Pat Burchat, January 2013

Physics 41 Problem Set 2 Challenge Problem Fundamental Constants of Nature and Plancks Units
The challenge problem is optional and will not be graded.

Three Fundamental Constants of Nature

Special Theory of Relativity

The fundamental constant associated with special relativity is the speed of light in vacuum, c. The dimensions of c are [c] = L/T. The speed relates distance and time and energy and mass. E.g. for a photon, d = c t. For a particle at rest, E = m c2 .

Quantum Mechanics
The fundamental constant associated with quantum mechanics is Plancks Constant h. The dimensions of h are [h] = M L2 /T = (M L2 /T2 ) T. These are the same as the dimensions of energy times times. Plancks constant relates energy E and frequency . For electromagnetic radiation, we have E = h .

General Theory of Relativity

The fundamental constant associated with general relativity is G, the universal gravitational constant. The dimensions of G are [G] = L3 /(M T2 ). G relates space-time curvature and energy density; c is the conversion factor. The G special theory of special relativity is fully contained in the general theory. Special relativity is restricted to a at space-time metric; i.e., parallel lines stay parallel, and space does not expand in other words, what you have been taught about space in high school. In the 20th Century, Special Relativity and Quantum Mechanics have been successfully combined in a single theory called Relativistic Quantum Mechanics, or Quantum Field Theory, in the 20th century. However, we are still struggling to combine Quantum Mechanics with General Relativity. 1
4

Plancks Natural Units

Notice that we have introduced three dimensions (L, T, and M) and three fundaL L2 L3 mental constants of nature ([c] = T , [h] = MT , [G] = M ). T2 Exercise: Find a combination of c, h, and G that has dimensions of length (call this length lP ), of time (tP ), and of mass (mP ). [The subscript P stands for Planck for reasons well see later.] Complete this exercise before moving on to the next page.

So now you have derived a distance scale, a time scale and a mass scale dened entirely in terms of fundamental constants of nature. Hopefully, you found Gh hG hc . , tP = , and mP = 3 5 c c G Example: We assume that lP is a product of powers of c, h, and G: lP = c h G . Now impose that both sides of the equations must have the same dimensions: lp = M L2 L3 L = T M T2 = L+2 +3 T 2 M . L T i. powers of L : ii. powers of T : iii. powers of M :

(1)

1 = + 2 + 3 0 = 2 0= =

So from ii. 0 = 2 = 3 = 3 and from i. 1 = 3 + 2 + 3 = 1/2; = 1/2; = 3/2. Therefore we nd, Gh . c3 How big or small are each of these units? To nd out we need to use the actual values of c, h and G. In SI units, they are lp = c3/2 h1/2 G1/2 = c = 299792458 m/s, h = 6.62606896(33) 1034 m2 kg s1 , G = 6.67428 0.00067 1011 m3 kg1 s2 . Substituting these values, we get for the Planck length, time and mass: Gh 1.6 1035 m, tiny! c3 hG tP = 5.4 1044 s, tiny! c5 hc mP = 2.2 108 kg, huge! (3) G I imagine there is no argument that lP and tP are indeed tiny. However, to see that mP is indeed huge you have to compare it to masses of the microscopic world for which h is relevant. For example, the mass of a proton is approximately 1.7 1027 kg almost 20 orders of magnitude smaller than the Planck mass. On this scale, the Planck mass is huge! Another way to look at this is to combine the Planck mass and length to form a Planck density. Exercise: Find the Planck density P before moving on to the next page. lp = 3

(2)

3 Planck density: P = mP /lP 5.2 1096 kg/m3 . Huge!

So what? you might ask. What is the signicance of these density and time scales? They give clear and certain limits on where our physical laws are valid. Einsteins theory of general relativity is no longer applicable to phenomena characterized by these scales. Signicant quantum uctuations in the classical geometry of spacetime can be expected. In these regimes, Einsteins theory needs to be replaced by a quantum theory of gravity, for which general relativity is the classical limit. This is the motivation for string theories. As far as we know, there are only two places in the universe where conditions characterized by the Planck scales are actually realized: the Big Bang in which the Universe began; the quantum evaporation of black holes, Hawking radiation These are two frontiers of contemporary physics. In fact, these two areas are becoming more and more accessible to experimental study. Exercise: Now use the denitions of lP , tP and mP to show that c = lP /tP ; i.e., light travels one Planck length per Planck time. We can also express h and G in units of Planck length, time and mass. h = 3 2 /(mP t2 /tP and G = lP mP lP P ). We arrived at something very useful. If we just decide to measure everything in Planck units then the numerical values of h, c and G are all equal to unity: h = c = G = 1. This system of units is called Planck units, or more generally Natural Units. They eliminate anthropocentric arbitrariness from the system of units. Some scientists argue that communication with extraterrestrial intelligence would have to use such a system of units. Planck proposed this set of units in 1899(!). See the attached copy of the rst and last page of that paper. His proposal was formally correct. However, it was still rather thinly rooted in fundamental physics, since quantum mechanics did not yet exist, nor had any of Einsteins breakthroughs occured. G of course was already known and c = 1/ 0 0 was a constant in Maxwells equations (1861) describing electromagnetism. It is astounding that Planck already understood that these units, derived from combinations of the just-emerging constants of nature, have a special and deep signicance. In fact, he noted that ...ihre Bedeutung f ur alle Zeiten und f ur alle, auch auerirdische und auermenschliche Kulturen notwendig behalten und welche daher als nat urliche Maeinheiten bezeichnet werden k onnen... ...These necessarily retain their meaning for all times and for all civilizations, even extraterrestrial and non-human ones, and can therefore be designated as natural units...

