the various fuels. Table 7 : Emissions Factors Fuel Unit Price p/kWh 2005 Mains Gas Heating Oil Biodiesel (any biomass source) Wood Pellets Main Heating Electricity (standard tariff) 7.12 11.46 0.422 0.517 1.63 2.17 None

Unit Price p/kWh 2009 3.10 4.06 5.7

Emissions kg CO2 per kWh 2005 0.194 0.265 None

Emissions kg CO2 per kWh 2009 0.198 0.274 0.047

3.0

4.93

0.025

0.028

Note:Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves, pipe connections, mechanical seals, or related equipment. Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks. Because of the large number of potential leak sources at large facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks, fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions.To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities. Source : ( Stroma certification, Dan Dunn Technical Consultant )

10. Changes have been made to internal lighting conventions within SAP 2009
In AD Part L1A 2006 it was assumed (By default) that a dwelling would have a maximum of 30% fixed internal lighting. Therefore, even though a higher proportion was entered (e.g. 70%) The SAP calculation would only assign 30% to a dwelling. In AD Part L1A 2010 the DER is now calculated using the actual proportion of fixed low energy lighting in the dwelling.
Note: Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide - states that 75% low energy lighting in the main dwelling is required. Remember increasing the dedicated low energy lighting will induce an increased heating load to make up for heat no longer being input by inefficient tungsten bulbs just needs to be made up elsewhere.

Air Tightness and Ventilation

Home energy use is responsible for 28 per cent of UK carbon dioxide emissions which contribute to climate change. Air leakage from buildings, both new build and existing, is a major cause of energy loss and increasing emissions. Improving airtightness in dwellings will reduce air leakage the uncontrolled flow of air through gaps and cracks in the fabric of dwellings .This is not to be confused with ventilation, the controlled flow of air into and out of the dwelling through purpose-built ventilators that is required for the comfort and safety of the occupants. The aim should be to build tight ventilate right. Buildings cannot be too airtight; it is, however, essential to ensure appropriate ventilation. Air leakage is quantified as air permeability. This is the rate of leakage (m3/h/m2) in or out of the dwelling. It is measured at a reference pressure difference of 50Pa between the inside and outside of the dwelling. In the UK the good and best practice standards for air permeability in dwellings are shown in Table 8. Table 8 : air permeability Ventilation system * Maximum air permeability (m3/h/m2) Good practice 4 Dwellings with whole house mechanical ventilation (with or without heat recovery) 7 Dwellings with other systems * More information on ventilation systems can be found in GPG268
Note: However, in a recent study of 100 new dwellings of all types in England and Wales, none achieved the best practice performance of 3m3/h/m2. The research, undertaken by the Energy Efficiency Partnership for Homes (EEPfH), showed that around a third even failed to achieve the worst acceptable permeability (10m3/h/m2) expected in the new building regulations for England and Wales and Northern Ireland. Source : (energy saving trust, improving airtightness in dwellings)

best practice 3

Note: To ensure airtightness, the issue needs to be addressed at design stage. At an early stage the designer should identify a line through the envelope of the dwelling where the barrier to air leakage will be: this is the dwellings air barrier. Details that a re vital to achieving good airtightness need to be identified at this point. Careful thought must be given to sealing gaps and ensuring the continuity of the air barrier. The next and equally important step, is to ensure these details are carried over into the construction phase. It is far simpler to design and build an airtight dwelling than to carry out remedial measures in a draughty Figure 21 Air permeabilities of 100 dwellings of all types in England and Wales (m3/h/m2 at 50Pa) home. Airtightness in new dwellings is about good design and construction not just filling gaps!

Source : (energy saving trust, improving

airtightness in dwellings)

Air leakage A buildings design and the quality of its construction will have a major effect on the amount of air leakage. Other factors include wind against the side of the dwelling and the buoyancy effect (warm air rises and creates a drawing effect, pulling air in through gaps in the ground floor and walls). Cold outside air may be drawn into the home through gaps in the walls, ground floor and ceiling (infiltration), resulting in cold draughts. In some cases, infiltration can cool the surfaces of elements in the structure, leading to condensation. Warm air leaking out through gaps in the dwellings envelope (exfiltration) is a major cause of heat loss and, consequently, wasted energy.

Understanding air leakage paths To avoid air leakage in new dwellings it is necessary to know where leaks might occur. Figure 24 shows the most common air leakage paths. Many of the paths shown in Figure 24 were found in the dwellings investigated in the Energy Efficiency Partnership for Homes study, referred to Figure 22 earlier. Here, they are examined in more deta.
Common air leakage paths

Most common air leakage paths: 1 Under floor ventilator grilles. 2 Gaps in and around suspended timber floors. 3 Leaky windows or doors.

Source : www.est.org.uk/housing buildings

4 Pathways through floor/ceiling voids into cavity walls and then to the outside. 5 Gaps around windows.

6 Gaps at the ceiling-to-wall joint at the eaves. 7 Open chimneys. 8 Gaps around loft hatches. 9 Service penetrations through ceilings. 10 Vents penetrating the ceiling/roof. 11 Bathroom wall vent or extract fan. 12 Gaps around bathroom waste pipes. 13 Kitchen wall vent or extractor fan. 14 Gaps around kitchen waste pipes. 15 Gaps around floor-to-wall joints (particularly with timber frame). 16 Gaps in and around electrical fittings in hollow walls.

