Proceedings of The Institution of Mechanical Engineers-1955-Kettleborough-746-65 PDF

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Micheli Bearing Lubrication* : Part IExperimental Results: Part IICorrelation between Theory and Experiment
C. F. Kettleborough, B. R. Dudley, E. Baildon and C. F. Kettleborough Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers 1955 169: 746 DOI: 10.1243/PIME_PROC_1955_169_075_02 The online version of this article can be found at: http://pme.sagepub.com/content/169/1/746
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746
Michell Bearing Lubrication

Part I-Experimental Results By C.F. Kettleborough, B.Eng., Ph.D. (Associate Member).f-,B. R. Dudley, B.Sc. (Eng.) (Graduate)$, and E. Baildon, M.Sc. (Eng.) (Associate Member) Part 11-Correlation Between Theory and Experiment By c. F. Kettleborough, B.Eng. ,Ph.D. (Associate Member)
An experimental investigation into the operation of tilting-pad thrust bearings has been carried out. The following experimental determinations have been made : film pressure distributions, film geometry, friction characteristics, and temperature distributions for a range of speeds, loads, operating temperatures (that is, viscosity), and pivot positions. An attempt has been made to correlate these results with existing theories.
INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS
The apparatus is basically a prototype experimental machine not seem to have been carried out. Some work has already been presented to the University of Sheffield where it has been done by von Freudenreich (1917, 1933, 1941), Gibson (1919), suitably adapted and equipped for the investigations underNewbigin (1913, 1922), Morgan, Muskat, and Reed (1940), taken. The functional part of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. The and Cameron (1949)1/. The opportunity to carry out systematic work at the University shaft 4 carries a flexibly-mounted thrust ring 9 the plane faces of of Sheffield was provided when a prototype experimental which rotate between two sets of stationary Michell sectorshaped pads. The two sets, each consisting of six pads, are freely machine was presented to the University. mounted on the end flanges of the casing 6 which is supported concentrically with the axis of the shaft and which is attached Nomenclature. to a frame 1. This whole assembly has limited rotational freedom about the axis of the shaft but movement is restrained by a Friction force. loaded torque arm used for the measurement of the total fricFilm ratio. Film thickness (see Fig, 2a). (Suffixes: i inlet; o outlet; tional torque acting on the pads. The enclosed casing 6 is filled with oil, and fresh oil at controlled temperature is circulated R outer radius; r inner radius.) through it. Measured displacements of tilting pad. (Suffures : o outlet Each sector pad in the right-hand set is independently loaded side; i inlet side; c central.) in the direction parallel to the shaft axis by means of a hydraulic cylinder and piston, the end of which is formed to a spherical Length of pad at inner radius. shape where it bears on the outer face of the pad. These thrust Mean length of pad. loads are transmitted through the collar to the six other reaction Rotational speeds. pads, each of which bears against a spherical-ended plug held in Load per unit area. a bush which, in turn, is held in a flange located in the inner Inner radius. cover of the casing. Each pad thus possesses freedom for tilting Total load per pad. about a point pivot. Moreover, by angular adjustment of Viscosity. eccentrically-bored bushes which contain, and locate withia the Circumferential tilt angle. casing covers, the stems of the loading cylinders and the reaction Angular position of centre of pressure or applied load from pivot plugs, it is possible to adjust the position of each point outlet edge. pivot relatively to the pad. These bushes are graduated at 5-deg. Angle subtended by the pad. intervals. This arrangement enables each pad to be pivoted at Coefficient of friction. the symmetrical point 7, Fig. 2a, or at points lying on either of Angular velocity. two concentric circles of radii 0.05 and 0.10 inch. Seven actual Film thickness criterion = (Ho/Lro)( W/Zw)f. pivot positions, specified in Fig. 2a, were used in the experiFriction criterion = (p/ro)(W/Zw)+. ments. The sector pads, made of gunmetal and each having a bearing In the correlation between theory and experiment Boswalls area of 0.9196 sq. in., are detailed in Fig. 2b. On the edges of and Christophersons notations have been retained (Boswall each bearing sector is constructed a kite-shaped flange through 1928; Christopherson 1941). which pass two pins to provide peripheral location of the pad Other notation is introduced as required. around the thrust collar, The flange face, moreover, provides a In the parameter ZNIP, Z is the mean oil viscosity in poise, datum surface from which measurements of film geometry are N is the speed in r.p.m., and P the load in lb. per sq. in. made. For this purpose three plungers are arranged so that their ends bear at A, B, and C, on the flanges of one pad, and the The M S . of this paper was received at the Institution on 1st March positions of these plungers when the pad makes metal-to-metal 1954. contact with the thrust collar, relative to their positions when the * Based on a thesis presented for the degree of Ph.D., University pad is floatingon an oil film, are measured by means of Talymin of Sheffield, by C. F. Kettleborough. gauges; or by dial gauges when the movements are relatively f Senior Lecturer, University of Melbourne, Australia. $ Lecturer, School of Applied Mechanics, University of Sheffield. large. Each of the directly-loaded pads has five oil pressure searchLecturer in Mechanical Engineering, University of Sheffield. holes 0.028 inch in diameter drilled on the working face. Of /I An alphabetical list of references is given in the Appendix.
A complete systematic investigation into thrust bearings does
MICHELL BEARING LUBRICATION

these, one 'common' hole occupies the same relative position on each pad, but all others are differently positioned so that the combination for the six pads gives a mesh distribution of twentyfive pressure holes over the whole lubricating film. Moreover, this mesh is so arranged that for given operating conditions, the pressures at fifty different relative positions in the film may be observed, twenty-five being obtained with each direction of
10
747
Iz 19" . R
\
POSITIONS OF DEFLEXION M E A S U T D S
CENTRE LINE OF PAD
IU
a Diagrammatic sketch of h4ichell thrust test machine.
a Pivot positions and film-thickness symbols.
I
b Details of tiltmg pad.
b Details of experimental thrust bearing. 11. Reaction pad. 12. Loaded pad. Supporting casting. 13. Loading piston. Rear cover o f thrust end. 14. Hydraulic cylinder. Shaft. Ball bearings. 15. Eccentric bush. 16. Pressure search valve. Thrust casing. Shaft locating sleeve. 17. Centre-lineof pressure search Thrust casing cover. pipe connexions. 18. Deflexion piston. Runner ring. Bonded rubber sleeve. 19. Mercury manometer. Fig. 1. Michell Thrust Bearing
1. Swinging frame.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
rotation. A comparison of the observed pressures at the 'cornmon' holes in the six pads shows whether or not they are all working under the same conditions. A typically drilled pad is shown in Fig. 2c, and an actual pad with pipes attached in Fig. 3. The location of the pressure search-holes are shown in Fig. 6. Each pressure search-hole in the pad is connected by a flexible looped pipe to the front cover and-thence by pipe and valve to a common manifold (Fig. Ib) fitted with a pressure gauge. This manifold may be put in direct communication with any one particular search hole when all other holes are isolated from it by closed valves. Two manifolds, one w i t h thirty and the
c Typical pad drilled for pressure search-holes. Fig. 2 . Defining Pivot Positions, Film-thickness Symbols, and Tilting Pad Details
MICHELL BEARING LUBRICATION This boosting device facilitated further experiments in which orher with five connexions, are available for use with six pads it was found that the film pressures observed at the six common or with one pad respectively. In the oil supply and circulatory system, an oil pump supplies holes had appreciably different values. Though the pads were oil under pressure through temperature-control equipment to equally loaded, they were not operating with identical film conthe loading cylinders. The bulk oil flow passes through a ditions. For this reason and also in order to obtain closer control pressure-reducing valve to the main-bearing casing whence the of the temperature of the oil passing under the pads, it was oil is returned to the sump. The rate of oil flow through the found expedient to operate the bearing using only one pair of casing may be regulated by opening a bypass valve. This reduces pads at a time, that is, one pressure search-pad with its directly the oil flow through the bearing casing by allowing some of the opposite reaction pad. To obtain representative observations of bulk oil to return directly from the main to the oil sump. An the oil film temperature, thermocouples were inserted in holes auxiliary hand-pump connected into the search-hole pressure drilled through the reaction pad in mid-radial positions near the inlet and outlet edges, the hot junctions being cut level with the surface of the pad. The average of the two indicated temperatures was taken as the representative temperature of the oil film. The two pads were placed at the top peripheral position of the bearing where pressure Observations were most quickly obtained and oil aeration was least. The six search-hole pads were successively inserted at this position, and in this way complete pressure distribution observations for various operating conditions were obtained.
748
Fig. 3. Small Experimental Details Loaded pads d t h pressure tappings. Eccentric bushes. Reaction pad fitted with thermocouples. manifold enables the pressure at any one search hole to be boosted to facilitate the observation of f i l m pressure readings. The distribution of temperature at the working surfaces of the pads is observed by means of a series of cotton, enamelled, copper-constantan thermocouples (28 gauge) fitted into holes drilled through each of the six reaction pads. Combination of the observations gives a pattern of the temperature distribution over the whole working surface, and at the same time the temperatures at two positions which are common to all the six pads may be compared between the different pads.
E X P E R I M E N T A I, T E C H N I Q U E S A N D R E S U I, T S
Pressure Measurement. Initial investigations showed that when the pressure manifold was put in communication with one search hole, the time taken for the oil pressure to rise and reach a steady value depended on the search-hole position within the bearing casing. For holes in the pad at the highest point of the bearing periphery, the time taken was only a few minutes; for holes in lower peripheral positions, the time taken was longer; and for holes in the lowest pad, no change of oil pressure could be detected even after about 2 hours. Further investigation showed that the only significant condition which varied within the casing was that of the oil itself, which was found to be more aerated in the lower part of the casing where the oil entered than nearer the oil exit in the upper part of the casing. Investigation of the time rate-of-change of manifold pressure following the opening of a search-hole connexion showed that the pressure-time relation has the characteristic form of the curve A in Fig. 4, although the scale of the time base varies with the position of the search hole within the bearing. The total time taken for pressure stabilization is reduced if the manifold pressure is boosted by means of the hand-pump when a particular search hole is opened. This preloading eliminates the early portion of the pressure-time characteristic in which the rate of pressure rise is small and modifies the pressure-time characteristic 10 the typical forms shown by curves B to F in Fig. 4.
10 20 30 TIME AFTER OPENING VALVE-MINUTES
40
Fig. 4. Oil-film-pressure Against T i n e Curves for Different Search Holes Tests were made to investigate the extent to which the looped oil-pressure pipes which connect the pads to the casing cover, offered restraint to the tilting of the pads. A method of assembling the pads in position and then softening the copper pipes was developed, and this interference was reduced to a satisfactory minimum. Film Pressure Observations. For each set of operating conditions, fifty pressure observations were made. Of these, twentyfive were obtained with one direction of bearing rotation; the pivot position was then changed over to the symmetrical point on the opposite side of the sector centre-line-the direction of rotation was reversed and twenty-five more pressure observations were made. When the full set of fifty observations were placed on one diagram, however, imperfect correlation of the two half sets existed owing to slight differences in the working conditions with the two directions of rotation. Hence, when plotting pressure curves and contours, it was, in general, expedient to base the diagrams primarily on one set oftwenty-five observations,
749
2o01
c Circumferential.
a On bearing surface.
0
OIL FILM PRESSURE-LB.
P E R SQ. IN. 200
6 Radial.
d Along sections parallel to inlet edge.
m Position of applied load.
Fig. 5, Oil-film-pressure Distributions + Calculated centre of pressure from experimental pressure distribution. for typical pressure distributions for which the detailed observations are shown graphically in Figs. 5 and 6. The pressures obtained are set out at the mesh points of the typical contour diagrams of these figures, and the six pressures observed at common hole positions are also given for comparison. For further analysis of these results, the curves of pressure distribution along the five radial lines and along the five circumferential arcs of the mesh were constructed as at b and c in Fig. 5. The area enclosed by the curve of film pressure plotted with reference to a circumferential arc of the film is a measure of the intensity of film loading per unit radial width of the pad at that particular arc. These loading rates were determined for the circumferential arcs of the mesh together with a number of intermediate arcs, and they were then plotted on a base which corresponds to the radial width of the pad as at b in Fig. 5. The area enclosed by this curve of radial loading rate, which is a measure of the film pressure resultant, was then determined. For the particular conditions investigated, the integrals of the film pressures obtained in this way were found to differ from the actual loads applied to the pad by between 4 and 10 per cent. T o determine the centre of film pressure, which should coincide with the point at which the pad is actually pivoted, it was necessary to make two integrations of the first moments of the film pressures, and those moments were conveniently taken about (1) either the inlet or the outlet edge of the pad, and
though valuable help was obtained from the other set in fixing the contours in the region of the film where rapid changes of pressure gradient take place. I n analysing the pressure observations, allowance was, of course, made for the effect of the pressure of the oil in the bearing casing both on the film pressures and on the hydraulic piston load.
TABLE 1. DATA FOR TYPICAL PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS

