Non Destructive Examination Device

Final Year Design Project Report

Submitted by: Ahmad Shamyl Akhlaq Hamid Mahmood Pasha Sheraz Ali Shah Usama Imran Khan 2005010 2005076 2005904 2005283

Faculty of Engineering Sciences Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology. May 2009.

Non Destructive Examination Device

Final Year Design Project Report

Submitted by: Ahmed Shamyl Akhlaq Hamid Mahmood Pasha Sheraz Ali Shah Usama Imran Khan 2005010 2005076 2005904 2005283

This Report is submitted in partial fulfillment for the degree of Bachelors of Science.

Dr. Rizwan Akram. (Project Advisor) Sciences)

Dr. Syed Ikram A Tirmizi (Dean Faculty of Engineering

Dedicated to our families, teachers and friends.

Acknowledgements
We will always remain deeply indebted to the efforts put in and support provided to us by Dr. Rizwan Akram during the entire period of our FYP. He left no stone unturned and it was his encouragement and brilliant leadership that enabled us to complete the task to the fullest of our abilities. We would like to thank the Mechanical and Metallurgical departmental staff (especially Mr. Afsar Khan Sahib) for their help in constructing the major components of our project. Last but not the least we wish to thank the Faculty and staff of the Engineering Sciences for their full moral and technical support during the entire course of this project.

Abstract
In this project we have been able to construct a device which is capable of determining the size and position of cracks and holes within a sample of conducting material without destroying or damaging the specimen itself. We started by constructing the prototype for the translation stage from a micrometer screw gauge , which then evolved into a complete scanning stage, after detailed analyses over its design and structure. We used stepper motors and their respective controller boards for the desired micron level movement of the specimen under the sensor. A hall probe sensor was used to measure the magnetic field near gaps in cracks and holes. Data Acquisition was done using LabView software by integrating it with a Lockin Amplifier and Source measuring Unit. A 2D (or 3D) graph can then be obtained from the sample readings determining the size and place of the crack or hole.

Table of Contents
Chapter 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 8 Section 1.1: Introduction .................................................................................................... 8 Section 1.2: Organization of the Report........................................................................ 8 Chapter 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 9 Introduction to Non destructive techniques .............................................................. 9 Section 2.1: Applications and Objectives of NDE ...................................................... 9 Section 2.2: Objectives of nondestructive testing methods ............................... 10 Section 2.3: Methods for NDE ........................................................................................ 12 Section 2.4: Methods Selected for Final Year Project. .......................................... 13 Section 2.4.1: Magnetic Flux Leakage ..................................................................... 13 Section 2.4.2: Current Induction .............................................................................. 16 Section 2.4.3: Eddy current ........................................................................................ 17 Section 2.4.4: Detection Method used in our FYP .................................................. 20 Chapter 3 .................................................................................................................................... 21 Experimental setup ........................................................................................................... 21 Section 3.1: Introduction ................................................................................................. 21 Section 3.2: Sensor types................................................................................................. 22 Section 3.3: A Brief comparison of the Sensors ...................................................... 23 Section 3.4: Sensor Selection ......................................................................................... 23 Section 3.4.1: Hall Effect .................................................................................................. 24 Section 3.5: Scanning stage ............................................................................................ 25 Section 3.6: Motion Control Circuit ............................................................................. 27 Section 3.6.1: Stepper Motor Control ..................................................................... 28 Section 3.6.2: Parallel Port Interfacing .................................................................. 32 Section 3.6.3: Wiring Configuration ........................................................................ 32 Section 3.7: Electronically controlled......................................................................... 34 Section 3.8: Lock-In Amplifiers Internal Workings............................................... 35 Section 3.9: Source Measuring Unit (SMU) .............................................................. 36 Section 3.10: General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB) ........................................... 36 Section 3.11: Software used for Data Acquisition ................................................. 37

Chapter 4 ................................................................................................................................... 40 Results and Observations ................................................................................................... 40 Chapter 5 ................................................................................................................................... 41 Conclusion and References ................................................................................................ 41 Material Cost and Review ............................................................................................... 41 Future Scope and Conclusion ........................................................................................ 41 Appendix (A) ............................................................................................................................ 42 Atmel 89C051 Microcontroller ......................................................................................... 42 Appendix (B) ............................................................................................................................ 43 Bi-Polar Stepper Motor Control Circuit ......................................................................... 43 Pin Configuration and Block diagram of L-297/298. .......................................... 43 Appendix (C) ............................................................................................................................ 44 ULN-2003 .................................................................................................................................. 44 Appendix (D) ............................................................................................................................ 46 Parallel Port Configuration................................................................................................. 46 Appendix (E) ............................................................................................................................ 47 Stepper Motor drivers .......................................................................................................... 47 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 57 References............................................................................................................................. 57 Additional NDT Resources.............................................................................................. 59