Solid ground floors Junctions between the ground floor slab and the external walls are usually hidden from view by the skirting board (Figures 25 and 26). However, air can leak through the small gap under the skirting board, causing a cold draught across the floor. In some cases, a dirty mark may result as dust is filtered by the carpet along the perimeter of the room.

Figure 24 Air leakage path hidden behind skirting board Figure 23 Air leakage paths through solid floors Source : www.est.org.uk/ housing buildings Source : www.est.org.uk/housing buildings

Suspended floors Suspended timber floors have a myriad of gaps around the boards, at the junctions with walls (internal and external) and around service pipes (Figure 27). Air can leak down through these gaps into the unheated floor void.

Figure 25 Air leakage through gaps around service pipes in suspended timber floors

Beam-and-block floors may have a large number of gaps and cracks, particularly if the screed is poor. Major areas of air leakage are around the edges (see Figure 28) and at service entry points (water pipes behind baths, sinks and WCs). Often one or more blocks are omitted, or large holes are cut through them, in order to allow the pipes to pass through the floor.

Figure 26 Air leakage around perimeter of beam-and-block floors. Source : www.est.org.uk/housing buildings

Windows and doors It is common to find gaps between the window frame and the wall. They may also occur between the frame and the opening casements, lights and sashes (Figure 29). The windows opening/closing mechanism can become loose with time, and may not close as tightly.

Air leakage can also occur around the window reveals and window board (Figure 30).
Figure 27 Air leakage around opening window casements

Large gaps between the bottom of an external door and the threshold are common, especially around slider mechanisms for patio doors (Figure 31). Another common air leakage path is the letterbox.

Figure 31 Air leakage around the slide mechanism of patio doors. Source : www.est.org.uk/housing buildings

Figure 28 Air leakage can occur through gaps between the reveals/window boards and the window frame Source : (energy saving trust, improving airtightness in dwellings)

Leakage into ceiling voids and the roof space Air can leak past a poorly fitting loft hatch up into the unheated roof void. Warm moist air from the house may then condense on cold surfaces in the unheated loft and lead to condensation problems. Light fittings and gaps around them can offer a path into the roof void and also into the void between the ceiling and the next floor (Figure 31)..

Masonry wall construction Masonry external walls, especially those built from lightweight concrete blocks, have varying degrees of porosity, allowing air through (Figure 32). Unfinished mortar joints also provide air leakage routes.

Figure 29 Air can leak through gaps around light fittings into the roof void. Source : www.est.org.uk/housing buildings

Figure 30 Air passing through porous concrete blocks. Source : www.est.org.uk/housing buildings

Dry lining If the dry lining (plasterboard) sheets have not been sealed at the junctions with the ceiling and floor as well as from sheet to sheet air can leak through the gaps (Figure 33) Figure 31 Air leakage through gaps
and cracks in masonry and behind plasterboard sheets. Source : (energy saving trust, improving airtightness in dwellings)

Service pipes and cables that penetrate the air barrier Gaps in the air barrier are common around water pipes, gas pipes, boiler flues and electric cables that pass through external walls (Figure 34), although they are generally hidden from view behind kitchen cupboards, bath panels, sink pedestals, toilet basins and vanity units. Cold draughts from these areas will be an unpleasant indicator of inadequate sealing (see Figures 35 and 36). Draughts in bathrooms/shower rooms are particularly uncomfortable for Figure 32Air leakage around pipes occupants. that penetrate the air barrier

Figure 36 Draughts may be felt around bathroom sinks and vanity units. Source : www.est.org.uk/housing buildings

Figure 35 Draughts may be felt

around kitchen appliances like washing machines and dishwashers. Source : www.est.org.uk/housing buildings

Solution
The line of the airtightness barrier should be established very early on. One way of doing this is to mark a set of drawings with a red line. This should be a continuous line around the building, passing through all elements in the building that separate heated and unheated spaces (see Figure 37). Identify areas where additional detailing will be required and apportion responsibility for design and construction of the air barrier.

Figure 33 Examples of options for routing the air barrier Note 1 House with cold roofspace 2 House with warm roofspace 3 House with integral garage Source : (energy saving trust, improving airtightness in dwellings)

Solution for Foundation/ground floor

Check that the wall and floor damp-proof course/membrane forms an adequate airtight layer. Check that any penetrations through the air barrier (e.g. service pipes) have been dressed. Pre-formed collars, sometimes referred to as top hats, which seal to the membrane and around the throat of the pipes are effective means of achieving a good airtightness Figure 34 Pre-formed collar to seal seal (Figure 36). With timber frame construction, check that the sole plate is sealed to the foundation/floorslab. Joist hangers can limit penetrations through the air barrier. If joists are to be supported by the wall, check that there is no air leakage into the cavity. Ensure timber floorsheets/boards are well fitted and sealed at their edges as well as at junctions with perimeter walls. Check that the ceiling-to-wall joint has been sealed. Eaves Check that the airtightness layer between the wall and ceiling/roof is continuous (Figure 37). Ceiling below the roof space. This normally forms the air barrier in domestic construction. Check that there is a continuous air barrier over the whole ceiling area.
Figure 35 Airtightness seals at eaves level. Source : (energy saving trust, improving airtightness in dwellings)

around service pipe that penetrates through the floor Source : (energy saving trust, improving airtightness in dwellings)

Check that service penetrations (ventilation ducts from extract fans and light fittings) have been properly sealed where they penetrate the air barrier. Check that loft hatches are airtight and surrounds are sealed where they penetrate the air barrier. Windows and doors Specify good quality windows and doors. Check that the wall-to-frame junction is properly sealed and continuous with the walls airtightness layer, particularly at sills (Figure 38). Check that all the windows and doors have an appropriate weatherseal between the opening unit and the frame. External doors (and letterboxes) should be fitted with draught excluders.
Figure 36 Sealing the sills at the base of window units.