Figure
a/+
Speed, Applied1
Load,lb.
ZNlP
lb. per Applied Experisq. l n . mental

5
6a 6b
6c
6d
0.40 0.40 0.40 0.50 0.50
2,700
1,495 1,495 1,495 1,495
73 142 142 227 142
67 130 130 208 130
64 124 125 136
19.1 7.43 7.43* 3.42 7.43
* Large oil flow, remainder s m a l l oil flow.

Thirty-five complete experimental pressure distributions were obtained for different conditions of speed, temperature, pivot position, load, and rate of oil flow. Table 1 gives the leading data
750
a Small flow through casing.

463
480 441
463 494
501
C
b Large flow through casing.
Fig. 6. Typical Film-pressure Distributions Figures on contours refer to film pressure in lb. per sq. in. Position of applied load. Calculated centre of pressure from experimental pressure distribution. comparison of the two sets of observations plotted in Fig. 6a and b which were both obtained with identical operating conditions except for the rate of oil flow through the casing. The centre of pressure is displaced towards the outer radius by the increased flow. Occasionally, a recorded film pressure was incompatible with the general distribution and was neglected, as, for example, along circumferential direction E in Fig. 5c. This unknown pressure must be the same on both circumferential and radial distributions. Fig- 6c shows a typical pressure distribution when pivoted so that 914 = 0-50 and offset towards the outer radius. The pressure contours have been displaced towards the outer periphery, and this restores equilibrium about the pivot poin: .
(2) the point of intersection of the produced inlet and outlet edges of the pad. For integration (1) the moments about the edge of the pad of rates of film-pressure loading along a number of !ines parallel to the edge such as those indicated in Fig. 5a and plotted as in Fig. 5d were computed, and integrated to determine the distance of the centre of pressure from that edge. Integration (2) carried out in a similar way was facilitated because the rates of film loading along a number of circular arcs were already known. The positions of the centres of pressure determined in this way, were found to be reasonably close to the actual pivot positions. It is notable that with given operating conditions, the filmpressure distributions were affected by the rates of oil flow through the bearing casing. This is shown, for example, by a
MICHELL BEARING LUBRICATION T o generate these higher pressures the film thickness is considerably reduced at the outer periphery-this was confirmed by film thickness determinations. Fig. 6d shows the pressure distributions for radial offset pivot position 4 for each direction of rotation but otherwise identical operating conditions of load, speed, and viscosity. The integrated load was little affected by the contour differences. It was noted that the greater the operating temperature, the higher the maximum film pressures recorded. Oil-film-pressure distributions were also obtained when the tilting pads were pivoted on the inlet side. Measurement o f Film Geometry. For measurements of film geometry, three rods pass through the outer cover of the bearing casing and rest with their spherically-formed ends in contact at A, B, and C with the flange of the piston-loaded sector pad (Fig. 2b). When observations are to be made, the loading piston for the pad is subjected to hydraulic pressure whilst the
75 1
Fig. 7. Illustrating Measured Movement of Rods Actuating Deflexion-measuring Gauges a Position of components with thrust ring stationary. b Position of components under load with thrust ring moving in direction shown. thrust ring is stationary, so that the workingfaces of both the piston-loaded and the mating reaction pads are brought as near as possible into metal-to-metal contact with the thrust ring. The axial position of the measuring rods relative to the casing is observed. The bearing is then set in operation under particular conditions of working ;the formation of oil films beneath both the loaded and reaction pads causes axial displacement of the measuring rods; and the new positions of the rods relative
to the casing are observed. The relative displacement of the measuring rods at A, B, and C due to the change from static to running conditions, are determined, and they are denoted by ho, hi, and h, respectively. Computation of the film thicknesses from these observations is subject to the assumptions (1) that the thickness of the residual oil films which exist under the static conditions are negligible compared with those of the operative films, (2) that the geometry of the film beneath both pads is identical, and (3) that there is no deformation of either the pads or their surrounding flanges. In these circumstances, in changing from static to running conditions, the formation of active oil films causes an axial displacement T (in Fig. 7) of the thrust ring relative to the casing, that is, the distance between the face of the reaction pad at the pivot point and the relevant working face of the thrust collar increases by an amount T . Hence, the pivot point of the piston-loaded pad is similarly displaced a distance T relative to the corresponding working face of the thrust ring. The displacements to, ti, and rs of the measuring rods due to the tilting of the thrust pad, are related to the known total displacements ho, hi, and h, by the equations ho = to+ T, hi = ti+ T,and hc = tc+ T From the plan positions of the measuring points A, B, and C in relation to the pivot point, it is possible to express the displacement T of the pivot point relative to the thrust ring in terms of the three relative displacements to, ti, and rc of the measuring rods. Hence the above three equations become soluble and, when the values of to, ti, and tc are obtained, the thickness of the film is easily determined. I n particular, it was found convenient to compute the thicknesses of the oil film at the four midboundary points and at the four corners of the film. The values obtained are referred to by the H symbols set at the appropriated points in Fig. 2a. In the equipment initially used for observing the small displacements of the measuring rods, the ends of these rods were attached to a rubber diaphragm, the deflexion of which forced mercury along a capillary tube. The diaphragm was later replaced advantageously by a lapped piston (Fig. l b ) . This equipment, however, was in turn replaced by Talymin gauges. The operation of the pick-up units of these gauges depends on a change of electrical inductance brought about by the movement against a light spring pressure of the pick-up plunger. These pick-up units were mounted on the outer cover of the bearing casing and actuated by the horizontal piston-headed rods bearing on the pad flange. The range of the instruments extends up to 0.003 inch and, when the displacements to be measured exceeded this range, the gauges were replaced by mechanical dial gauges calibrated in 0.0001-inch units. When a large oil flow was passed through the thrust casing the pressure therein increased. Under these conditions a light spring W B dded just to overcome the oil pressure so that the measuring rods lightly touched the pad flanges. When these measuring instruments were in use, three pairs of pads were assembled in the thrust casing and spaced 120 deg. apart in order to apply three-point loading to the thrust ring. Before systematic observations were taken, the thrust ring was machined to ensure that the working faces were plane and parallel to a high degree of accuracy, and the faces of the pads were also scraped and lapped to a satisfactory plane finish. Even so, when the thrust ring was rotated slowly, small variations in the gauge readings were observed. Hence, in observing the static positions of each of the three measuring rods, the mean value of four gauge readings taken with the thrust ring in positions spaced 90 deg. apart was obtained. When the shaft was rotated at working speed, the gauge pointers oscillated over a small range with a frequency which was found stroboscopically to be equal to the speed of the shaft. Separate experiments in which the gauges recorded the displacement of the free end of a vibrating cantilever spring, however, confirmed that the mean position of the vibrating pointer corresponds to the mean position of the end of the cantilever. Experiments were carried out with the bearing operating at constant speed, and observations were made with various loads and oil temperatures. This procedure was continued for a number of different operating speeds.
~
752

