Portland Cement Association

Treat Island, MaineThe Army Corps Outdoor Durability Test Facility

by Jamie Farny, Concrete Technologist, Portland Cement Association

Volume 17/Number 3 December 1996 5420 Old Orchard Road Skokie, Illinois 60077-1083 Phone: (847) 966-6200 Fax: (847) 966-8389 Treat Island, Maine, is the home of a long-term natural weathering facility used to study the durability of concrete. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers maintains the test facility and provides inspections of samples. Treat Island has provided valuable information about concrete durability for over 50 years. This article reviews some of the highlights of the program and the August 7, 1996 tour. thaw cycles (120-140), perfect for durability testing in a severe marine environment.

Long-Term Natural Weathering

Most concrete properties are determined through physical testing. Laboratory durability tests commonly attempt to simulate and accelerate severe environments to determine how a particular concrete responds. Unfortunately, these tests necessarily entail conditions that are different than usually occur in nature. Also, most tests investigate only one aspect of durability at a time, such as frost resistance. This leaves question as to the durability in an environment of multiple attack mechanisms (frost, sulfates, chlorides, wetting and drying, etc.). Only

Contents
Treat Island, Maine Army Corps Test Facility

The Test Facility

Treat Island is located at the eastern tip of Maine. The facility can be visited only at selected times because the tides vary as much as 6.7 meters (22 feet) (see Fig.1). Test specimens are subjected to repeated innundations of seawater and a relatively large number of annual freeze-

Specifing a Burnished Floor Finish

Mechanized Cement Testing The Influence of Concrete Casting and Curing Temperatures Ettringite and Concrete Durability
Fig. 1. Treat Island, Maine. Both the dock and beach area are part of the long-term test facility.

R e t u r n To I n d e x

Concrete Technology Today long-term field studies can truly answer how a concrete will perform in natures, often severe, environment. By correlating concretes response in long-term test sites to its response in laboratory tests, the concrete industry gains confidence in the accelerated tests and the variety of materials it uses. Treat Island, with its combination of tides and relatively numerous freezethaw cycles, is well suited to natural field testing. Concrete samples of all types and sizes are exposed to tidal seawater, freezing and thawing, erosion/abrasion, and wetting and drying. During the coldest part of the winter, temperatures average around -10C (15F). Depending on specimen placement and the severity of the winter, samples may undergo anywhere from fewer than 100 to about 160 cycles of freezing and thawing in a year. It may take ten years or more before trends can be established. Some of the specimens are over fifty years old. Natural exposure testing is advantageous because conditions are not simulated, nor are they artificially severe to speed up the deterioration mechanisms. Although the focus of the test facility is to study long-term durability of concrete in a marine environment, the results can be extrapolated to other conditions. For example, if a concrete performs well in this environment, it can be expected to perform well in a nonseawater, freezethaw environment where deicers are used.
Program name (Figure No.) Mobil Research and Development Corporation High-strength Lightweight Concrete Program Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory/VTT Cooperative Study of Durability of High-strength Concrete (Fig. no. 2) Specimen SizeFrost Effect Investigation CERL Fibrous Concrete Program (Fig. no. 3) Area(s) of investigation Durability of high-strength specimens containing structural lightweight aggregates and silica fume Durability of non-air entrained high-strength concrete, containing slag, silica fume, and rock dust Sample size in mm (approx.) 305 x 305 x 915 Sample size in in. 12 x 12 x 36

150 x 150 x 535

6 x 6 x 21

Effect of specimen size on durability Effects of seawater and freezing and thawing on the flexural strength and other properties of concrete containing stainless steel fibers Test the performance of end anchorages and end anchorage protection for various types of post tensioning