Service penetration Check for seals at service entry points (pipe and cable routes), e.g. around incoming water pipes, gas pipes, electrical cabling, as well as waste water pipes for sinks, baths, washing machines, dishwashers, etc. Seals should be provided internally and externally (see Figure 39 for masonry construction and Figure 40 for timber frame). Where several services penetrate at the same point, there should be sufficient space to fully seal Figure 37 Pre-formed round.
collar around service pipes, sealing the air barrier in timber frame construction. Source : www.est.org.uk/housi ng buildings

Figure 38 Gunapplied sealant around a service pipe through an external wall, prior to the application of plasterboard

Airtightness testing of dwellings Fan pressure testing allows the permeability, or airtightness performance, of the dwelling to be assessed. The technique is straightforward and can be carried out when the envelope is complete. The airtightness test can be used in several ways: Assessing the air permeability of the building, i.e. the air leakage for the whole envelope area of the building.

Figure 39 Fan pressurisation equipment used for dwellings Source : The Healthy Home Limited

Identifying the air leakage paths, which will allow targeted remedial sealing. Measuring the effectiveness of remedial sealing. In the UK the testing methodology should conform to BS EN 13829 Thermal Performance of Buildings Determination of air permeability of buildings Fan pressurisation method (2001) and CIBSE TM:23 Testing buildings for air leakage (2000). To carry out the test, a fan is mounted in a temporary screen (the original door remains in place, but is held open to enable the screen to be mounted in the rebate, see Figure 41). The fan is used to move air into or out of the building. The air leakage characteristics are determined by measuring the rates of air flow through the fan while a range of pressure differences between the inside and outside of the building are maintained.

Mechanical Systems with Heat Recovery (MVHR):

Mechanical ventilation may be defined as the movement of air around a building under the assistance of fans. The incoming air is either: 1. via displacement (laminar flow), i.e. at low level and modest speeds and at a temperature close to the room temperature. Warm air is then extracted at a high level. Or 2. by mixing (turbulent flow) at higher speeds with complete mixing with the room air typically via ceiling supply. the common approach in low energy buildings of using a small mechanical system with heat recovery in winter and providing the much larger quantities of air needed for cooling in winter using opening windows. Figure 42 shows an example MVHR system. Another common approach in buildings with extensive corridors is to supply the fresh air to the main rooms and extract it from the corridors with little return ductwork. This however requires a hole of some form between each room and the corridor, this can be a source of unwanted noise transmission.

Figure 40 Basic domestic scale MVHR system. Source:The Design and Delivery of Low Carbon Buildings Ventilation

Figure 41 Section through a domestic scale MVHR. http://www.sunwarm.com/MVHRb rochure.pdf Figure 42 An MVHR unit being used to supply warm air in winter (top) and cool air in summer (bottom). http://www.sunwarm.com/MVHRbr ochure.pdf

Earth Tubes One further approach to the provision of fresh air to a building, that can be used with either a mechanical or natural system, is earth tube. The temperature of the ground a few metres below the surface is typically similar mean annual air temperature (approximately 12C in the UK, depending on location). in winter cold air will be slightly warmed and in summer hot incoming air will be slightly cooled. Thus free heat of cooling is provided. Figure 45 illustrates the basic principle.

and the

to the

Figure 43 Installation of an earth tube system in Wisconsin, USA. The inlet is the upright pipe just in front of the earth mover, the building is on the left. http://www.zigersnead.com/current/blog/post/earthtubes/04-06-2008/1045/

Incorporating Low & Zero Carbon Technology

The development of zero carbon homes requires renewable technologies such as: Micro wind / Solar photovotaics / solar thermal heat water / micro-hydro / ground heat pomp / biomass boiler / MHVR / fuel cells / CHP First definitions to understand which one is better. Table 9. Definitions low carbon equipment.
Micro-renewable Micro-generation Low and Zero Carbon Technology On-site building integrated equipment using renewable source only. On-site or building integrated equipment that generates electricity but could include fossil fuels. Development-Wide, on site, or building integrated technologies that use renewable source or fuels ( low 2 co emissions), or use only renewable source (zero 2 co emissions).

Table 10 . Low Carbon Equipment

Categorization of low Micro-renewable Micro-generation Low and Zero Carbon carbon equipment Technology Micro-wind with grid Yes Yes Yes connection, battery storage or used to heat water Solar photovotaics Yes Yes Yes Micro-hydro with grid Yes Yes Yes connection, battery storage or used to heat water Solar thermal system to Yes Yes supply hot water ( or space heating) Ground / geo-thermal / air Yes / no Yes / water source heat pump Biomass boiler or stove Yes / no Yes Heat exchange / recovery yes system, (MVHR) Fuel cells with grid Yes / no Yes Yes connection, battery storage or used to heat water Community heat and Yes Yes power (CHP) or micro CHP using fossil fuels (gas,oil,coal) CHP or micro CHP using Yes/ no Yes Yes renewable source CHP using organic water, Yes Yes Yes other waste Source :A low carbon building standards strategy for Scotland, report of a panel appointed by Scottish ministers chaired b Lynne Sullivan,2007

So I suggest Micro-Wind, Solar photovoltaics, biomass and ground heat water but also CHP and solar thermal heat water are also useful.