are shown plotted against the criterion ZN/P, in Figs. 9-12. = 0.4 Of these pivot positions, No. 1 which had an arc ratio probably corresponds closely with pivot positions actually adopted in practice. A tendency was observed for higher speeds of the bearing to
Experiments with successively one, two, and three measuring instruments in position, indicated that the spring pressure of the pick-up units did not affect the running oil film thickness. Film Thickness Observations. Film thickness observations were taken for all seven pivot positions at five different speeds ranging from 485 to 2,700 r.p.m., and for various loads and temperatures. Under conditions of point pivoting, the tilting pad has complete freedom to tilt in both the circumferential and radial directions (Fig. 8). With the approximately mid-radial
" I
1'2
i 0
24
ZN/P
Fig. 10. Film Geometry for Pivot Position 1, g/$ = 0 . 4 0 Speed, 870 r.p.m.
J'
i
I
V
Fig. 8. Tilting Behaviour of Pads Arrows point in the approximate direction of greatest f i l m convergence for pivot position indicated. pivot positions (that is, positions 1,5,7,6,3) the radial tilt cornponent was small compared with the circumferential component. In pivot positions 1 and 3, the radial component of the tilt underwent reversal above a certain value of ZN/P. With the pivot on the line of pad symmetry but radially offset as a t positions 2 and 4, however, the radial tilt component was greater than the circumferential component. The films also converged radially towards the boundary arc nearer to the pivot, but further investigation would be required to establish this as an invariable effect of radially offset pivoting. Representative of the computed film thicknesses H , the film ratio Hj/Ho,and the circumferential tilt component angle OL
o.ooio
D
z
Y
v)
$ 0.0005
10
12
14
16
18
20
ZN/P
Fig. 1i . Minimum Film Thickness for Each Pivot Position N = 485 r.p.m. 1 I/+ = 0.40;Hop 2 !/+ = 0.50; Hop 3 el+ = 0.60; Hop 4 g/+ = 0.50; Ho,. 5 814 = 0.45;HoR==HorfiHo. 6 814 = 0.55; Hop 7 I/+ = 0.50; HoR = HOT = Ho. Numbers 1-7 refer to pivot positions.
8
Q
d 4 a
a 0
;
6
,
42 54
I1
1's
14
30
36
ZN/P
Fig. 9. Experimental Values of H i and Ho, $14 = 0.40 Speed, r.p.m. . o 2,700. 0 2,000. + 1,495. x 1,OOO. 0 870. 485.
Fig. 12. Oil-film Thicknesses, Film Ratio, and Circumferential Tilt Angle for = 0.40 and N = 2,700 r.p.m. 0 Hi. Tilt angle a . -- -HilHo. Ho.
e/+
753 MICHELL B E A R I N G LUBRICATION produce slightly thicker films for the same value of ZNIP and side. Fig. 13b is in qualitative agreement with theoretical prethis to some extent accounts for the scatter of the experimental dictions but why the slope is a minimum for central pivoting is
points shown in Fig. 9. The film thickness at the mid-boundan points and corners of the film for pivot position 1 and a bearing speed of 870 r.p.m. are shown in Fig. 10, and they are representative of the observations made at all other speeds with the same pivot position. In all circumstances there was a continuous increase in the thickness of the film as conditions of bearing operation were changed to give greater values of ZNIP. The minimum thickness of the film is a major consideration in bearing design, so that a margin of safety against metal-tometal contact may be provided. The values of the minimum film thickness, which in general occurs at one corner of the film, for the various pivot positions and an operating speed of 485 r.p.m. are plotted in Fig. 11. For pivot positions 1,5,6,7, and 3, these values are closely representative of the mean film thickness along the whole outlet edge of the pad but with pivot positions 2 and 4, for which the principal tilt of the pad was directed roughly diagonally from corner to corner, the film thickness varied appreciably along the outlet edge. These results show that within the range of the experiments, optimum minimum film thickness conditions are obtained when the pad is pivoted midradiallyat positions for which the arc ratiohasvalues lying between about 0.45 and0.50. When the pivot is set at mid-radial positions outside this range, the minimum film thickness is reduced to an extent which is appreciably greater for positions such as 3 and 6 on the inlet side than for positions such as 1 on the outlet side. Pivoting of the pad with radial offset from the centre is shown to result in extreme thinning of the film at one corner. Fig. 12 gives typical experiment values derived for Ho and Hi for a speed of 2,700 r.p.m. and for values of ZN}P up to 54. From these curves the mean film ratio (= Hi/Ho)and the mean angle of tilt = %(% - l)] are derived and plotted.
Lm o .
difficult to understand. The above theory excludes the possibility of load-carrying films being formed beneath the pad when it is pivoted at the centre and at positions within the inlet half of the pad. When the theory is modified, however, to take account of viscosity changes in accordance with a simple approximate law, it is shown, as for
I
I0.0015
z
Z
g o .0010
u
bI
By plotting logarithmically, the following relations were obtained ZN 0-71 Ho = 0.156(j;-)
5 c.0005
C L
c 3
t,
0
8
I 2 ---+--210
~
0
16
ZN 0-54 Hi = 0 . 9 2 ( 7 )
ZN/P
For all pivot positions 1, 5, 7, 6, and 3 respectively the film ratio decreased as Z N / P increased. For pivoting centrally on the outlet side the film ratio was greater the higher the speed; for pivoting on the inlet side the opposite was the case. In the theory of the plane rectangular slider bearing in which side leakage and viscosity changes are neglected, it is shown that for a given position of the transverse line pivot within the outlet half of the pad, the film thickness ratio H;/Hohas a given and invariable value independently of other operating conditions of the bearing. The numerical values of the film ratio for pivot positions corresponding to &/c$ = 0.40,0.45, and 0.50 are 2-80, 1.66, and I .O respectively. The corresponding experimental values of the film ratio HJHo are shown in Fig. 13, and the extent to which these curves depart from the above values is a measure of the actual deviation caused by side leakage, changes in viscosity, sector shaping of the pad, and the influence of surface profile (Raimondi and Boyd 1953), from the results predicted by this theory. At small values of ZNjP the differences are appreciable but with higher values of the criterion, agreement progressively becomes closer. Though the values of the film ratio Hi/Ho diminish for progressively higher values of ZNjP, the observations in general show that the angle cc of pad tilt in the circumferential direction becomes greater as the value of ZNIP is increased. For given operating conditions, the tilt angle cc was relatively large when the pad was pivoted at position 1 ;was small with pivot positions on the inlet side of the pad; and had its minimum value with central pivoting at position 7. For the mid-radial positions the film ratio Hi/Ho is also a minimum at this point (Fig. 13). Fig. 13b shows the mean outlet oil film thickness (Ho) for each of the five mid-radial pivot positions and illustrates that the optimum pivot position is in the range 0.45-0.50. The value of Hodecreases for other pivot positions, especially on the inlet
a Film ratio HJHO.
b Outlet f i l m thickness. Fig. 13. For Different Pivot Positions
Speed, 485 r.p.m. example by Boswall (192S), that hydrodynamic film operation is possible when the range of pivot positions is extended into the inlet half of the pad. This theoretical conclusion is confirmed by the experimental results obtained with pivoting at positions 7, 6, and 3. All the above results were taken with the oil-bypass valve open. When more oil was passed through the thrust casing, by closing the oil-bypass valve, the oil film thickness was increased by up to 10 per cent.
Friction Characteristics. When the experimental apparatus is in operation the torque which acts on the floating casing and which is balanced by a calibrated torque arm, is due to the combined action of (1) the hydrodynamic friction forces which the pressure films exert on the working faces of the pads, and (2) drag forces exerted on the inner surfaces of the casing by the moving oil contained within it. The torque due to (2) was determined by operating the bearing with the pads unloaded; the appropriate load was then applied to the pads and the combined torque was observed; and finally the torque due to (1) was obtained by difference. Values of the nominal coefficient of friction p = F/ W for the pads were computed, where W is the total load acting on each pad and F is an equivalent friction force assumed to act tangentially on the working face of the pad at the same distance from the shaft axis as the pivot, and which has a moment about the shaft axis equal to that of the actual film tractive forces acting on the pad. For the pivot at position 1, values of the friction
754
MICHELL BEARING LUBRICATION ponent of tilt of the pad. These results are shown graphically in
Fig. 14. Since the total tangential force which tends to move each pad includes both the viscous traction on the i n c h e d surface and the small resolved component of the pressure resultant acting on that face, which together equal the viscous traction on the moving surface, the experimental results are to be compared with the upper of the two theoretical lines. The scatter of the experimental points does not appear to bear any systematic relation to the different speeds a t which the observations were made. For all pivot positions the relations between p and the parameter Z N / P were straight lines when plotted logarithmicallp such that p = k(ZN/P)=.The values of K and n are given in Table 2. Within the experimental range the pad friction is
TABLE 2. VALUES OF k AND n

Zyr
Fig. 14. Friction Characteristics when Pivoted at 814 = 0.40 Moving surface (theoretical). Stationary (theoretical). Experimental.
Pivot position
3 6
------
814
0.60 0.55 0.50
7
5
-I-
n
0.44
coefficient for the viscous traction on both the moving and stationary surfaces of the bearing have been calculated in accordance with Boswalls theoretical treatment of the sectorshaped pad in which allowance is made for side leakage but not for changes in viscosity nor for the effects of any radial com-
_-
0.45 0.40
0.50 0.50
0.0061 00054 0.0043 0.0041