Table of Figures
Figure 2-1 Magnetic Flux Leakage Figure 2-2 Direct Magnetization Figure 2-3 Indirect Magnetization Figure 2-4: Eddy Current Inspection Method Figure 2-5 Diagram illustrating Eddy Currents created in a port Figure 3-1 Complete setup of NDE Figure 3-2 Hall Probe Sensor Figure 3-3 Translation Stage (Top View) Figure-3-4 Stepper Motor Control Unit Figure 3-5 Unipolar Stepper Motor Figure 3-6 bpolar stepper motor Figure 3-7 circuit diagram for stepper motor controller boards Figure-3-8 Lockin Amplifier (SR-830) Figure 3-9 Source Measuring Unit- KE 236 Figure 4-1 Crack detection in the specimen 14 15 15 19 19 21 24 26 28 29 31 34 35 36 40

Chapter 1 Section 1.1: Introduction

The main objective of this project was the construction of an NDE (NonDestructive Examination) Device which is a non invasive method for measuring the size of holes and cracks inside a sample made of a conducting material.

Section 1.2: Organization of the Report

The project is constituted of the following stages which were then subdivided into smaller units, namely: 1. Construction of the translation stage (which acts as a platform for the sample), Structural Design, Material selection, Control mechanism, Electric circuitry and Instrumentation 2. Human Machine Interface(HMI) of the translation stage with the computer through Parallel port, Stepper motor controller mechanism and schematic diagram Parallel port interface of the motors with the computer development of the software in LabView 3. Formation of the Probe/Sensor and finally Data Acquisition. 4. Use of different invasive techniques in order to perform the actual scanning of the sample for defects (holes and cracks) 5. Results, analyses and observation

Chapter 2 Introduction to Non destructive techniques

By definition, Nondestructive techniques are the means by which materials and structures may be inspected without disruption or impairment of serviceability. The method for the inspection of cracks and holes in a sample material is known generally by the three names: Nondestructive testing Nondestructive examination Nondestructive inspection (NDT), which is also called (NDE) and (NDI),

NDE is vital for constructing and maintaining all types of components and structures.

Section 2.1: Applications and Objectives of NDE

Many industrial components need regular non-destructive tests to detect damage that may be difficult or expensive to find by everyday methods. Some of the areas in the industry where the NDE is used are as follows: Aircraft skins need regular checking to detect cracks; Underground pipelines are subject to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking; Pipes in industrial plants may be subject to erosion and corrosion from the products they carry; Concrete structures may be weakened if the inner reinforcing steel is corroded; Pressure vessels may develop cracks in welds; The wire ropes in suspension bridges are subject to weather, vibration, and high loads, so testing for broken wires and other damage is important.

Thousand of Manufactured products can benefit from this form of testing.

Section 2.2: Objectives of nondestructive testing methods

Objectives Attributes Measured or Detected

Discontinuities roughness, scratches, gouges, crazing, pitting, inclusions and imbedded foreign material cracks, porosity, pinholes, laps, seams, folds, inclusions cracks, separations, hot tears, cold shuts, shrinkage, voids, lack of fusion, pores, cavities, delaminations, disbonds, poor bonds, inclusions, segregations Structure Microstructure molecular structure, crystalline structure and/or strain, lattice structure, strain, dislocation, vacancy, deformation grain structure, size, orientation and phase, sinter and porosity, impregnation, filler and/or reinforcement distribution, anisotropy, heterogeneity, segregation leaks (lack of seal or through-holes), poor fit, poor contact, loose parts, loose particles, foreign objects assembly errors, misalignment, poor spacing or ordering, deformation, malformation, missing parts Dimensions and metrology Displacement, position Dimensional variations linear measurement, separation, gap size, discontinuity size, depth, location and orientation unevenness, nonuniformity, eccentricity, shape and contour, size and mass variations

Surface anomalies Surface connected anomalies Internal anomalies

Matrix structure

Small structural anomalies Gross structural anomalies

Thickness, density film, coating, layer, plating, wall and sheet thickness, density or

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thickness variations Physical and mechanical properties Electrical properties Magnetic properties Thermal properties Mechanical properties resistivity, conductivity, dielectric constant and dissipation factor polarization, permeability, ferromagnetism, cohesive force conductivity, thermal time constant and thermoelectric potential compressive, shear and tensile strength (and moduli), Poisson's ratio, sonic velocity, hardness, temper and embrittlement