Micro wind
WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION Most wind turbines will only work at wind speeds above about 4m/sec.The Energy Saving Trust (see Useful contacts) notes that a turbine may not be viable where typical wind speed is below 4.5m/sec, since the amount of energy generated would not justify the capital cost. In order to generate the optimum annual electricity yield, a wind turbine should face in the direction of the prevailing wind.This is normally south-west, but can vary from place to place.
INSTALLATION OPTIONS
Figure 44 Horizontal-axis wind turbine. (Photograph courtesy of Renewable Devices Swift Turbines Limited)

Wind turbines work by converting the winds kinetic energy into electrical energy. Most modern systems use horizontalaxis wind turbines, with three or five blades rotating around a central hub (Fig 46).Vertical-axis wind turbines (Fig 47) are less common.

FIXED TO A BUILDING

The turbine is mounted on a pole which is fastened with brackets to an external wall, high enough to project above the building (Fig 5). In general the higher the turbine above the roof the greater the power output will be as it will be affected less by turbulence, See Fig 48.

Figure 45 Vertical-axis wind turbine. (Photograph courtesy of Quiet Revolution Limited)

Figure 46 A house with a wall-mounted wind turbine, Camberwell, London. (Photographs courtesy of Eclectic Energy Limited)

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM it use for electrical appliances or fed back into the grid. Other essential elements of the system are a wind-turbine controller, to stop the turbine if the wind becomes strong enough to damage it, and an isolation switch, allowing the turbine to be disconnected for safe maintenance or repair .

There are three options for connecting a turbine to the electrical system: direct, off-grid and grid. NON-GRID CONNECTION Where no mains electricity is available, a wind turbine can be used to replace or supplement the existing local electricity supply (a diesel generator, for example).The turbine is connected via the controller and inverter to the fuse board or dedicated load (Fig 49).

Figure 47 non-grid connection Source: English heritage , Micro wind generation and traditional buildings

GRID CONNECTION A wind turbine can also be used to supplement mains electricity, offering the security of a continuous electrical supply. In this case there are two inputs to the fuse board, one from the turbine and one from the mains (Fig 50).

Figure 48 grid connection . Source: English heritage , Micro wind generation and traditional buildings

Grants

Feed in tariffs were introduced by the government from the 1st april 2010. they were introduced to increase the level of renewable energy in the uk to a target of 15% of total energy from renewables by 2020. The scheme gives a fixed payment for all the electricity produced by the wind turbine called the 'generation tariff. This tariff is paid whether it is used or exported to the grid. If the turbine generates a surplus you can export to the electricity grid where an additional bonus called an 'export tariff' is paid.

solar electric (photovoltaics)

A photovoltaic (PV) cell is a device that converts sunlight into electrical energy. The PV cell consists of one or two layers of a semi-conducting material, usually silicon. When light shines on the cell it creates an electric field across the layers causing electricity to flow. PVs will only produce electricity whilst there is daylight. In the UK a PV array required to provide electricity for a typical home varies depending on a number of issues: how much power you need, the type of PV cell used, roof space available and the budget. The average UK household electricity usage is around 4,000 kWh/annum. There are three types of PV cells to choose from: monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous silicon (thin film). Monocrystalline silicon is made using thin wafers of a single crystal of silicon all arranged in orderly patterns. Polycrystalline or multicrystalline are similar to monocrystalline but are made from less refined silicon. Amorphous silicon cells or thin film are made up of silicon atoms in a thin layer deposited on a wide range of substrates, such as glass or metals. Monocrystalline are the most efficient at converting the suns energy into useable electrical energy. They also have the longer life span but will be more expensive than the other types. See table 11.

Efficiency (%) 12 -15 % 10 -13 % 3-6%

Module type Monocrystalline polycrystalline Amorphous

Durability (yrs) 25 - 30 20 25 15 - 20

Table 11.Typical conversion efficiencies of silicon-based PV modules. (Table courtesy of the Energy Savings Trust Energy efficiency best practice in housing renewable energy sources for homes in rural environments).

An area of around 8 m would be required to mount an array with a rated power output of 1kW if monocrystalline modules were used. ORIENTATION The array should be mounted on a southeastto southwest-facing roof, receiving direct sunlight during the main part of the day, to generate a significant annual yield of energy. SHADING It is important that no trees or other structures or parts of the same building such as chimneys or dormer windows should cast shadows on the array, as this would reduce its energy output.
Figure 49 Solar collector fitted over flat roofs Source :English heritage, Small scale solar electric (photovoltaics) energy and traditional buildings

PV ARRAY The PV array can be fixed over the roof covering, so it sits above the tiles or slates, or it can be integrated into the roof covering so it sits flush. With thatch roofs, where the material is organic, the thickness of the thatch decreases over time so I would not recommend fixing the collectors to thatch roofs. The optimum angle for mounting the array is 30, and as the angle varies from the optimum the efficiency of the collector reduces. Most pitched roofs have angles of between 30 and 50.