0.0039 0.0052
046 0 50 0.48 045
2
4
0.0045
045
0.51
a After 2 minutes.
After 29 minutes.
b After 8 minut-s.
d After 50 minutes.
Fig. 15. Experimental Temperature Distributions as Bearing Warms Up Speed, 2,700 r.p.m. Load, 433 lb. per sq. in. 8/4=0-40.
M I C H E L L BEARING LUBRICATION shown to have minimum values when the pad is pivoted at position 1 for which 3 / $ = 0-40, and progressively increased values when the pivot is moved successively to positions nearer the inlet edge. On closing the oil-bypass valve, to pass all the oil through the bearing, the friction decreased for all pivot positions. Surface Temperature Distributions. Each pad was drilled to carry six, seven, or eight thermocouples arranged to give a complete temperature distribution. For each pad the thermocouples were situated on given radial and circumferential lines so that errors could be more easily detected. Also, the couples were SO placed that on reversing the direction of rotation the number of temperature points was doubled. Thirty thermocouple stations were provided but owing to the pivot, not all these could be used for any one distribution. As for pressure distributions, it was expedient to base the temperature distributions on one set of observations. Owing to difficulties in securing thermocouples to the actual edges of the pads, boundary temperatures were
755
obtained from thermocouples fixed in holes drilled through the pads as near the edges as possible. Thermocouples showed that the rear face of the pad, and just beyond the outlet edge were approximately at the bulk oil temperature. The bearing surface was lapped and scraped before and after fixing the thermocouples in position with plastic metal and solder. Calibration was done with the thermocouples in position. T o obtain better temperature control one pair of pads in the top position was used. In analysing results the best smooth temperature contours were drawn. Peculiar kinks have no meaning under these experimental conditions. The important variables are speed, load, pivot position, and inlet temperature. According to theory, for a film of given thickness and taper the speed and inlet temperature have no effect on the temperature increase between inlet and outlet edge j the important factors are the applied load and the pivot position. Fig. 15 shows successive temperature distributions as the bearing temperature increases at a speed of 2,700 r.p.m. j Fig. 16 shows the temperature along the circumferential centre-he. Several general trends for all temperature distributions are illustrated. It is obvious that raising the oil inlet temperature reduces the measured temperature variation as well as raises the general level of the temperature. The measured maximum temperature occurs just within the outlet edge. This is due to the large amount of cooling performed by the oil around the pad boundaries, Higher temperatures are recorded towards the outer periphery, due to the increased length of the path the oil has to traverse. Further experimental distributions confirmed that the speed has a much greater effect on the mean temperature rise than the load. At a speed of 485 r.p.m. the maximum temperature variauon was only 2 deg. F. for loads of 142 and 433 lb. per sq. in.; lncreasing the speed to 2,700 r.p.m. produced a temperature change of 19 deg. F. (Fig. 15). (Inlet temperature 110 deg. F.)
TABLE 3. EFFECT OF PIVOT POSITION

temperature, deg. F.
0.40
Posiuon of
temperature*
0.9 0 . 9
0.85
0.45
0.50
0.60
0.55
129 132 132 133 130
080
0.65
* Defined as fractional angular position from inlet edge.

The effect of pivot position is illustrated in Table 3 for a speed of 2,700 r.p.m., a load of 433 lb. per sq. in. and an inlet temperature of 110 deg. F. There is relatively little difference in the maximum recorded temperature but the position of the
Fig. 16. Temperature Conditions Along Circumferential Centre-line - - - - - - - After 29 minutes. After 2 minutes. ---- After 50 minutes. After 8 minutes.
--
Fig. Temperature Distribution for Offset - 17. ExperimentalPivot Position 2
756
M I C H E L L BEARING LUBRICATION
0.43
maximum temperature moved towards the centre of the pad. This was confirmed at other speeds. Similar results were obtained with the pivoting at an offset position such as No. 2. The main difference is that the observed area of maximum temperature is much nearer the outer periphery. This is because the oil film is thinnest at the outer periphery and hence the heat produced there is greater than for the mid-radial pivots. Also, the maximum temperature is some 5 deg. F. greater than for a pad pivoted at, say, position 7 and operating under the same conditions. This is also due to the thinner oil film under which offset pivoted pads operate. Fig. 17 shows a typical distribution. PART 11-CORRELATION
0.40
AH
BETWEEN THEORY AND EXPERIMENT
035
The theoretical determination of the essential operating characteristicsof a hydrodynamically-lubricated bearing is based on the solution of Reynolds equation for two-dimensional flow. For the sector-shaped pad the equation is
0.32
I
a[z. a a ap ] + . . -[a Z . r . g] = 6wr2;fie ah ar

h3
h3
Fig. 18. Theoretical Values for Sector Pad

- - - - - - - A p for moving surface. -_ d p for stationary surface.
_ I
(1)
This equation has been solved by Boswall (1928), Skinner (1938), Christopherson (1941), and Wood (1949). Boswall and Wood assumed that the f i l m thickness was a linear function of the angle subtended by the pad, thus assuming a warped surface for the pad. Christopherson's solution is the most general, in which the film geometry and viscosity need not be simplified. Kingsbury (1931) used his electrical tank analogy to obtain many results of practical importance. In solving the above equation, the important starting factor is the film ratio. This gives a non-dimensional pressure function the integration of which yields the operating characteristics such as the f i l m thickness and friction criteria. Reynolds equation for two-dimensional flow for the sector-shaped pad and for constant viscosity have been solved using the theories of Boswall and Christopherson for several values of the film ratio. Following journal-bearing theory, the following non-dimensional criteria are defined. Film Thickness Criterion. Film thickness criterion is defined as
- - - - el$.
AH.
According to Boswall
A H
= (6D)* According to Christopherson 8, = (6#)*{JJPe29RaRa@]*

Friction Criterion. Friction criterion is defined
__--
Centre of pressure, Boswall. Position of applied load. Film thickness constant under radial line passing through pivot posiuon.
a For = 0.40. Solution after Boswall H = f ( 0 , ) . Solution after Christopherson H = f ( 0 l r l ) . Centre of pressure, Christopherson.
According to Boswall
According to Christopherson
These criteria are plotted in Fig. 18, together with the fractional angular position of the centre of pressure from the outlet edge. From these computationsjt is seen that the film thickness criterion is a maximum when e/$ = 0.41 andf = 2.2j as the pivot position moves towards the centre the friction
b For offset pivot position 2. Fig. 19. Pressure Distribution