90 x 115 x 405 150 x 150 x 760 460 x 460 x 915 610 x 610 x 610 90 x 115 x 405

3-1/2 6 18 24

x x x x

4-1/2 x 16 6 x 30 18 x 36 24 x 24

3-1/2 x 4-1/2 x 16

Prestressed Concrete Program, Post-tensioned Phase

255 x 405 x 2440

10 x 16 x 96

Areas of Investigation
Today approximately 40 test programs are active at Treat Island. Areas of investigation include normal portland cement concrete, high-performance concrete, lightweight concrete, prestressed concrete, fiber concrete, polymer concrete, sulfur/fly ash concrete, and concrete with a variety of chemical and mineral admixtures, such as high-range water reducers. Some of the variables studied are aggregate type, supplementary cementitious materials, and blended cements. Concrete test samples contain fly ash, slag, silica fume, and various chemical admixtures. In addition, some samples are used to study the effect of various bonding agents, 2

polymer impregnation, and repair or rehabilitation methods. Reinforced samples in-clude epoxycoated rein-forcement. Each research project is invaluable in providing answers to im-prove the quality of con-crete placed in the field. Concrete specimens at Treat Island are a variety of shapes and sizes. Fig. 2. Durability tests of high-strength concrete. Samples may be small prisms; for example, specimens for one of the fibrous concrete programs measure about 90 x 115 x 405 mm (3-1/2 x 4-1/2 x 16 in.). Most of the samples at Treat Island are larger, such as prisms about 460 x 460 x 915 mm (18 x 18 x 36 in.), or large cubes of concrete, 0.23 m3 (8 cu ft). Larger samples are primarily necessary because the physical action of tides and waves can destroy smaller specimens. The size of these field samples can be compared to concrete specimens used for laboratory freezethaw testing, which are small, being only about 75 to 125 mm (3 to 5 in.) in width, depth, or diameter, and between 280 and 400 mm (11 and 16 in.) in length. Some of the Treat Island programs are listed in the table above Fig. 3. Fibrous concrete prisms. along with the purpose of the investigation and specimen sizes. tion. Sponsors of programs include Programs are administered by the the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, the United States Army Corps of EngiU. S. Army Corps of Engi neers, Waterways Experiment Sta-

R e t u r n To I n d e x

December 1996 neers, the Canada Department of Energy, Mines, and Resources (Canada Center for Mineral and Energy TechnologyCANMET), the Construction Productivity Advancement Research Program (CPAR), and private industry. Canadian agencies are currently responsible for about 40% of the specimens at the Treat Island test facility. Some of the agencies that request projects also provide materials for testing at Treat Island. This is useful when it is desired to evaluate the performance of specific materials. For instance, Kansas City District has provided aggregates from its region for use in Treat Island test programs. Other organizations interested in concrete durability are encouraged to provide materials or test specimens to be used at the test facility. Similarly, most test programs include qualitative results, which are usually visual observations, as well as quantitative results, such as dynamic modulus of elasticity and pulse velocity (see Reference). Pulse velocity is a well established non-destructive technique that allows evaluating the uniformity or relative quality of concrete specimens and concrete in place.

Conclusion
Long-term field testing, such as that at Treat Island, provides important

Fig. 4. Side-by-side comparison of slabs containing black (uncoated) reinforcing bars (L) and epoxy-coated bars (R) after six years of exposure.

Sample Projects
An evaluation of samples was performed on the beach while our group visited Treat Island. The project, entitled "Corrosion of Intentionally Damaged Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Bar," compared the performance of black steel and epoxy-coated steel specimens. In 1990, seventy-two small concrete slabs with embedded steel were laid along the beach. The concrete had a water-cement ratio of 0.6, an air content of 5% and a slump of 75 25 mm (3 1 in.). The cover was small, typically only about 20 mm (0.75 in.). The concrete slabs were exposed to twicedaily tide reversals and to severe winter conditions on the island. The corrosion rate was measured on a yearly basis using linear polarization techniques. Today, six years into the test, when a slab containing uncoated steel was broken apart, the exposed bar showed rust and signs of disintegration. Samples containing epoxy-coated rebar were broken apart and revealed very little or no damage. A side-byside comparison of the two slabs showed that a concrete containing epoxy-coated rebar outperforms the same concrete containing an uncoated bar (see Fig. 4). Bars with purposely damaged epoxy coating exhibited rust spots, showing that pinholes in the coating accelerate deterioration. Both qualitative and quantitative results prove the importance of both the coating and its uniformity to ensure longterm service of concrete in a marine environment.