Figure 50 Fixing through leadsheet

Off-grid connection Where no mains electricity is available, a PV can be used to replace or supplement the existing local electricity supply (a diesel generator, for example).The PV is connected via the controller and inverter to the fuse board or dedicated load. If there is no generator or other electricity supply, batteries can be used to store energy as it is generated by the PV, for use later when it is needed. (Fig 54).

Figure 51 free-standing away from building

Figure 52 Deep-cycle battery installation. (Photograph courtesy of Wind and Sun Limited.)

Grid connection A PV can also be used to supplement mains electricity, offering the security of a continuous electrical supply. In this case there are two inputs to the fuse board, one from the PV and one from the mains (Fig 55).When the PV is not generating enough energy, mains electricity is used (Fig 56). If more electricity is generated by the PV than is needed, the excess can be exported to the national grid .

Figure 54 Electrical connection options. Source :English heritage, Small scale solar electric (photovoltaics) energy and traditional buildings

Figure 53 Electrical connection options. Source :English heritage, Small scale solar electric (photovoltaics) energy and traditional buildings

Cost The Energy Savings Trust say that for 'a typical 2.5kW, well-sited solar pv installation could save you around 140 per year on your electricity bill and you could earn around 900 a year through the cash back scheme'.

SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM

There are two main parts to a solar water heating system: the collector and the thermal store (Fig 57).A solar collector uses the suns radiant energy to headwater. The collector is normally fixed on the roof of building, but there are installations where it has been located away from the building. Heated water is pumped via an insulated pipe to the thermal store (hot water tank).The pipe is arranged in a coil at the bottom of an enlarged thermal store, more commonly.
ORIENTATION

Figure 55 solar water heating system source: English heritage,Small-scale solar thermal energy

The Energy Saving Trust advises that an area of 24m2 of south-east- to south-west-facing roof, receiving direct sunlight during the main part of the day, would generate a significant annual yield of energy.
SHADING

It is important that no trees or other structures or parts of the same building such as chimneys or dormer windows would cast shadows on a collector, as this would reduce its energy output.

Figure 58 Solar collector fitted over flat roofs

Figure 59 Fixing through lead sheet source: English heritage,Smallscale solar thermal energy Figure 60 free-standing away from building source: English heritage,Small-scale solar thermal energy

Thermal store Pipes run from the collector to the thermal store, a tank where the heated water is stored until required. Normally the propertys existing hot water storage tank would be replaced with a larger tank fitted with heat-transfer coils (see Fig 61). Planning for any installation must address the question of this upgraded storage capacity. Cost the typical cost of a domestic solar thermal

Figure 61 thermal store , source: English heritage,Small-scale solar thermal energy

installation is 3,500-4,500. Grants are for a maximum of 400 (exclusive of VAT), subject to an overall 30 per cent limit, independent of the size of the project. They are payable on completion of the installation.

Biomass
Biomass boilers are generally fired on wood products to produce heat, rather than gas, coal or oil. The diagram below illustrates a typical example of a biomass boiler
Figure 62 A typical biomass boiler package

Source: carbon trust, biomass boiler and room heater

Combustion process Biomass boiler system equipment is based on established technologies for solid fossil fuels, which have been adapted to cope with the properties of biomass materials. The main types of product available use the following processes: Direct combustion of biomass where sufficient air is supplied to the burning fuel to ensure complete combustion. Two-stage systems: Stage 1 the fuel is either gasified by reacting it with a limited amount of air (insufficient air is supplied to allow combustion, or CO2 or steam is supplied instead of air); or pyrolysed by heating in the absence of air.

Figure 63 Pyrolyser/combustor

Source: carbon trust, biomass boiler and room heater

Cost Potential annual savings shown are based on installing an ETL-listed 100kW biomass boiler (compared to a biomass boiler that only meets the lower class 1 efficiency level), which runs at an average load of 86% for 4,000h/ year on wood chips priced at 1.1p/kWh. 640 Figure 64 Gasifier/combustor 58,000kWh 2 tonnes CO2.

Biomass room heaters

Biomass room heaters are products specifically designed to burn wood logs or pellet fuels, for space heating by means of radiation and convection. They may also produce hot water. Cost Potential annual savings shown are based on installing an ETL-listed 20kW room heater (compared to a unit that only meets the efficiency for a class 3 unit), which runs at an average load of 85% for 1,000h/year on biomass priced at 1.1p/kWh. 40 3,300kWh 0.13 tonnes CO2.

Figure 65 room heater

Source: carbon trust, biomass boiler and room heater

CHP
It is set to have a considerable impact on the technical and commercial shape of the emerging liberalised electricity market. Without simplified metering and settlement procedures, it will not be possible to obtain the maximum value from micro CHP generation and thus extend the market and economic viability of the technology.
Figure 66 CHP system source : Energy Saving Trust, Domestic CHP

A viable, cost effective energy efficiency measure Applicable to a wide variety of properties Applicable to properties that fall outside existing cost effective energy efficiency measures Mechanism to promote market competition

Energy efficiency potential Produces heat & power at point of demand Produces heat & power at time of Figure 67 Energy efficiency potential maximum demand Avoids distribution losses source : Energy Saving Trust, Domestic CHP Maximises utilisation of primary energy

Environmental potential Micro CHP offers significant contribution to CO2 mitigation targets Majority of CO2 emissions in home are due to space and water heating Existing housing is often difficult to improve thermally Significant improvement on condensing boilers and PV systems

Figure 68 Environmental potential source : Energy Saving Trust, Domestic CHP

HE ROADMAP THROUGH 2013 TO 2016 FOR TYPICAL TIMBER KIT CONSTRUCTION

Basic Building Regulation Standard. This assumes a typical timber kit construction using 89 x 44mm studs and glass wool insulation to achieve a wall U-value of 0.25 W/m2K. Wall and roof construction, windows and doors are all designed to meet the present Scottish building regulation standards. By assuming the building will be built in accordance with the accredited construction details, the dwelling will have an air tightness measurement of 10 m3/hr/m2 at 50 pascals. Even at this basic standard, the heating costs per annum are relatively modest, however the C02 emissions are twice as high as the enhanced kit.