criterion increases rapidly, the film ratio decreases to unity and the film thickness decreases to zero ;the friction criteria reach a minimum value when the film ratio is between 3.0 and 4.0; the oil-flow criteria show that as the film ratio increases the quantity of oil flowing across the outlet edge increases much less than that flowing into the pad, that is, the side leakage increases (these criteria are not shown). The pressure distribution corresponding to Fig. 6a is shown in Fig. 19a (dotted line). This has been computed by Christophersons relaxation theory, allowing for complete radial and circumferential tilt, but for constant viscosity, the nondimensional film thicknesses being determined from the experimental values for the same value of ZNIP. The computed centre of pressure is nearer the outlet edge than the actual pivot position; this is to be expected as a constant viscosity has been assumed. The pressure in the oil film is directly proportional to the viscosity; as the viscosity decreases while the oil passes between the bearing surface, the pressure generated is correspondingly decreased, the resultant effect being to cause the centre of pressure to move towards the inlet edge. The particular film geometry of Fig. 19a was chosen because the film thickness was constant under a radial line passing through the pivot point. The full lines in Fig. 19a show the pressure distribution assuming the film thickness is a linear function of the angle subtended by the pad, the non-dimensional film thickness H at inlet and outlet being that shown at the radial centre-line of Fig. 19a; H i s also shown at the four corners. It seems that there is a considerable variation of H as illustrated, and the most noticeable effect is to cause the top left-hand comer to carry more load. The actual experimental distribution operates with higher film pressures owing to the decrease in viscosity, and hence oil pressures towards the outlet boundaries are reduced. The value of the outlet film thickness criterion is as follows :
(1) After Christopherson; h = f (Blrl) = 0.390. (2) After Boswall; h = f (0,) only = 0.388. (3) Experimentally = 0.270.
757
The following conclusions can be drawn : (1) Outlet film thickness. The constant viscosity solution gives a slightly greater value for the outlet film thickness. (2) Inlet film thickness. The constant viscosity solution gives a low value of the inlet film thickness. (3) Film ratio. When the viscosity varies the film ratio increases. The pressure built up under a slider bearing is due to the viscosity of the oil. As the viscosity decreases from inlet to outlet, the viscosity at the outlet side is less effective in creating a pressure within the film and thus would tend to move the centre of pressure towards the inlet side. As the pivot position is fixed this movement is counteracted by the slope of the pad increasing. (4) Coefficient of friction. The use of a constant mean viscosity gives a value higher than when the viscosity varies.
Fig. 19b shows a typical relaxed pressure distribution (assuming constant viscosity) for the radial offset pivot position. The non-dimensional values of H were obtained from actually measured film thickness. The computed centre of pressure is at some distance from the actual pivot position but this is due to neglecting viscosity variation which is particularly large near the area of maximum pressure for offset pivoting. Effect of Variable Viscosity. A qualitative picture can be obtained by considering the simple flat slider with no side leakage, for which operating charts are available. Those due to Norton (1942) are used here. Worked Example. Assume, for simplicity, a pad 1 inch square, pivoted so that X/L= 0.40, mean temperature 92 deg. F. giving a mean viscosity of 1 poise; surface speed 27.8 ft. per sec. and applied load 400 lb. First the problem is solved assuming a constant viscosity, that is, b = 1. Using Nortons equations (Norton 1942) and figures in the following order-equation (64), Fig. 39, Fig. 38, equation (41), equation (73) and the viscosity temperature curve for the oil used, the results are :film ratio 2.8, minimum film thickness 0,00134 inch, and oil temperature rise 22.9 deg. F. With the given oil undergoing a temperature rise of 22.9 deg. F. and having a mean viscosity of 1 poise at 92 deg. F., the inlet and outlet viscosities are found to be 1.35 poises (at 83 deg. F.) and 0.65 poise (at 106 deg. F.). Hence the viscosity ratio b = 2-08. The process is repeated with b = 2.08, resulting in the values, film ratio 3.6, minimum film thickness 0-00133inch, and oil temperature rise 20 deg. F. For greater accuracy, the process could be repeated using a temperature rise of 20 deg. F. instead of 22-9 deg. F.-the method being one of successive approximation. However, a further trial is hardly justified. By taking a number of combinations of the mean temperature, speed, and applied load-similar to conditions in the laboratory -Fig. 20 was obtained. The value of 2 in the variable ZU/P is the mean viscosity in poise. The peripheral speeds were taken to be the mean speeds of 2,700 and 500 r.p.m.
U/P
Fig. 20. Theoretical Values of Film Ratio, Inlet Film Thickness, and Coefficient of Friction for Tilting Slider, but Neglecting Side Leakage Speed, 2,700 r.p.m. -_-----Speed, 500 r.p.m. Based on constant mean viscosity.
---I
From an examination of Fig. 20 it might appear that the divergence from the constant viscosity results is due to speed. However, it is well known that, according to the theory, the temperature rise of the oil passing through the bearing depends only on the applied load. For any given value of ZlJlP, if U is increased, P must also be increased for a given value of Z . An increase of P causes a greater temperature rise and hence a greater viscosity change, resulting in the divergence discussed above. The curve for the outlet film thickness has not been plotted as the difference was so very small-for a given value of ZlJlP, an increase in speed caused a slight decrease in the outlet film thickness. These qualitative results serve to explain the observed facts that thicker oil films are associated with higher speeds, the a m ratio (Hi/Ho) of the pad decreases as ZN/P increases (initially very rapidly), the film ratio is greater for higher speeds and always greater than that value based on a constant viscosity. However, there was no speed effect observed for the friction curves but this is probably due to the very small variation with speed shown in Fig. 20. Theory and experiment differ as to the speed effect on the outlet f i l m thickness.
758 MICHELL BEARING L U B q I C A T I O N Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental Film Thickness Criteria. In theory, for any given pivot position, these criteria
each have a unique value. Fig. 21 shows tlie plot of these theoretical criteria, which fall on a single curve, the corresponding centre of pressure being located by an arrow. Experimental criteria curves for all mid-radial pivot positions and for a speed of 485 r.p.m. are also given in Fig. 21. The latter have been
0-30
Fig. 22. Experimental Friction and Film Thickness Criteria
-- - - -- -
N = 2,000 r.p.m. N = 485 r.p.m. ZNIP decreasing in direction of arrow.
"-I"
@ +
1 1 i
I
i .-
i--L_--A---L
3
1
4
A/l
FRICTION CRITERION
Limitations to existing lubrication theory in simplifying the viscosity changes render impossible an exact comparison between theory and experiment. The effects of variable viscosity have been illustrated. Typical experimental pressure and temperature distributions have been discussed. Unusual effects are caused by increasing the flow of oil through the bearing case: the film thickness increases, the friction decreases ;and the pressure contours move towards the outer radius.
Fig. 21. Experimental and Theoretical Friction and Film Thickness Criteria
__-_
Theoretical. Experimental for N = 485 r.p.m.
calculated from the Ho/(ZN/P) and p/(ZN/P)graphs, Ho and p being read off at identical values of ZNIP. In all cases the experimental film thickness criteria are less than the theoretical values and reach a maximum in the region 0.45 to 0.50; d, decreases and moves farther away from the theoretical line as Z N / P decreases, that is, as the effect of variable viscosity increases. The friction criterion progressively increases as the pivot moves towards the inlet edge ;there is approximate agreeAH
&/$-+OtiO, A, + 0, and 5 p --f
m ;experimental results show
that pivoting on the inlet side is possible but with increased friction and reduced minimum film thickness. Typical experimental values of the criteria for two pivot positions are shown in Fig. 22; corresponding values of Z N / P are given. Larger values of 5 , are associated with higher speeds. Further criteria for two values of ZNIP are shown in Fin. 23.
COMBINED CONCLUSIONS
The experimental results confirm that fluid film lubrication exists for pivot positions not only in the conventional position but also for central pivoting and pivoting on the inlet side of the pad. Experiments show that the film thickness readings lie on separate curves for each speed ;this has been shown to be due to variable viscosity. The operating pivot position for these experiments for maximum minimum film thickness is in the region = 0.45 to 0.50; this compares with the value 6 1 4 = 0.40 to 0.42 adoptedjn practice. For minimum friction the pivot should be placed at el$ = 0.40 (for these experimental conditions); the friction increases as the pivot moves towards the inlet edge.
2 . 0
I
2.5
I
3 . 0 AP
I
3 . 5
0
e/$
Fig. 23. Experimental Values of Friction and Film Thickness Criteria for Speeds of 2.000 and 485 r.p.m. and Values of Z N / P of 4 and 16 - , Theoretical. Speed, 2,000 r.p.m. Speed, 485 r.p.m.
----
MICHELL BEARING LUBRICATION 759 MICHELL, A. G. M. 1905 Zeit. f i r Math. Physik, vol. 52, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS p. 123, The Lubrication of Plane Sliders. The authors wish to acknowledge the help and facilities of F., MUSKAT, M., and REED, D. W. 1940 Jl. Applied the Michell Thrust Bearing Co., Ltd., in particular for the MORGAN, Phys., vol. 1I, p. 541, Studies in Lubrication. experimental equipment. The work described here was carried F., and MERES,M. W. 1940 Jl. M., MORGAN, out during the period 1947-50 at the University of Sheffield MUSKAT, Applied Phys., vol. 11, p. 208, The Lubrication of Plane under the general direction of Professor H. W. Swift, head of Sliders of Finite Width. the Departments of Engineering, to whom many thanks are NEWBIGIN, H. T. 1913-14 Proc. I.C.E., vol. 196, p. 223, The extended for continual interest and advice. Problem of the Thrust Bearing. 1922 Engineering, vol. 114, p. 260, Lubrication Tests. NORTON, A. E. 1942 Lubrication (McGraw-Hill Book Co., London and New York). RAIMONDI, A. A., and BOYD,J. 1953 The Influence of Surface APPENDIX Profile on the Load Capacity of Thrust Bearings with Centrally Pivoted Pads. Presented at the Annual Meeting BIBLIOGRAPHY of the A.S.M.E. New York, 29th November to 4th BOSWALL, R. 0. 1928 Theory of Film Lubrication (LongDecember. . mans, Green, London). S. M. 1938 Jl. Applied Phys., vol. 9, p . 409, Film SKINNER, CAMERON. A. 1949 Proc. 1.Mech.E.. vol. 161. D. 73. The Lubrication of Finite Curved Surfaces. W. 1921 Commonwealth Engineer (Australia), vol. 9, Sukace-roughness of Bearing-surfaces and ^its Relation STONE, to Oil-film Thickness at Breakdown. p. 115, Proposed Method for Solving Problems in CHRISTOPHERSON, D. G. 1941 Proc. I.Mech.E., vol. 146, Lubrication. p. 126, A New Mathematical Method for the Solution VON FREUDENREICX, J. 1917 Brown Boveri Mitteilungen, pp. 3, of Film Lubrication Problems. 35, 58,80, Moderne Drucklager. GIBSON, J. H. 1919 Engineeritzg, vol. 107, p. 765, The Michell 1933 Brown Boveri Review, July/August, p . 119, Some Thrust Block. Recent Results of Tests made with Segmental Bearings. KINGSBURY, A. 1931 Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 53, APM-53-5, 1941 Brown Boveri Review, November, p. 366, Some p. 59, On Problems in the Theory of Fluid-film LubricaRecent Investigations into Segmental Thrust Bearings. tion with an Experimental Method of Solution. WOOD, W. L. 1949 Phil. Mag., vo1. 40, Pt. 1, p. 220, New MARTIN,H. M. 1920 Engineering, vol. 109, p. 233, The Form of the Solution of Reynolds Equation for the Theory of the Michell Thrust Bearing. Michell Rectangular and Sector-shaped Pads.
Communications
Dr. A. CAMERON (Member) wrote that there was a constant theoretical ratio between (Ho/L) and l/p which equalled &/All, in the authors notation. He would like to ask if that ratio was constant experimentally, or how far it varied. If it was constant it gave a simple way of finding Ho. Mr. J. A. COLE,M.Sc. (Associate Member), wrote that the thrust bearing had been rather neglected as the subject of experimental research in comparison with the journal bearing, and the present paper was therefore to be welcomed. The authors had made comprehensive measurements, many of a difficult nature, and had satisfactorily related them to existing theory, showing in particular the necessity for taking into account variation of viscosity along the film. The paper concentrated on the relation of experiment to theory rather to the exclusion of design considerations, but the authors might have further information which would increase the value of the investigation in that respect. As with the journal bearing, the great difficulty in design was the estimation of 2, the representative viscosity, which in the paper had apparently been based on the mean of pad thermocouple readings at the mid-inlet and mid-outlet edges. It was normally calculated from a heat balance for the bearing, all the friction loss being assumed to appear as heat in the outflowing oil. The authors, although noting the important influence of oil flow, particularly on film thickness and friction loss, had given no figures for flow rates and had not made it clear which of the variables, oil flow rate, inlet temperature, and supply pressure had been held constant during the tests. That information, and an indication of the variation of the representative temperature with applied conditions, would be very helpful. Further, he would ask whether the detailed temperature distribution results had been examined to check the adequacy of the chosen representative temperature and possibly to suggest where a single pad thermocouple might best be situated. Blok (1949)* had suggested that a single representative viscosity suitable for experimentally checking the theoretical relation between one set of variables, such as film thickness and ZN/P, would prove unsuitable for another, such as friction and ZNlP. One set of pads in the test apparatus had been individually and therefore equally loaded, but for the six reaction pads the equality of loading had been, as was common, dependent upon the accuracy of construction of the machine. The authors had mentioned that where the measurements had been made on more than one pad, appreciable variations had been observed, and that suggested that load-equalizing devices could profitably be generally used in practice, as indeed they were in the United States. In their absence it might be desirable to keep the number of pads down to three: there was, in any case, not a great deal of information available on the optimum numbers of pads. The observations of radial tilt in addition to circumferential tilt, and its change of sign under certain conditions, were interesting. Similar effects had also been observed at M.E.R.L. (Barwell 1951-52)t during tests on thrust bearings at higher surface speeds, despite the fact that the pads had tilted on a step. Deformation of the step had permitted radial tilt to OCCLU. It would be interesting to have the authors data on the relative friction losses due to pad friction and casing drag. At high speeds the churning Iosses might be considerable, but some amelioration had been obtained at M.E.R.L. by the expedient of replacing the general oil supply to the casing by individual feeds to a suitably designed edge-groove system in each pad, * BLOK, H .1949 Proc. I.Mech.E., vol. 161, p. 66, Communication on paper by Cameron, A., and Wood, W. L. t BARWELL, F. T. 1951-52 Trans. Inst. of Eng. and Shipbuilders in Scotland, vol. 95, p. 6 4 , Some Aspects of Research on Friction and Wear.