Fig. 5. Tests provide durability information for concretes containing a variety of ingredients.

data for the concrete industry. It provides normal scale, real-time testing, to determine durable combinations of materials and effective placing and curing techniques, used to design longlasting concrete structures efficiently. In general, lower water-cement ratios, higher portland cement content, higher air entrainment, and lower slumps resulted in improved durability for concrete specimens exposed to natural weathering at Treat Island. For more information about Treat Island, the test programs, or establishing an investigation program, contact Ed O'Neil at the USAE Waterways Experiment Station at 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180-6199, or call (601) 634-3387, or fax (601) 634-2873.

Reference
1996 Review of Programs, Natural Weathering Exposure Station, Treat Island, Maine, USA, USAE Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, August 1996.

R e t u r n To I n d e x

Concrete Technology Today

Specifying a Burnished Floor Finish

Although budget limitations sometimes put specifiers and builders in a box, they can also create opportunities for innovative construction approaches that save money. Leaving concrete floors uncovered in commercial buildings is one such approach. This saves the cost of covering the floor, allows earlier occupancy, and avoids the possibility of floor covering failures related to water vapor transmission. Some owners may further require exposed concrete floors to have a pleasing finish. Using a burnished finish is one way to achieve this.

of the following passes, the tilt angle and rotation speed of the blade are increased. How many troweling passes does it take? Its hard to say. A ringing sound made by the trowel blades as they slide over the surface is the best indicator that the desired condition has been reached. But the sound of a trowel blade is pretty subjective. Because all contractors may not have the same finishing procedures and end point in mind when they read the term burnished finish, specifiers must make their expectations clear.

acceptance for the remainder of the floors placed.

A Few Cautions
Even if a floor looks smooth and glossy immediately after finishing, efflorescence may produce a temporary dulling of the surface sheen. This is caused by concrete porewater migrating to the surface where it evaporates and deposits calcium. Cleaning the floor will remove the efflorescence and restore the sheen. However, this should be done promptly, before the calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide and forms an insoluble calcium carbonate. Acidic cleaners can remove the calcium carbonate but they may etch the surface and dull the glossy look. If you want a glossy look to be present from the beginning, you may need to specify use of an acrylic curing compound or a liquid surface sealer. Burnished surfaces are darker in color than conventionally troweled surfaces. But the color wont be perfectly uniform. Also, craze cracking, other surface blemishes, and circular patterns from power troweling will be more noticeable on a burnished surface than on a surface that is not as smooth. While its not realistic to expect uniform color, the contractor and concrete supplier can take some steps to avoid gross discoloration or mottling. These include avoiding calcium chloride admixtures, keeping the water-cement ratio of each concrete truckload as uniform as possible, and ensuring that there are no changes in source of cement or supplementary cementing materials for the floor concrete. Finally, although youll save money on floor coverings, the floor itself will cost more than one with a normal troweled surface. Thats because the larger number of trowel passes for burnishing requires added time for the finishers. Despite this, burnished floors are a concrete alternative that can often add value and esthetic appeal to commerical or institutional buildings.
Note: Thanks to Bill Henry, John Rohrer Contracting Co., (913) 236-5005, and Pat Harrison, Face Consultants, (913) 362-0675 for their help in preparing this article.

How Should You Specify the Surface?

When specifying a burnished finish, tell the contractor what you know, but also what you expect to see. The result may be a combination of a prescription and performance specification. The prescription portion may contain proportioning requirements such as fine aggregate grading limits, minimum cement content, and minimum and maximum slump. The section on finishing methods might read something like this: The contractor shall produce a burnished floor finish by repeated steel troweling with a power trowel until the trowel blades make a ringing sound and the floor surface has a glossy appearance. Because repeated steel troweling, ringing sound, and glossy appearance are all subjective terms, you still might not get the look you want. So you need to take two other steps to help ensure that your expectations will be met. First, before the bidding process, use language in the bid documents that requires prequalifying the concrete contractor. Do this by having bidders either show the architect an example of a burnished floor their firm has placed or build a small mock-up of a floor section to demonstrate their ability to produce the desired finish. Getting an acceptable result is much more likely when the contractors finishers can show that they have the experience needed to produce a burnished finish. Also require placement of a small initial floor area on the project, after the contractor has been chosen. Upon approval by the architect, this reference sample becomes the standard of

What Is a Burnished Finish?