Figure 69 Basic Building Regulation Standard (John Gilbert Architects)

Enhanced Kit Construction (2010 Standard)

This specification achieves a 30% carbon saving (comparing TER and DER methodology) over the 2007 building standards. Enhanced 145 x 47mm C16 studs are used in the wall framing with cellulose insulation used throughout walls and roof. The rafters are fully filled providing 250mm of insulation, the breathing construction removes the need for ventilation are low-E glazed, argon-filled in attic windows. Passive stack ventilation is provided.

Figure 70 Enhanced Kit Construction 2010 Standard (John Gilbert Architects)

which would be required below sarking. Floor insulation is enhanced and windows

Enhanced (High Thermal Mass)

This is similar to the enhanced kit construction but incorporates an insulated slab ground floor to provide additional thermal mass. Lightweight structures are able to make best use of passive solar and incidental energy if it can be stored in the fabric over periods where there is no heat gain. The wall construction still uses the 145 x 47mm studs,but sheeps wool insulation is used instead of cellulose to facilitate the construction process. The external fibreboard sharking also reduces cold bridging of the solid stud timbers. In this case, whilst there is still passive stack ventilation, there is also the inclusion of solar roof ventilation providing a positive input of pre-heated air to the hallway space.

Figure 72 Enhanced High Thermal Mass (John Gilbert Architects)

Timber High Insulation (2013 Standard)

This specification achieves a carbon saving of more than 60% (comparing TER and DER methodology) over the 2007 building standards. This option aims to provide a high level of insulation using 195 x 38mm C16 studs. Wool insulation is used again and the external sarking is increased to a 60mm fibreboard, leading to reduced air leakage of 5 m3/hr/m2 at 50 pascals and a reduction in cold bridging. The wall U-value here is at 0.14W/m2K. Roof construction remains at 300mm using I-joists, but the ground floor is made using timber with a solum space. The sunspace (an optional extra) would be lined with a wood fibreboard and clay plaster to provide a form of thermal mass.

Figure 73 Timber High Insulation 2013 Standard (John Gilbert Architects)

Low Emissions (Aiming for 2016 Standard)

This best proposal would produce 0.42 tonnes of C02 per annum, but this is still a fraction of the 2.94 tonnes per annum that the basic building regulation standard achieves. This construction adopts 300 deep timber I-joists filled with cellulose for the wall construction. This achieves a U-value of 0.12W/m2K. The floor reverts to a concrete screed but the insulation levels are increased. Particular care is taken in achieving the best practice air tightness rate of 3 m3/hr/m2 at 50 pascals. As before, a mechanical heat recovery system is used but in this case we have also incorporated the sunwarm air solar collector that provides heat to the hot water system as well as pre-heating the air supply. With the addition of a modest amount of photovoltaic (PV), it is possible to turn this low emissions model into a model that would pass the potential 2016 building regulations energy section that requires zero emissions in use

Figure 74 Low Emissions Aiming for 2016 Standard (John Gilbert Architects)

Table.12 Comparison of cost for a prototype house

Preferred prototype Basic building regulation Enhanced Enhanced (high thermal mass) Timber high insulation Zero emissions Bed / person 3bad 6 person 3bad 6 person 3bad 6 person 3bad 6 person 3bad 6 person Total unit area

Cost per m2
1274 1332 1369 1555 1694

Cost per unit 119489 124628 126306 146086 158129

106.9m2 106.9m2 106.9m2 106.9m2 106.9m2

Table 10 comparison of Cost for a prototype house (John Gilbert Architects) Note: The costs illustrated are abstracted by standardised occupancy and the generic nature of the calculation software. As such, they are useful for comparison with each other but should be used with caution for comparison with other, external figures. The timber sizes are all available as a standard product, readily sourced from UK timber mills. These sizes have been corroborated with Scottish sawmills. Note that the basic building regulations specification assumes the current standard frame size of 89x38mm for comparison. This timber is usually imported. source : John Gilbert Architects, Design of Sustainable Rural Housing,2009 Edition