Surface properties color, reflectivity, refraction index, emissivity Chemical composition and analysis Elemental analysis detection, identification, distribution and/or profile Impurity concentrations Metallurgical content Physiochemical state contamination, depletion, doping and diffusants

variation, alloy identification, verification and sorting

moisture content, degree of cure, ion concentrations and corrosion, reaction products Stress and dynamic response

Stress, strain, fatigue Mechanical damage Chemical damage Other damage Dynamic performance

heat-treatment, annealing and cold-work effects, residual stress and strain, fatigue damage and life (residual) wear, spalling, erosion, friction effects corrosion, stress corrosion, phase transformation radiation damage and high frequency voltage breakdown crack initiation and propagation, plastic deformation, creep, excessive motion, vibration, damping, timing of events, any

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anomalous behavior Signature analysis Electromagnetic field Thermal field Acoustic signature Radioactive signature Signal or image analysis potential, strength, field distribution and pattern isotherms, heat contours, temperatures, heat flow, temperature distribution, heat leaks, hot spots noise, vibration characteristics, frequency amplitude, harmonic spectrum and/or analysis, sonic and/or ultrasonic emissions distribution and diffusion of isotopes and tracers Image enhancement and quantization, pattern recognition, densitometry, signal classification, separation and correlation, discontinuity identification.

Section 2.3: Methods for NDE

The categories for Nondestructive testing methods are given below: Basic Categories

Objectives Color, cracks, dimensions, film thickness, gauging, reflectivity, strain distribution and magnitude, surface finish, surface flaws, through-cracks Cracks, density and chemistry variations, elemental distribution, foreign objects, inclusions, micro porosity, misalignment, missing parts, segregation, service degradation, shrinkage, thickness, voids

Mechanical and optical

Penetrating radiation

Alloy content, anisotropy, cavities, cold work, local strain, hardness, composition, contamination, corrosion, cracks, crack depth, crystal structure, electrical and thermal Electromagnetic conductivities, flakes, heat treatment, hot tears, inclusions, and electronic ion concentrations, laps, lattice strain, layer thickness, moisture content, polarization, seams, segregation, shrinkage, state of cure, tensile strength, thickness, disbonds

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Sonic and ultrasonic

Crack initiation and propagation, cracks, voids, damping factor, degree of cure, degree of impregnation, degree of sintering, delaminations, density, dimensions, elastic moduli, grain size, inclusions, mechanical degradation, misalignment, porosity, radiation degradation, structure of composites, surface stress, tensile, shear and compressive strength, disbonds, wear Bonding, composition, emissivity, heat contours, plating thickness, porosity, reflectivity, stress, thermal conductivity, thickness, voids Alloy identification, composition, cracks, elemental analysis and distribution, grain size, inclusions, macrostructure, porosity, segregation, surface anomalies Objectives Dimensional variations, dynamic performance, anomaly characterization and definition, anomaly distribution, anomaly propagation, magnetic field configurations Data selection, processing and display, anomaly mapping, correlation and identification, image enhancement, separation of multiple variables, signature analysis

Thermal and infrared Chemical and analytical Auxiliary Categories Image generation Signal image analysis

Section 2.4: Methods Selected for Final Year Project.

Out of the many methods listed in section2.3, we have chosen three methods that reside in the Electromagnetic and Electric category. These three methods have been considered profusely in our Final Year Project. These methods are listed below and are going to be explained in the sequence mentioned below: 1. Magnetic Flux Leakage technique, 2. Current Injection method and 3. Eddy Current Technique Section 2.4.1: Magnetic Flux Leakage Magnetic flux leakage (MFL) techniques for non-destructive testing of ferromagnetic materials use strong permanent magnets to magnetize the 13

object of interest to near saturation flux density. Defects such as corrosion or erosion damage result in magnetic flux leakage. The flux leakage is detected by magnetic field sensors and is proportional to the volume of metal loss. MFL is usually regarded as a qualitative technique, although some estimates of defect size can be made. Thus, MFL is largely a screening tool which can be followed by ultrasonic inspection for determination of defect size. The magnetic lines of force (flux) much prefer to travel in the carbon steel plate than in the surrounding air. In fact this flux is very reluctant to travel in air unless it is forced to do so by the lack of another suitable medium. For the purposes of this particular application a magnetic bridge (or magnetic yolk) is used to introduce as near a saturation of flux as is possible in the inspection material between the poles of the bridge. Any significant reduction in the thickness of the plate will result in some of the magnetic flux being forced into the air around the area of reduction. Sensors which can detect these flux leakages are placed between the poles of the bridge. This is graphically illustrated in the figure below:

Figure 2-1 Magnetic Flux Leakage Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) is used to detect corrosion and pitting in steel structures, most commonly pipelines and storage tanks. MFL detects changes volumetrically. The disadvantage of Magnetic Flux Leakage is that no absolute values but relative volumetrically changes are reported. However it is a very suitable tool for detecting bad spots in the plates.