A burnished finish is produced by repeatedly power troweling the concrete floor until it has a mirror-like appearance (see photo). Often used on industrial floors to improve wear resistance, the procedure densifies, strengthens, and darkens the surface while removing pinholes and other surface irregularities. On the first troweling pass, the finisher keeps the trowel blades almost level. On each

Often used on industrial floors, a burnished finish can be an economical, functional, and attractive alterative for commercial or institutional buildings. Photo: Courtesy of John Rohrer Contracting Co.

R e t u r n To I n d e x

December 1996

Mechanized Cement Testing

Prior to industrialization, manufacturing was a slow process. Now, modern factories contain equipment designed to make production faster, more efficient, and more uniform, thus improving mass production. That same type of thinking is now changing the way cements are tested for quality control. Good candidates for mechanized testing procedures are jobs that involve tedious or repetitive activities. Cement strength testing is such a process.

The Influence of Concrete Casting and Curing Temperatures

by R. G. Burg, Principal Engineer/ Group Manager, Materials Technology Department, CTL, Inc., and Jamie Farny, Concrete Technologist, PCA

Reason for Testing

Cement monitoring assures quality of materials. This testing saves time and money because materials that do not meet performance standards are not shipped to a jobsite. Testing is therefore an ongoing and important, but time-consuming process. The Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) decided to investigate the possibility of mechanized testing as a means of improving efficiency while allowing employees to be free to perform other, less tedious tasks. The Materials and Tests Division (MAT) of TxDOT performs ongoing quality monitoring on a variety of materials, including cement. MAT takes samples directly from cement plants for testing. Mechanized testing could further simplify this process.

Mechanized testing simplifies quality control of cement for the Texas Department of Transportation.

amounts of cement, sand, and water are mixed during a 1-1/2 minute period, left to stand for 1-1/2 minutes, and then remixed for an additional minute (ASTM C 305). The resulting mortar is then placed into 50-mm (2in.) cube molds, consolidated, and allowed to set under conditions of controlled temperature and humidity. Cured for one day, the cubes are removed from their molds and tested for compressive strength at the prescribed age. All the mixing and molding steps are performed by the robot.

Concrete is usually placed and cured at temperatures above and below "normal" (23C (73F)). Seasons, as well as geographic region, can affect casting and curing temperatures. How do these temperatures affect concrete? The research discussed here provides data to help predict the performance of concrete at temperatures encountered in construction practice. To isolate the effects of temperature, no adjustments were made to the concrete mixes to offset the change in workability due to temperature effects.

Casting/Curing Temperatures
Three temperatures were chosen for casting and curing. These are 10C (50F), 23C (73F), and 32C (90F). Materials were temperature-conditioned and mixed in temperature-controlled laboratories. Four casting and curing temperature regimens were chosen. They are cast/ cure: 23C /23C, 32C/32C, 10C/ 10C, and 23C/10C (73F/73F, 90F/90F, 50F/50F, and 73F/50F). When demolded at 24 hours, specimens were cured under water at the desired temperature until time of test. Specimens were brought to room temperature (23C/73F) before compressive strength testing.

Accuracy
MAT employees have compiled data from the robots tests and have determined that the robot gives uniform and reliable test results. As a result of the data accumulated, TxDOT is considering presenting this piece of equipment to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) as a viable alternative for cement strength testing. The project aims to improve cost-effectiveness, safety, energy consumption, precision, accuracy, and repeatability. For more information, contact Gerald Lankes at TxDOT, MAT Division, 125 E. 11th Street, Austin TX 78701, telephone (512) 465-7331, fax (512) 465-7999.

Project Development
Several universities were invited to visit MAT to determine what tests were the most feasible for application of mechanization technology. Texas State Technical College (TSTC) was chosen for the project. A team of two professors and four students at TSTC created a robot and delivered it to MAT in January of 1996. The creators set up the robot and trained TxDOT employees to operate it.