conclusion
This report aim is to suggest new methods for client to meet new guidelines of Building regulations, keep satisfying high SAP2009 rating and CfSH focusing on future trends, and also use Low & Zero Carbon Technology . For a new home to be genuinely zero carbon it will need to deliver zero carbon (net over the year) for all energy use in the home cooking, washing and electronic entertainment appliances as well as space heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting and hot water. This will require renewable or very low carbon energy in addition to high levels of insulation, etc. To achieving zero carbon homes and higher levels of the Code for Sustainable Homes by 2016 my suggestion : 1. Dwelling Emission Rate (DER) under the Target Emission Rate (TER) is required. 2. more attention on changes between SAP 2005-SAP 2009, specially party wall, continue thermal bridge and use light weight material. 3. Multiple heating and ventilation & innovation technology (for ex ample : community boiler and CHP) are more useful. 4. Consider airtightness & permeability, first step is understanding air leakage paths and fix it. 5. Mechanical Systems with Heat Recovery (MVHR) by displacement (laminar flow) or by mixing 6. For incorporating Low & Zero Carbon Technology, I suggest micro wind ,solar photovoltaics, biomass and ground heat pomp but also solar water heating and CHP are usefull . Table 13.summarising the suggestion with the technical solutions to achieving zero carbon homes
Basic building Regs Enhances Enhanced (high thermal mass)
145 x 44 Timber Kit 35mm Isolair wood-fibre board 145mm sheeps wool Paneline Service zone Plasterboard 0.2

Timber high insulation

Low emission

Wall construction Wall Insulation

89 x 44 Timber kit Sheathing ply 90mm glassfibre service zone 25mm Crown Polyfoam Linerboard 0.25

145 x 44 Timber Kit Panelvent 145mm cellulose (Warmcell) OSB internal Service zone Plasterboard 0.24

194 x 44 stud 60mm Pavatherm woodfibre board 194mm sheeps wool Paneline Service zone Plasterboard 0.14

300 web stud Panelvent 300mm cellulose (Warmcell) OSB internal Service zone Plasterboard

Wall Uvalue

0.12

Roof construction

Internal plasterboard 200mm rafters with Rockfall Underlay between 70mm Rockfall Overlay sarking board

Internal plasterboard 250mm rafters with cellulose (Warmcell) insulation between 33mm wood fibre Isolair board 0.14 Solid Floor OSB flooring on Battens on Screed on 100mm extruded polystyrene 200x on concrete slab 0.17 Timber double glazed 4:12:4 1.8 1.8 Timber with draughtseal with buffer space and secondary door front and back 1.8 10 Air Changes per hour @ 50Pa South facing, buffer space

Roof U-value Floor construction

0.16 Solid Floor OSB flooring on Battens on Screed on 70mm Dow Floormate 200x on concrete slab 0.21 Timber double glazed 4:12:4 1.8 1.8 Timber with draughtseal

Internal plasterboard, 300mm timber composite beams with cellulose (Warmcell) insulation between 33mm wood fibre Isolair board 0.12 Solid Floor PFA levelling Screed on Concrete slab on 100mm extruded polystyrene 200x on concrete slab 0.18 Timber double glazed 4:15:4 low E (As Nordan) 1.6 1.2 Insulated Timber with draughtseal with buffer space and secondary door front and back 1.5 5 Air Changes per hour @ 50Pa South facing

Internal plasterboard, 300mm timber composite beams with cellulose (Warmcell) insulation between 33mm wood fibre Isolair board 0.12 Suspended Floor OSB flooring on 250x45mm joists with 200mm sheeps wool between

Internal plasterboard, 300mm timber composite beams with cellulose (Warmcell) insulation between 52mm wood fibre Isolair board

0.11 Solid Floor - PFA leveling Screed on Concrete slab on 100mm extruded polystyrene 200x on Concrete slab

Floor U-Value windows

0.16 Timber double glazed 4:15:4 low E (As Nordan) 1.6 1.2 Insulated Timber with draughtseal with buffer space and secondary door front and back 1.5 5 Air Changes per hour @ 50Pa South facing solar sunspace with solid timber and pavatherm and clay plaster for thermal capacity Passive stack ventilation system with solar roof ventilation Five air changes per hour Log stove with direct feed to HWC and hallway radiator with TRV

0.11 Timber triple glazed nordan ntec Low E glass internal, argon filled 0.7 1.2 Insulated Timber with draughtseal with buffer space and secondary door front and back

Windows UValue Roof window U-Value External doors

Door U-Value Air tightness

1.8 10 Air Changes per hour @ 50Pa south facing

1.5 3 Air Changes per hour @ 50Pa South facing solar sunspace with clay brick for increased thermal capacity

Passive solar

ventilation

Individual mechanical extract fans Ten air changes per hour

Passive stack ventilation system Ten air changes per hour

Primary Heating system (assumes no gas and all individual

Air-to-water heat pump with thermostat Electric radiators

Air-to-water heat pump with time and temperature zone control

Passive stack ventilation system with solar roof ventilation Five air changes per hour Manual feed log stove (Clearview Pioneer 500) Electric storage

Mechanical ventilation system with heat recovery using solar panel e.g. Sunwarm system Three air changes per hour Pellet stove providing back up, with direct feed to HWC and Hallway radiator

systems)

Electric immerser boost with off-peak load

Secondary heating System

Electric radiators

Closed wood log stove Electric immerser boost with off-peak load, green electricity tariff Closed wood log stove

radiators on Eco 2000 tarriff, green supplier Electric immerser boost with off-peak load, green Electric storage radiators on eco 2000 tarriff, green supplier Electric immerser boost with offpeak load, green supplier

(Clearview Vision 500 with boiler)

with TRV (3G Energi Preziosa Ceramic)

Hot water supply

Electric immerser boost with offpeak load

Electric immerser boost with offpeak load, green supplier 2.10

Electric storage radiators on Eco 2000 tarriff, green supplier Solartwin panels linked to HWC, linked to wood stove