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In MFL technique, there are two basic types of Magnetization for ferromagnetic materials: Direct Magnetization (Magnetization using direct induction) Indirect Magnetization (Magnetization using direct induction)

Direct Magnetization In this type of magnetization we pass the current through the object. In this way, a circular magnetic field will be created. When using direct magnetization, it is very important to provide good contact between the test equipment and the test component.

FIGURE 2-2 Direct Magnetization

Indirect magnetization It is accomplished by using very strong external magnetic field to establish magnetic field within the object (figure 6). External magnetic field can be created using a permanent magnet or using a electro-magnet. Permanent magnet is used rarely because it is very difficult to create field that will be strong enough and it is very difficult to control it.

Figure 2-3 Indirect Magnetization

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Section 2.4.2: Current Induction The current Injection method is the method used in our FYP for the detection of flaws in the sample. It involves the detection of a flaw by injecting current into the sample and then detecting the different current paths created outside the flaw. These lines of current are then scanned by the sensor placed above. The diagrammatical representation of the current injection setup is shown in the figure below:

FIGURE 2-4 Current Injection Method

A thin sheet with a small hole drilled through the centre was injected with a uniform current. The hole perturbed the current ow and caused an aberration in the normal component of the magnetic eld Bz which was imaged by repeated scans of the sheet beneath the sensor.

Figure 2-5 Flaw (shown in (a)) is detected and then represented in graphs both 3D (b) and 2D (c) with respect to magnetic field current in the sample The plates are electrically connected in series at one end. At the opposite end, a coaxial cable is used to inject current into one plate and retrieve it from the

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other plate. With this arrangement it was shown that the magnetic eld due to the edges of the sample plate are essentially cancelled and the interfering signal due to the current cables is remarkably reduced.

Figure 2-6 Current Induction method using Cancellation Plate technique Section 2.4.3: Eddy current Eddy current testing is used to find surface and near surface defects in conductive materials. It is used by the aviation industry for detection of defects such as cracks, corrosion damage, thickness verification, and for materials characterization such as metal sorting and heat treatment verification. Applications range from fuselage and structural inspection, engines, landing gear, and wheels. Eddy current inspection involves initial setup and calibration procedures with known reference standards of the same material as the part. Probes of appropriate design and frequency must be used. Eddy current inspection is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. An electric coil in which an alternating current is flowing is placed adjacent to the part. Since the method is based on induction of electromagnetic fields, electrical contact is not required.

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Figure 2-4: Eddy Current Inspection Method a) The Eddy Current flowing through the coil at a chosen frequency generates a magnetic field around the coil. b) When the coil is placed close to an electrically conducting material, eddy current is induced in the material. c) If a flaw in the conducting material disturbs he eddy current circulation, the magnetic coupling with the probe is changed and a defect signal can be read by measuring the coil impedance variation. An alternating current flowing through the coil produces a primary magnetic field that induces eddy currents in the part. Energy is needed to generate the eddy currents, and this energy shows up as resistance losses in the coil. Typical NDE applications are designed to measure these resistance losses. Eddy currents flow within closed loops in the part.

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Figure 2-5 Diagram illustrating Eddy Currents created in a port As a result of eddy currents, a second magnetic field is generated in the material. The magnetic fields of the core interact with those in the part and changes in the material being inspected affect the interaction of the magnetic fields. The interaction, in turn, affects the electrical characteristics of the coil. Resistance and inductive reactance add up to the total impedance of the coil. Changes in the electrical impedance of the coil are measured by commercial eddy current instruments. The main method used in eddy current inspection is one in which the response of the sensor depends on conductivity and permeability of the test material and the frequency selected. Advantages of Eddy Current Inspection (ECI) Sensitive to small cracks and other defects Detects surface and near surface defects Inspection gives immediate results Equipment is very portable Method can be used for much more than flaw detection Minimum part preparation is required Test probe does not need to contact the part

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Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials

Limitations of Eddy Current Inspection: Only conductive materials can be inspected Surface must be accessible to the probe Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques Surface finish and roughness may interfere Reference standards needed for setup Depth of penetration is limited Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and probe scan direction are undetectable

Section 2.4.4: Detection Method used in our FYP

In our Project, the method used was of the current induction method. The reason we preferred to use this specific technique instead of the other three aforementioned techniques are the following: 1) It is easy to use and has relatively easy installation of setup 2) The sensor probe requirements or the construction of the setup are few as compared to the other techniques involved; 3) The flaw (crack or hole) can be viewed with a greater resolution. 4) The change in the frequencies can be used to analyze the object ant do depth profilation of the flaw.