4. Ueber irreversible StrahlungsvorgiXnge;

von M a x P l a n c k .

(Nach den Sitzungsber. d. k. Akad. d. Wissenech. zu Berlin vom 4. Februar 1897, 8. Juli 1897, 16. December 1897, 7. Juli 1898, 18. Mai 1899 und nach einem auf der 71. Naturf.-Vera. in Miinchen gehaltenen Vortrage fur die Annalen bearbeitet vom Verfasser.)

Die nachfolgende Arbeit enthalt eine Darlegung der Hauptergebnisse meiner unter dem obigen Titel veriiffentlichten Untersuchungen iiber die Bedeutung des zweiten Hauptsatzes der Thermodynamik fur die Erscheinungen der Warmestrahlung, vom Standpunkt der elektromagnetischen Lichttheorie betrachtet. Dass auch die strahlende Warme den Porderungen des zweiten Hauptsatzes Geniige leistet, dass z. B. die gegenseitige Zustrahlung verschieden temperirter Korper immer im Sinne einer Ausgleichung ihrer Telnperaturen erfolgt, ist wohl allgemein unbestritten, Und schon G. K i r ch h o f f hat hierauf seine Theorie des Emissions- und Absorptionsvermogens der Korper gegriindet. Daher macht es die fortschreitende Erkenntnis der elektromagnetischen Natur der Warmestrahlung zur dringenden Aufgabe, den zweiten Hauptsatz der Warmetheorie in seiner Anwendung auf die strahlende Warme rein elektromagnetisch zu begreifen und womoglich auch zu beweisen. Erste Voranssetzung hierbei ist naturlich, dass man die Ersrheinungen der Emission und Absorption strahlender W Brme als elektromagnetische Vorgange auffasst , dass man also die Emission von Warmestrahlen als bedingt msieht durch die Aussendung elektromagnetischer Wellen von Seiten gewisser elementarer OsEillatoren , die man sich in irgend einem Zusammenhang mit den ponderablen Atomen der strahlenden Karper denken mag, und ferner, dass man die Absorption strahlender Warme nicht etwa als Folge eines galvanischen Leitungswiderstandes oder irgend einer Art Reibung, sondern lediglich als Resonanzphanomen auffasst , indem die genannten Oscillatoren nicht nur Wellen aussenden, sondern auch durch auffallende Wellen zu Schwingungen angeregt werden. Hierin liegt zugleich in-

122

M. Planck. Irreversible Strahlungsvoryiinge.

Gramm, Secunde und Celsiusgrad sind die Zahlenwerte dieser vier Constanten die folgenden: a = 0,48 18.1O-lo Isec x Celsiusgrad] ,
b
=

6,885.

cin4 see-] g

f = 6,685. l o - *

[ g>]. '1

Wahlt man nun die ,,natiirlichen Einheiten" so, dass in dem neuen Maasssystem jede der vorstehenden vier Cnnstanten den Wert 1 annimmt, so erhalt nian nls Hinheit der Lange die Grosse :
d 6 $
==

4,13. lo-% cm,

als Kinheit der Masse:

als Einheit der Zeit:

als Einheit der Teinperatur :

Diese Grossen hehalten ihre natiirliche Redeutung solange bei, als die Gesetze der Gravitation, der Lichtfortpfianzung im Vacuum und die beiden Hauptsatze cler Warmetheorie in Qiiltigkeit bleiben, sie miissen also, von den verschiedensten Intelligenzen nach den verschiedensten Methoden gemessen, sich immer wieder als die namlichen ergeben.
1) F. Richarz u. 0. K r i g n r - M e n z e l , Anliang zu den Sitzungsber. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin 107. p. 110. 1899; im Auszug: Wicd. Ann. 66. p. 190. 1898.

(Eingegtmgen 7. November 189%)

Figure 1: This is the last page of the long paper where Planck in 1899 introduced natural units. Compare with the more accurate numbers above and you see that he