0.75 KW electric panel heaters

CO2 (Tonnes per year) Build Cost index Additional Electrical Input method

2.94

1.72

0.74

Sunwarm solar panels heating 200 litre tank (80mm insul) with off peak and boost electrical immerser 0.42

100

104

106

122

132

600W Wind generator (assumes av. Wind speed = 12mph): 1,333kWh per year

Redland PV-80 Roof tile system, 15.3m2: 1,469kWh per year

Additional CO2 saved Revised CO2 (Tonnes per year) Sap 2005 Environmental DER TER % Reduction co2

0.61

0.67

6kW Communal Wind Generator (Assumes av. Wind speed of 12mph and 6 houses per development): 2000 kWh per year per house 0.92

1.11

0.08

-0.50

58 D 72 C 31.58 32.5 3%

70 C 80 C 22.9 32.5 30 %

71 C 84 B 19.03 35.36 46 %

73 C 93 A 8.83 35.36 75 %

84 B 100 A 6.7 35.36 81 %

Note: This table summarises TYPICAL TIMBER KIT construction options. The calculations are based on the U-value and SAP calculation methods in the Scottish building regulations. Using this data and taking an average site, with average occupancy, a total energy requirement per annum for space and water heating is calculated along with a CO2 output and indicative cost for space and water heating. The methods in the Scottish building regulations make no allowance for specific site The SAP and U-value calculations have all been carried out by John Gilbert, source : John Gilbert Architects, Design of Sustainable Rural Housing,2009 Edition

conditions.

Reference
1. A low carbon building standards strategy for Scotland, report of a panel appointed by Scottish ministers chaired b Lynne Sullivan,2007 2. Mischa Hewitt and Kevin Telfer, earthship building a zero carbon future for homes, 2007 3. John Gilbert Architects, Designing housing with Scottish timber A guide for designers, specifiers and clients- PROTOTYPE HOUSE, 2009 Edition 4. Department for Communities and Local Government, Code for Sustainable Homes-A step-change in sustainable home building practice, December 2006 5. Department for Communities and Local Government, Code for Sustainable Homes- Technical Guide, November 2010 6. Building a Greener Future: policy statement, 23 July 2007 7. Building a Greener Future: Towards Zero Carbon Development Consultation, 13 December 2006 8. Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing ,the Energy Saving Trust, March 2004 9. Scottish Government, BUILDING STANDARDS DIVISION- REVIEW OF BUILDING STANDARDS, SECTION 6 ENERGY (INCORPORATING CHANGES TO SECTION 3- ENVIRONMENT, Consultation Report, February 2010 10. energy saving trust, improving airtightness in dwellings) 11. The Design and Delivery of Low Carbon Buildings Ventilation 12. English heritage , Micro wind generation and traditional buildings 13. English heritage, Small scale solar electric (photovoltaics) energy and traditional buildings 14. English heritage,Small-scale solar thermal energy 15. carbon trust, biomass boiler and room heater 16. Energy Saving Trust, Domestic CHP 17. Will Griffiths, SAP FOR BEGINNERS- An introductory guide for building professionals, Information Paper 10/10 18. Stroma certification, Dan Dunn Technical Consultant.

Table
Table 1. Building a Greener Future: policy statement, 23 July 2007 Table 2-4. Department for Communities and Local Government, The Code for Sustainable Homes Setting the standard in sustainability for new homes, February 2008 Table 5-7. Stroma certification, Dan Dunn Techncal Consultant Table 8. Energy saving trust, improving airtightness in dwellings. Table 9,10. Department for Communities and Local Government, Code for Sustainable Homes-A step-change in sustainable home building practice, December 2006 Table 11. Savings Trust Energy efficiency best practice in housing renewa ble energy sources for homes in rural environments. Table 12,13. John Gilbert Architects, Design of Sustainable Rural Housing,2009 Edition.

Figure
Fig 1,2. Will Griffiths, SAP FOR BEGINNERS- An introductory guide for building professionals, Information Paper 10/10 Fig 3-5. University College London, UK Buildings and Sustainability Group, Leeds Metropolitan University.(RJ Lowe D, J Wingfield, M Bell, JM Bell) Fig 6,7. Stroma certification, Dan Dunn Technical Consultant Fig 8-14. http://www.beodom.com/ Fig 15 .Austin Baggett & Dyfrig Hughes, National Energy Services (The SAP MethodologySAP 2009) Fig 17-19 Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing ,the Energy Saving Trust on behalf of the Government,march 2004 Fig 20-22 .http://sustainablecalderdale.wordpress.com/ Fig 23.30,33,39,40.(energy saving trust, improving airtightness in dwellings) Fig 24-29,31,32,34,35-38.www.est.org.uk/housing Fig 41 .www.est.org.uk/housing

Fig 42 The Design and Delivery of Low Carbon Buildings Ventilation Fig 43.45. http://www.zigersnead.com/ 46-48. Swift Turbines . Fig 49,50 Source: English heritage , Micro wind generation and traditional buildings Fig 51-53,55,56 .English heritage, Small scale solar electric (photovoltaics) energy and traditional buildings Fig 57-62 .English heritage,Small-scale solar thermal energy Fig 63-65 carbon trust, biomass boiler and room heater Fig 66-68 Energy Saving Trust, Domestic CHP Fig 69-74. John Gilbert Architects, Design of Sustainable Rural Housing,2009 Edition