Concrete Workability, Setting Times, and Compressive Strength

When working with concrete, three questions are: Is the concrete workable? How long does the concrete remain workable and how much time is available for finishing? What is the strength development of the concrete? These questions can be answered, respectively, by looking at slump, setting times, and strength gain of plain 5

Test Procedure
Strength testing of cement in North America is generally performed according to ASTM C 109, the Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 2-in. or 50-mm Cube Specimens). Specified

Reference
Etheredge, Tommy, Cement testing benefits from robotics, Transportation News, Texas Department of Transportation, Austin, Texas, May 1996.

R e t u r n To I n d e x

Concrete Technology Today Setting of Concrete Mixtures by Penetration Resistance. Initial set is defined as the time at which concrete has attained 3.5 MPa (500 psi) penetration resistance; final set is defined as the time it reaches 27.6 MPa (4000 psi) penetration resistance. A graph showing time versus penetration resistance for Concrete A at three temperatures is shown in Fig. 2 with horizontal lines representing initial and final set. Lower temperatures increase set times, as indicated by the shift of the curves to the right. Times for initial set at 32C (90F) and 10C (50F) are shown as a percentage of time for initial set at 23C (73F) in Fig. 3. The impact of tempera-

Fig. 1. Effect of temperature on slump for two concretes with different Type I cements. Concretes A and B had cement contents of 356 and 335 kg/m3, respectively (600 and 564 lb/yd3). Nominal w/c = 0.45.

Fig. 3. Initial set characteristics as a function of casting temperature.

concrete "base" mixeshaving no admixtures or other mix adjustments. It is often helpful to discuss results in terms of a reference temperature, taken here to be 23C (73F). In actual construction, adjustments chemical admixtures or additional waterare often made to a concrete mix to maintain its workability at the anticipated casting temperature. The reader can use this report to make judgments as to the most appropriate means to account for casting and curing temperatures.

Fig. 2. Set time curves for concrete as influenced by temperature.

Workability
Workability is typically measured by slump. Fig. 1 shows the slump of concretes containing Cements A or B (Concretes A or B) as a percentage of the slump at 23C (73F). Cement A had a nearly linear response to temperature. The slump of Concrete B showed a nonlinear response to temperaturedue in part, perhaps, to a slightly higher air contentbut agreed well at the higher temperature with Concrete A. For Concrete B, decreasing the temperature had a more significant effect on slump than increasing the temperature. In general, slump decreased about 20 mm for each 10C increase in temperature (0.8 in. decrease for each 20F increase).

appears that initial set times are affected in the same relative manner by an increase or decrease in temperature; the same holds true for final set times. As a first order approximation, set time can be anticipated to change approximately 50% for each 10C change (30% for each 10F change) in temperature from a reference temperature of 23C (73F). Lower temperatures increase set time; higher temperatures decrease set time. Two cautions on this general rule should be noted. The data cover only the common placement temperature range of 10C-32C (50F90F). Also, it should not be assumed that cement setting time, given on mill test certificates, is equivalent to concrete setting time.

Setting Times
Setting times are measured following ASTM C 403, Test Method for Time of 6

ture on the relative change (percent change) in setting characteristics was similar for both cements. It should be noted, however, that there was significant difference in the absolute set times between Concretes A and B (about 3 hours for initial set of Concrete A at 23C (70F); about 5 hours for Concrete B). The low temperature caused an increase of 70% and 77% to the initial set times for Concretes A and B, respectively (Fig. 3). Final set times increased by a similar magnitude to 195% and 200% of the setting time at 23C (73F). The high temperature caused initial set time to decrease by 19% for Concrete A and by 32% for Concrete B (Fig. 3). Final set time was decreased by 18% and 33% for the same two concretes. From the somewhat linear curves in Fig. 3, and data in the literature, it

Compressive Strength
Compressive strength data for each temperature regimen are presented in two formats for Concrete A. Fig. 4

Fig. 4. Strength gain for concretes with varying casting and curing temperatures.