760 C O M M U N I C A T I O N S O N M I C H E L L BEARING L U B R I C A T I O N Mr. A. HILL, BSc. (Associate Member), wrote that the paper position, and he would very much like to see a N m pressure was of particular value in that the authors had demonstrated that distribution as given in Fig. 6 for a pivot position of 0.4, and the film thickness, pressure distribution, and temperature rise asked whether the authors could provide that. for a given pivoted pad more or less agreed with the theoretical Since the film formation depended in that case upon the predictions. viscosity-temperature relation of the fluid, it was perhaps He used the words more or less because the theory was itself fortunate that the Viscosity of ordinary lubricating oils decreased very far from being able to give a complete answer. Some of the rapidly as temperature rose. divergences from theory which the authors had recorded were of even greater interest than the agreements. Aeration of the oil had been mentioned early in the paper, and it was his impression that it was connected with the oil flow and the bypass valve. There were repeated references to that bypass valve, the closing of which caused an increased flow of oil, resulting in, as recorded, a thicker film, less friction, and differing pressure and temperature distribution. If a thrust pad were given all the oil it needed to form a film, surely that film would not increase because more oil was flowing past Ihe pad. The results sueaested that with the normal flow of oil in the experiments, the-pads suffered from partial starvation and had therefore been unable to build up free films. When the flow was increased to the maximum, he asked whether the mean oil temperatures of inlet and outlet varied. Also whether the authors could give any results for the full oil flow which could be compared directly with the published results. When the effect of variation of oil flow had been observed, he asked whether the LENGTH O F PAD O N MEAN DIAMETER-INCH authors would say why the tests had been carried out at the Fig. 24. Diagram of Pad Attitude for Various Pivot lower flow and not at the maximum. Positions at ZN/P = 10 The authors had mentioned a tendency for variation in speed to affect the film thickness in spite of the overall value of Z N / P Based on Fig. 13. remaining constant. He himself had experienced similar behaviour when using that criterion, although the possibility of Mr. J. L. JEFFERSON, B.A. (Associate Member), Mr. P. M. experimental error had to be remembered. In Fig. 9, however, HAILEY (Newcastle upon Tyne), and Mr. M. MILNE(Associate the results were sufficiently consistent to show a definite trend Member) wrote that the ingenious test rig and painstaking and they confirmed his opinion that as a criterion for com- approach to the problem had made a very welcome addition to parison of thrust-bearing results ZN/P, although it was simple, the all too scanty knowledge of pivoted pad behaviour. left much to be desired. He asked whether the authors would The limitations of the simple constant-viscosity hydrosuggest an improved criterion. dynamic theory had long been exposed by the successful use of As a suggestion he would tentatively put forward the form centrally-pivoted pads and pads of negative eccentricity. Never(ZN/P)x(D/L),where D was the mean diameter of the pad theless, the authors discovery that in regard to the film thickand L its mean circumferential length. ness, the central pivot was probably the best, came as a slight On p. 755, the authors had stated According to theory, the surprise-albeit a pleasant one. According to Fig. 11, however, speed and inlet temperature have no effect on the temperature pads had operated with film thicknesses less than 3 x 10-5 inch, increase between the inlet and outlet edge; the important factors which raised the question as to whether, i n fact, minimum film are the applied load and the pivot position. That was very thickness was necessarily the best criterion of a good pad. surprising; and rather unconventional-he asked whether the From the operating engineers standpoint, of the non-dimenauthors would give their reasons. sional parameter ZN/P, Z was often, and P almost always, in He was relieved to see, however, that the experimental results doubt. In those circumstances the coefficient of friction tended had followed more conventional lines, the heat produced being to become meaningless and recourse must be made to somemore affected by speed than by load. So far as he was aware, thing more tangible-the power. There, perhaps, a quibble that was the first time that the shape of the film had been might be made concerning the authors otherwise admirable obtained experimentally for pivot positions placed towards the experimental technique, since the torque obtained by difference leading edge of the pad, although Michell had evaluated the was not necessarily the total absorbed by the thrust-some loss condition of a normal pad with reversed rotation. He had being found even with unloaded pads. estimated that the viscosity at exit would be half that at inlet. In that connexion the curves shown in Fig. 25 might be of The curves in Fig. 13 were of particular interest, as was the interest. They were taken from a series of experiments currently minimum slope occurring at the centre pivoted position, NO. 7. being carried out at their works in which load capacity was the To show the pad attitude for the condition ZW/P = 10, chief interest. The thrust block was of normal commercial Fig. 24 had been made from Fig. 13. turbine size and type, with line-pivoted pads loaded on one side He thought that for pivot positions 0.5 to 0.6 and greater, a only. The measured power curve had been derived from oil temstable film might be considered to be formed regardless of the perature rise (an admittedly crude procedure, but one the results viscosity characteristic of the fluid used, and the angle of tilt in which were shown to be not too improbable by the driving to be increased as the pivot position increased. turbine powers). At high speeds (again, much in excess of the As the pivot position was reduced from 0.5 to 0.4 or less, 37.5 ft. per sec. maximum which the authors appeared to have however, the mean film thickness decreased, resulting in an employed) the power loss was much greater than that predicted increased rate of shear. The temperature rise across the face of by the simple constant-viscosity theory, viscosity being related the pad would increase correspondingly and the variation in to pad temperature, In fact, it seemed that there was an additional viscosity would also increase. The centre of pressure would churning loss dependent on the cube of the speed. That loss, move with the pivot, resulting in increased side leakage. The which was disregarded by the theory, and which would not be combination of those two actions was probably the cause of the discovered by the authors tests, could obviously be of supreme importance at high speeds. n the angle of tilt. increase i The one-at-a-time insertion of pads for pressure distribuIf the pivot were moved still further, the angle of tilt would decrease again, since as the pivot position approached 0, the pad tion measurements was a determined attempt to circumvent angle would approach 0. He considered it very likely that the difficulties whose magnitude might be gauged from the values f i l m was unstable when the pivot was forward of the centre of minimum film thickness given in Fig. 11. The results had
COMMUNICATIONS O N MICHELL BEARING LUBRICATION 761 justified the pains taken, but the practical problem of ensuring tendency (H,+>H, as P increased) had been reported by
even distribution from pad to pad was unlikely to fall readily to a frontal assault, and the effect of its neighbours on the pressure distribution of any pad might clearly be considerable. Under extreme conditions premature failure might occur through the intractable behaviour of an abnormal pad. Barwell (1951)*, who ascribed it to the effect of load alone on his high-speed rig. They wondered whether the authors had any direct evidence that Z and ATcould also cause such reversal. I n comparing a rise of 2 deg. F. at a speed of 484 r.p.m. with one of 19 deg. F. at a speed of 2,700 r.p.m. (p. 755) the authors had adopted an inlet temperature of 110 deg. F. Unfortunately, that would appear from Fig. 15 to represent an unsteady condition which might invalidate the comparison. The theoretical
COLLAR ROTATION
Fig. 25. Variation of Power Loss with Speed for No Load Condition Oil inlet to block at constant temperature. el8 = 0.45. The reduction in measured friction, together with the shift of pressure contours, due to increased oil flow was noted with interest; it would be valuable if the authors would give the corresponding changes in film thickness and surface temperature distribution. In their works tests a more disconcerting shift of pressure contours (apparently with variation in load) had been observed. A single pressure tapping, situated at the mid-radius opposite the line pivot, had been taken from each of two horizontally opposite working side pads and that seemingly improbable phenomenon-which was rendered more likely by the fact that the process was reversible-was shown in Fig. 26. Some idea of the complexity of the subject was revealed by the measurements of film thickness. Fig. 10 showed a reversal of 11-5, whereas a D exactly opposite radial tilt at a value of ZNIP Fig. 27. Contours of Pad After Failure Figures denote depression in 1/l,OOO inch below datum.
Fig. 28. Pad from which Contours in Fig. 27 were Taken contention that only applied load and pivot position affected the temperature rise premised that the pads and collar were perfect insulators; the fact that they were not might serve to explain why the authors temperature rises were much lower than theory would predict. If the collar acted as a thermal storehouse, that would also help to explain the evening out of temperature contours in Fig. 15. Higher temperatures had been observed towards the outer periphery due to the increased length of the path. Radial tilt
s.
G
-0
260
400 600 860 1.600 MEAN APPLIED P A D PRESSURE-LB.
I,iOO 1.400 PER SQ. IN.
1.600
Fig. 26. Local Pad Pressure Against Mean Applied Fad Pressure Oil inlet to block at constant temperature. 8/6 = 0.45.
* BARWELL, F. T. 1951-52 Trans. Inst. Eng. and Shipbuilders in Scotland, vol. 95, p. 64, Some Aspects of Research on Friction and
Wear.
COMMUNICATIONS ON MICHELL BEARING LUBRICATION might contribute to the unbalance of temperature, and it might Dr. C. F. KETTLEBOROUGH, Mr. B. R. DUDLEY, and Mr. E. be added that those temperatures were likely to be aggravated BAILDON wrote in reply to Mr. Cole that the rate of oil flow by thermal distortion of the pad. In Fig. 27 were illustrated the through the casing and the supply pressure had been maintained geometric contours of a pad, measured after failure, Since the pad constant in the experiments. The flow rate was, in general, had been initially nominally plane, those measurements gave some 115 cu. cm. per min. at a pressure slightly above atmospheric. idea of its shape at the time of failure (in that case at 2,255 Ib. A few experiments had been carried out with the maximum per sq. in., 124 ft. per sec.). Fig. 28 showed the actual set of available flow rate of 1,015 cu. cm. per min. at a pressure of pads from which that example had been taken, the pad in ques- about 12 lb. per sq. in. In the systematic experiments, the oil tion having been etched to show up surface cracks. temperature at inlet to the pad had been controlled at a number of different values ranging between 90 and 160 deg. F. Dr. G. D. S. MACLELLAN, M.A. (Associate Member), wrote T o obtain a representative temperature of the oil film beneath that Fig. 14 indicated that the authors method of computing the pad, two thermocouples had been fixed in holes drilled comthe values of ZNIP and p suggested that the experimental results pletely through the pad, mid-radially, and near the inlet and bore a closer relation to the theoretical value for p on the outlet edges. The junctions of the couples had been cut level stationary surface than on the moving surface. No comment had with the working surface of the pad. The average value of the been made on that somewhat surprising result, although just the two indicated temperatures had been taken as the representative opposite was to be expected. The fact that the theoretical p value temperature of the whole oil contained in the film and the for the stationary surface was shown in Fig. 14 to be less than representative viscosity 2 had been based upon it. that for the moving surface was presumably due to the neglect The temperature distribution observations made had been of the component of the normal force on the inclined stationary limited in number and confined to mid-radial pivot positions surface which acted parallel to the plane of the moving surface. and off-set position 2. The mean value of the pad surface iilm I n fact, the resultant force on each surface in a direction parallel to the plane of the moving surface was the same, and it viscosity had been taken as Z .dA) /A where A was the would have been preferable to omit from Fig. 14 the line for p total surface area of the pad. That integration had been applied to on the stationary surface (theoretical). In that connexion it would be useful to know how the mean the available observations in order to compare the mean distribueffective oil temperature had been determined for evaluating Z tion viscosity with that obtained from the average of the two in the quantity ZNIP. An apparatus very similar to that thermocouples. The integration had been done graphically in a described by the authors had been presented to the Cambridge manner similar to that used for pressure distributions. For the lowest speed of 485 r.p.m., the maximum difference University Engineering Laboratory and had been used for some years in an undergraduate experiment. Quite satisfactory agree- between the viscosity value, obtained from the two thermoment with theory had been found by using Camerons method couples, and the mean distribution viscosity, as defined by the (Cameron 1949) of allowing for a temperature rise under the above integral, had been found to be 4 per cent, and for a speed pad, above the surrounding bulk oil temperature, determined of 1,495 r.p.m. the maximum difference had been 6 per cent. as a fraction of that which would be expected if all the frictional At the highest speed of 2,700 r.p.m., however, whilst the differences in some cases had been within 5 per cent, they had work were dissipated as heat in the oil. had a maximum value of 20 per cent for mid-radial pivots and 13 per cent for offset position 2. The viscosity value obtained AUTHORS REPLIES from the two thermocouples had been in general greater than Dr. C. F. KETTLEBOROUGH wrote, in reply to Dr. Cameron, the mean distribution viscosity of the oil in contact with the that variations had been observed in the experimental values of pad surface. Mr. Cole had raised the interesting question of the possibility the ratio &(= A* A typical experimental curve which of obtaining a representative value of the oil-film viscosity by showed that variation and was based on results set out in Fig. 21, means of a single-pad thermocouple. The temperature distribuPart 11, was given in Fig. 29. As the value of ZNIP decreased, tion observations obtained, however, had not encouraged hopes of that possibility. They had shown that for a given set of operating conditions, a closed isothermal contour could be found for the particular operative value of the mean distribution temperature of the surface film. A thermocouple placed anywhere on that contour would indicate that temperature. If any of the operating conditions, say, speed, were changed, then the new isothermal contour (corresponding to a different representative temperature) occupied a different position. In that connexion, attention was directed to the limitations of the pad thermocouple which had its hot-junction level with the pad surface and therefore indicated the local temperature of the contacting oil film. That film in particular was subjected to the influence of the temperature gradients through the pad. Appreciable temperature variations due to the differing rates of shear existed throughout the thickness of the bulk oil coni l m , the local temperature at any point of which tained in the f differed from that of the corresponding point in the surface film. It was therefore possible, at least for some operating conditions, that the mean surface-layer temperature differed substantially I I 0.05 I I I I I from the mean temperature of the bulk oil in the film on which 0 4 8 12 16 10 24 representative viscosity would be more properly based. MoreZ h/P over, the unknown relation between those two temperatures was Fig. 29. Variation of the Non-dimensional Parameter likely to vary in a complex manner as conditions of pad operation A,/A, with ZNIP changed. That important relation could be investigated only by comparing extensive and refined thermocouple observations Speed 485 r.p.m. Pivot position 1. = 0.40. with mean oil-film temperatures obtained by heat balance or in Constant theoretical value. some other way. Experimenral curve. In Fig. 30 were shown typical observations of the churning the experimental curve fell away from the theoretical value, drag torque acting on the floating casing. That torque constituted owing presumably to the fact that the viscosity variation was an appreciable fraction, up to 54 per cent, of the total torque acting on the casing. They noted with interest that that greater as the load increased.
762
(1;
2).
_---
e/$
AUTHORS' R E P L I E S O N MICHELL BEARING LUBRICATION 763 disadvantage of flooded casing lubrication b d been avoided at film depended only on the load per unit of pad area. The observed mean temperature rise of the pad surface film (as distinct from M.E.R.L. by the use of individual oil supplies LO each pad. In order to minimize non-uniform operatior, of the various that of the bulk oil passing through the film), however, had been pads, a rubber ring (part 10, Fig. 1) had been bonded between found to be affected more by speed than by load. It was presumed that Mr. Hill's notation for pivot position the inner periphery of the thrust collar and the out-r surface of the splined bush which had been mounted on the shaft. In that referred to the fractional angular distance of the pivot measured way the thrust collar had been given some degree of flexibiljty from the inlet edge of the pad, in contrast with that used by relative to the shaft. Consistent experimental results, however, themselves which had been based on pivot distances from the had not been obtained from the pads when all six pairs had been outlet edge. Using the latter notation, the experimental results in operation at the same time. They agreed that more information of Fig. 13a showed that the film ratio HJHowas a minimum for about the effectiveness of load-equalizing devices and the opti- central pivoting and, within the experimental range, had an increased value as the pivot was moved away from the centre on mum number of pads would be valuable.
I
0.004
'?,
" $2
OO
z -
4
10 20
ZN/P
3 0
40
: g
h
0.003
50.002
Fig. 30. Churning Torque on Casing Pivot position 1. 8/+ = 0.40. Speed 2,700 r.p.m. ---- Speed 485 r.p.m.
8
0.001
In reply to Mr. Hill, the probable cause of the oil aeration which had occurred in the earlier part of the experimental work had been cavitation at the pump suction. That inlet had been modified to give a larger entry area and subsequently aeration had been practically eliminated and entirely absent with the oil at the higher temperatures. The oil had entered the bearing casing at the bottom, always completely filled the casing and had been withdrawn from the top. The normal rate of oil flow through the casing had been 115 cu. cm. per min., and the operating characteristics of the pads had been found to be unchanged over a range of higher and lower rates of flow. At a very much later stage in the experiments, tests had been made with the bypass valve completely closed, the rate of flow through the casing being then increased to about nine times the normal flow rate and the oil pressure to about 12 lb. per sq. in. The cause of the change in the operating characteristics had not been discovered but the observed effects had been frankly reported. They could not agree that 'partial starvation' of oil supply to the pads took place under the lower rate of oil supply to the bearing. Experimental results which showed the effect of the higher rate of oil flow on film thickness and friction were set out in Figs. 31 and 32. They agreed that the scatter of the experimental observations shown in Fig. 9 drew attention to the imperfection (at least apparent) of Z N / P as a basic criterion of pad performance. In that particular work, the effects of point pivoting as distinct from line pivoting might have played some part. They considered, however, that a possibly important contributory factor to the scatter had been the use of a representative viscosity, Z, based on the temperature of the pad surface f i l m rather than on the mean temperature of the bulk film oil. The difference between those temperatures might have varied appreciably when operating conditions changed. The criterion Z N / P D / L suggested by Mr. Hill would not have affected the scatter of the observations shown in Fig. 9 since D / L was constant for a given bearing. The statement on p. 755 had been based on the theory of rectangular pads in which side leakage was neglected but viscosity changes were taken into account. If it were assumed that all the work done in overcoming viscous traction of the oil appeared uniformly as heat in the oil, it could be shown that for a given operating position of the pad in relation to the moving i l passing through the surface, the rise in temperature of the o
I2
16
20
ZN/P
Fig. 31. Oil Film Thickness Speed 2,000 r.p.m. Pivot position 1. O/+ = 0.40. ---- Normal oil flow. Large oil f l o w .
7 8 9 1 0
15
ZN/P
Fig. 32. Coefficient of Friction, p Pivot position 1. 9/+ = 0 . 4 0 . ---- Normal oil flow. Large oil f l o w . either side. Mr. Hill had drawn attention by Fig. 24 to the fact that for a value of Z N / P equal to 10, the tilt angle with central pivoting was less than that for the other pivot positions. That was also true for any other value of Z N / P for the experimental observations set out in Fig. 13a and b. A further point of interest in regard to central pivoting concerned the relatively high values of the film thickness Ho at the pad outlet edge which were greater than those for the other pivot positions, with the excep= 0.45 over part of the range-as shown in Fig. 13b. tion of They agreed that for pivot positions = 0.5 and less on the outlet side of the centre, a stable film would form and, for given operating conditions of load, speed, and oil viscosity, they
764
AUTHORS REPLIES ON MICHELL BEARING LUBRICATION
would expect the angle of pad tilt to be greater with pivots more distant from the centre. That was in agreement with the results shown in Fig. 13a and b. In the experiments with the pads pivoted within the inlet half, the operating conditions of the films had been found to be just as stable and steady as for pivot positions within the outlet half. For the range of pivot positions which could be explored, namely, e/q! = 0.5 to 0.6, no signs of instability of operation such as Mr. Hill considered might possibly arise, had been observed. Pressure, film thickness, and friction observations had been made, and Fig. 33 showed pressure distribution contours observed for pivot position 814 = 0.6.
bearing. The coefiicient of friction did provide a useful and comparative measure of the film friction conditions. They agreed that in practice, the overall power loss including that due to oil churning, was the true criterion of a bearing. Attention had been drawn to that fact by the very interesting analysis of the mechanical losses in a turbine under no-load conditions supplied by Mr. Jefferson, Mr. Hailey, and Mr. Milne and set out in Fig. 25. The oil churning loss, increasing approximately as the cube of the speed, was shown to be of predominating importance at the higher speeds of operation, when it became the largest single component of mechanical loss in the turbine. Fig. 25 not only emphasized strikingly the importance of the minimization of that loss in the design of the oil system and casing but also suggested that that field of design now offered more I promise than that of pad design in the improvement of thrustbearing performance, at least for high speeds of bearing operation. In their own experimental apparatus, the oil-churning torque acting on the thrust collar which gave rise to power loss, had not been measured. Under steady conditions, however, that torque was equal to the churning torque acting on the stationary (but floating) casing, and the latter torque had been found to be roughly equal to the pad friction torque at the highest speed of operation, as shown in Fig. 30. I n regard to the changes in film thickness and friction which had been observed with the high rate of oil flow through the casing, typical observations were given in Figs. 31 and 32. The pad surface film temperature distributions for those conditions had not been obtained. The film pressure readings taken from two pads, and shown in Fig. 26, clearly suggested for pad Y a movement relative to the pad of the film pressure contours with change in the applied load. For instance at a load pressure of 450 lb. per sq. in. the search hole was apparently much nearer to the pressure peak than when the load pressure was, say, 1,000 lb. per sq. in. For pad X the information was insuficient to deduce whether such L 5 2 307 movement with change of load did actually take place. Perhaps of even greater significance than shift of pressure contours, Fig. 33. Pressure Distribution with Pad Pivoted Forward however, was the obvious evidence than pads X and Y were of Centre Position operating with entirely different pressure films, except possibly Applied load 130 lb. Integral load 126 lb. Speed 1,495 r.p.m. Mean when the load pressure was in the region of 1,100 lb. per sq. in. temperature 115 deg. F. Pivot position 3. 8/4 = 0.6. The fact that reversal of the conditions between pads X and Y Position of applied load. place, presumably with reversal of the direction of rotation, + Cal.culated centre of pressure from experimental pressure distribu- took suggested that the phenomenon was related in some way to the tion. mounting of each half set of pads in the semicircular cages, with The extremely low values of minimum film thickness referred gaps at each side of the horizontal centre-line. It was perhaps to by Mr. Jefferson, Mr. Hailey, and Mr. Milne applied more significant that pad X, for which there was no obvious evidence particularly to the two radially eccentric pivot positions 2 and 4 of shift of the pressure contours, had its oil entry edge in the and occurred at one of the corners of the pads. The measure- gap between the two sets of pads. It would be of interest to know ments had not been made directly but had been deduced from the corresponding behaviour of each of the pads intermediate the indications of the three measuring rods. In a few cases, for between X and Y . In their own experimental apparatus, the six pads used for very low values of ZN/P, thicknesses calculated from those indications had been zero or even slightly negative. Examination film pressure observations had been individually loaded and they of the pads had shown in one or two cases that slight abrasion could be equally loaded with reasonable certainty. Even with that advantage, it had been found impossible to obtain uniform had taken place at the pad corners. The radially eccentric point pivot conditions of the experi- performance from pad to pad. They could therefore well undermental pads had no relation to practice, and the experiments stand the practical difficulty of obtaining equality of pad operahad been conducted under controlled conditions at relatively tion, and would be very interested to know to what extent the low loads and speeds in which distortion of the pads by oil load-equalizing devices, apparently used in some bearings, were pressure and thermal effects would be small. In actual bearing successful. Mr. Jefferson and his colleagues had very usefully drawn practice, they themselves considered that those extreme attenuations of the film were dangerous and that minimum film attention both to the results of inequality of load distribution in thickness had to be regarded as one, and only one, of the extreme cases-the failure of one of the pads-and to the part played in the mechanism of failure by pad distortion. Under important criteria of a good pad. The observed friction torque did involve a small unmeasured actual working conditions, distortion due to the gradient of error due to the unloaded pads. That had been reduced to a temperature set up between the working face and the reverse minimum by backing off the pads to give a film about & inch face of the pad might be expected to cause the working face to thick under each. That zero error was analogous to the one become convex towards the thrust collar. Elastic deformation involved in the film thickness measurements when the pads on due to oil-film pressure would produce a similar effect, at least the stationary thrust ring were subjected to maximum load to in the direction of relative sliding of pad and collar. Any damage obtain a zero reading. Both of those small errors were un- to the pad surface due to metallic contact and abrasion following breakdown of the film was, therefore, likely to be located midavoidable. The experimental work had been concerned only with the radially and in the outlet portion of the pad. The surface behaviour of the oil film beneath the pads, as distinct from that contour observations in Fig. 27, taken after failure of a pad, of the whole bearing which depended to an important extent were of particular interest in that respect and showed the surface the design of the oil system and casing in each individual material to be damaged locally to a depth of as much as 0.005
A U T H O R S R E P L I E S O N M I C H E L L B E A R I N G LUBRICATION
inch, the centre of the damage being situated roughly midway between the pivot and the outlet edge. The convexity of the working surface of a pad actually working successfully was likely to be much less than the concavity of the surface of the pad shown in Fig. 27. Nevertheless that diagram was a forceful reminder that, under severe working conditions, pad distortion might well cause appreciable departure of the local film thickness at any point from that anticipated in design, and added to the complexity of the problem of relating the behaviour of a pad to available theory. In regard to the reversal of pad tilt reported by Barwell (1951-52)*, the radial tilt angle was shown to change from negative to positive values as the load increased at constant speed, but the report did not specify which direction of tilt * BARWELL, F. T. 1951-52 Trans. Inst. Eng. and Shipbuilders in Scotland, vol. 95, p. 82, Fig. 12.
765
HR>H,> or H I > H R was regarded as positive. The authors were therefore unable to verify whether the results set out in Fig. 10 were, or were not, in agreement with those reported by Barwell. - The experimental results obtained for pivot position 1, e/+ = 0.4, indicated that reversal of radial pad tilt could be obtained by variation of Z alone or of N alone. The lower of the two theoretical lines shown in Fig. 14, to which reference had been made by Dr. MacLellan, had been based solely on the viscous traction acting on the inclined faces of the pads. They agreed that the total torque tending to move the pads when allowance was made for the small resolved comi l m pressure resultantsJ was equal to the viscous ponents of the f tractive torque acting on the thrust collar, and the experimental results shoulditherefore be compared with the upper of the two theoretical lines.