R e t u r n To I n d e x

gives strength results for concrete at each age. Lower temperature casting and curing, compared to the reference

temperature, gives nearly equal or better results at all test ages beyond three days; higher temperature gives lower results beyond three days. Fig. 5 shows the relative change in strength due to temperature differences in casting and curing. In this figure, data for 23C (73F) are defined to be 100% at each age, and concrete strengths for other casting/curing regimens are shown as a percentage of the 23C (73F) compressive strength at the same age. This format clearly shows the relative effect of temperature at each age. Complete data for both Concrete A and Concrete B can be found in the report listed at the end of this article. Later age strength of the concrete cast and cured at 10C (50F) is essentially equal to or greater than that of concrete cast and cured at 23C (73F). The effects of high temperature on small amount of contraction as the cement hydrates and consumes water, and as water evaporates into the air. At this stage ettringite is uniformly and discretely dispersed throughout the cement paste at a submicroscopic level (less than a micrometer in cross-section). If concrete is exposed to water for long periods of time (many years), the ettringite can slowly dissolve and reform in less confined locations. Upon microscopic examination, harmless white needle-like crystals of ettringite can be observed lining air voids. Any form of attack or disintegration of concrete by freeze-thaw action, alkali-silica reactivity (ASR), or other means, accelerates the rate at which ettringite leaves its original location in the paste to go into solution and recrystallize in larger spaces such as voids or cracks. Both water and space must be present for the crystals to form. The space is often provided by cracks that form due to damage caused by frost action, ASR, drying shrinkage, or other mechanisms. Ettringite crystals in air voids and cracks are typically two to four micrometers in cross section and 20 to 30 micrometers long. Under conditions of extreme deterioration, the white ettringite crystals appear to completely fill voids or cracks. However, ettringite, found in its preferred state as large needle-like crystals, should not be interpreted as causing

the early age strength are reversed after seven days when absolute strength of concrete cast and cured at 32C (90F) is lower than concrete cast and cured at 23C (73F). For the concretes cast and cured at 23C (73F), 7-day strength will be about 75% of 28-day strength. Three-day strengths for the concrete cast and cured at 32C (90F) is roughly equal to 7-day strengths for concrete cast and cured at 23C (73F). At 32C (90F), 3-day strength is approximately 70% of the 28-day compressive strength (at 32C (90F)). Using these observations, construction practices, such as finishing, can be better coordinated with the demands of hot and cold weather temperatures. The complete report (RD113) of temperature effects on fresh and hardened concrete properties can be obtained from PCAs Order Processing. the expansion of deteriorating concrete. To determine if ettringite contributes to expansion of deteriorating (non-heat treated) concrete, a PCA study (Reference 1) investigated expansion caused by alkali-silica reaction and freeze-thaw action. By using cements of different sulfate contents (higher sulfate contents forming more ettringite) it would be possible to determine if the solution and recrystallization of the calcium sulfoaluminate contributes to expansion. The ASR study used a reactive aggregate with cement alkalies ranging from 0.53 to 1.05% Na20 equivalent. Mortar and concrete prisms were tested beyond three years. Concrete prisms were exposed to field and laboratory conditions. Specimens with the 3.5% sulfate cements usually had about the same, and often less, expansion than those with the 1.5% sulfate cements. This indicates that expansion in the specimens resulted from ASR and that recrystallization of the ettringite, occuring in spaces created by the ASR, did not contribute to the expansion. The freeze-thaw study tested concretes with cements having sulfate contents ranging from 1.7% to 4.0%. The specimens were exposed to 160 freeze-thaw cycles, followed by 28 days of drying in air, followed by one year in water. This testing regimen theoretically would disrupt the paste 7

Fig. 5. Concrete strength gain in relation to temperature exposures as a percent of concrete strength at 23C (73F).

Ettringite and Concrete Durability

Q: Petrographic reports often note ettringite or other sulfate related materials present in voids or cracks of deteriorated cast-in-place concrete structures such as retaining walls and pavements. What is ettringite and does it or the sulfate in cement contribute to expansion and disintegration of portland cement concrete? A: Ettringite, calcium sulfoaluminate, is found in all portland cement concretes and is commonly referenced in petrographic reports. Calcium sulfate sources, such as gypsum, are added to portland cement to prevent rapid setting and improve strength development. Sulfate is also present in supplementary cementitious materials and admixtures. Gypsum and other sulfate compounds react with calcium aluminate in the cement to form ettringite within the first few hours after mixing with water. Essentially all of the sulfur in the cement is normally consumed to form ettringite within 24 hours. The formation of ettringite results in a volume increase in the fresh, plastic concrete. Due to the concretes plastic condition, this expansion is harmless and unnoticed. In fact, the slight transient expansion of fresh cement paste is followed by a