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Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers http://pme.sagepub.

Institution of Mechanical Engineers

>> Version of Record - Jun 1, 1955 What is This?

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Michell Bearing Lubrication

A complete systematic investigation into thrust bearings does

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MICHELL BEARING LUBRICATION

CENTRE LINE OF PAD

a Diagrammatic sketch of h4ichell thrust test machine.

a Pivot positions and film-thickness symbols.

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10 20 30 TIME AFTER OPENING VALVE-MINUTES

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MICHELL BEARING LUBRICATION

P E R SQ. IN. 200

d Along sections parallel to inlet edge.

m Position of applied load.

TABLE 1. DATA FOR TYPICAL PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS

lb. per Applied Experisq. l n . mental

0.40 0.40 0.40 0.50 0.50

1,495 1,495 1,495 1,495

73 142 142 227 142

67 130 130 208 130

64 124 125 136

19.1 7.43 7.43* 3.42 7.43

* Large oil flow, remainder s m a l l oil flow.

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MICHELL BEARING LUBRICATION

a Small flow through casing.

b Large flow through casing.

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MICHELL BEARING LUBRICATION

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By plotting logarithmically, the following relations were obtained ZN 0-71 Ho = 0.156(j;-)

a Film ratio HJHO.

b Outlet f i l m thickness. Fig. 13. For Different Pivot Positions

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TABLE 2. VALUES OF k AND n

0.0061 00054 0.0043 0.0041

046 0 50 0.48 045

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TABLE 3. EFFECT OF PIVOT POSITION

129 132 132 133 130

* Defined as fractional angular position from inlet edge.

Fig. Temperature Distribution for Offset - 17. ExperimentalPivot Position 2

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BETWEEN THEORY AND EXPERIMENT

a[z. a a ap ] + . . -[a Z . r . g] = 6wr2;fie ah ar

Fig. 18. Theoretical Values for Sector Pad

= (6D)* According to Christopherson 8, = (6#)*{JJPe29RaRa@]*

b For offset pivot position 2. Fig. 19. Pressure Distribution

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MICHELL BEARING LUBRICATION

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Fig. 22. Experimental Friction and Film Thickness Criteria

N = 2,000 r.p.m. N = 485 r.p.m. ZNIP decreasing in direction of arrow.

Theoretical. Experimental for N = 485 r.p.m.

&/$-+OtiO, A, + 0, and 5 p --f

m ;experimental results show

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= (6D)* According to Christopherson 8, = (6#){JJPe29RaRa@]