R e t u r n To I n d e x

Portland Cement Association

5420 Old Orchard Road Skokie, Illinois 60077-1083 Route to

and provide a dry and then wet environment ideal for the recrystallization of ettringite. The specimens prepared with the cements with 4.0% sulfate had less expansion and a smaller decrease in dynamic modulus than those with the lower sulfate content. No abnormal expansion was observed after the water storage. This indicates that the expansion in the specimens resulted from frost damage and not from recrystallization of ettringite. This research did not investigate the hypothesis that partial or total void filling by ettringite could reduce the protection the air void system affords against freeze-thaw damage. If concrete is already failing due to frost action, presumably this mechanism could accelerate the deterioration. However, this has not been verified, particularly for properly air-entrained concretes, and research is currently underway on this issue. Another term used in petrographic reports is delayed ettringite formation (DEF). This refers to a condition usually associated with heat-treated concrete. As discussed in Reference 2, certain concretes of particular chemical makeup which have been exposed to tempera-

tures over about 70C (158F) during curing can undergo expansion and cracking caused by later ettringite formation. This can occur because the high temperature decomposes any initial ettringite formed and holds the sulfate and alumina tightly in the calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel of the cement paste. The normal formation of ettringite is thus impeded. In the presence of moisture, sulfate and alumina desorb from the confines of the C-S-H to form ettringite in cooled and hardened concrete. After months or years of desorption, ettringite forms in confined locations within the paste. Since the concrete is rigid and if there are insufficient voids to accommodate the ettringite volume increase, expansion and cracks can occur. In addition, some of the initial ettringite formed before heating may be converted to monosulfoaluminate at high temperatures and upon cooling, revert back to ettringite. Because ettringite takes up more space than monosulfoaluminate from which it forms, the transformation is an expansive reaction. As a result of the increase in paste volume, separation of the paste from

the aggregates is usually observed with DEF. It is characterized by the development of even rims of ettringite around the aggregates, with larger aggregates having broader rims and smaller aggregates having narrower rims. It should be noted that concrete can sustain a small amount of DEF without harm. Only extreme cases of DEF result in cracking, and often DEF is associated with other deterioration mechanisms. Air voids can help relieve the stress by providing a location for the delayed ettringite to form. Finally, some petrographers or concrete technologists use the term secondary ettringite to refer to both DEF and harmless ettringite found lining voids (often listed under secondary deposits in petrographic reports).

References
1. Lerch, William, Effect of SO3 Content of Cement on Durability of Concrete, R&D Serial No. 0285, Portland Cement Association, 1945. 2. Day, Robert L., The Effect of Secondary Ettringite Formation on the Durability of Concrete: A Literature Analysis, RD108, Portland Cement Association, 1992.

This publication is intended SOLELY for use by PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL who are competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of the information provided herein, and who will accept total responsibility for the application of this information. The Portland Cement Association DISCLAIMS any and all RESPONSIBILITY and LIABILITY for the accuracy of and the application of the information contained in this publication to the full extent permitted by law.

PUBLISHER'S NOTE:
Intended for decision makers associated with design, management, and construction of building projects, Concrete Technology Today is published triannually by the Construction Information Services Department of the Portland Cement Association.

Our purpose is to show various ways of using concrete technology to your advantage and avoiding problems. If there are innovations or ideas you would like discussed in future issues, please let us know. Items from this newsletter may be reprinted in other publications subject to prior permission from the Association.

Direct all correspondence to Steve Kosmatka, Editor Jamie Farny, Assistant Editor Concrete Technology Today Portland Cement Association 5420 Old Orchard Road Skokie, Illinois 60077-1083 Phone: 847/966-6200 Fax: 847/966-8389 E-mail: steve_kosmatka@portcement.org E-mail: jamie_farny@portcement.org

Printed in U.S.A.

PL963.01B

R e t u r n To I n d e x