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Chapter 3 Experimental setup Section 3.1: Introduction

The objective of the Final Year Project was to construct a device that could detect the flaws in a specimen using the Electric and Electromagnetic method of Non Destructive Examination i.e. Current Injection technique. The Overall setup of the whole FYP is given below:

FIGURE 3-1 Complete setup of NDE The figure shows the whole setup of the FYP. The numbered parts are: 1) Hall probe Sensor: detects the cracks or holes in the specimen; 2) Transalation Stage: This stage works as the base for the whole FYP. It serves as the scanning stage that performs the functions of moving or positioning the specimen below the probe or sensor. 3) Motor Control Mechanism: The box contains three stepper motor control boards stacked one on top of the other.(one for each in the XYZ directions)

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Section 3.2: Sensor types

There are basically two types of sensors currently in use. Coils, Hall Effect Sensors and Squid sensors. They are both capable of detecting the flux leakage fields caused by corrosion on the sample. There is a fundamental difference, however, in the way that they respond to leakage fields and generate a response. a) Coils Coils are passive devices and follow Faradays Law in the presence of a magnetic field. As a coil is passed through a magnetic field a voltage is generated in the coil and the level of this voltage is dependent on the number of turns in the coil and the rate of change of the flux leakage. From this it can be seen that speed will have some influence on the signals obtained from this type of sensor. b) Hall Effect Sensors Hall Effect sensors are solid state devices which form part of an electrical circuit and, when passed through a magnetic field, the value of the voltage in the circuit varies dependent on the absolute value of the flux density. It is necessary to carry out some cross referencing and canceling with this type of sensor so that true signals can be separated from other causes of large variations in voltage levels generated by the inspection process. c) SQUID Sensors Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDs) are the most sensitive magnetic field sensors known to date. With the discovery of High Temperature Superconductors (HTS) ten years ago and the subsequent development of HTS SQUIDs requiring only cooling down to liquid nitrogen temperature, the greatest application barrier appears solvable. SQUID systems offer a high sensitivity at low excitation frequencies, permitting the detection of deeper flaws, and a high linearity, allowing quantitative evaluation of magnetic field maps from the investigated structure

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Section 3.3: A Brief comparison of the Sensors

Properties SQUID sensor Hall Probe Coils

1)

Sensitivity

Highest

High

Lowest

2)

Spatial Resolution

Medium

Lowest Resolution

Highest

Environmental factors

Needs special working temperature (normally below the critical temperature of the material)

Works in normal conditions ( at room temperatures)

Works in normal conditions

Size

Larger Size as compared to the other two

Smallest size

Comparatively is of smaller size

Section 3.4: Sensor Selection

For the purpose of our FYP the Hall Effect sensor was used. A Hall Effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to changes in magnetic field. Hall sensors are used for proximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and current sensing applications. In its simplest form, the sensor operates as an analogue transducer, directly returning a voltage. With a known magnetic field, its distance from the Hall plate can be determined. Electricity carried through a conductor will produce a magnetic field that varies with current, and a Hall sensor can be used to measure the current without interrupting the circuit. The sensor in our case is integrated with a wound core or permanent magnet that surrounds the conductor to be measured.

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FIGURE 3-2 Hall Probe Sensor Section 3.4.1: Hall Effect The Hall Effect comes about due to the nature of the current in a conductor. Current consists of the movement of many small charge carriers, typically electrons, holes, or both. Moving charges experience a force, called the Lorentz Force, when a magnetic field is present that is not parallel to their motion. When such a magnetic field is absent, the charges follow an approximately straight, 'line of sight' path.

Figure 3-2.1 Hall Effect

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However, when a perpendicular magnetic field is applied, their path is curved so that moving charges accumulate on one face of the material. This leaves equal and opposite charges exposed on the other face, where there is a scarcity of mobile charges. The result is an asymmetric distribution of charge density across the Hall element that is perpendicular to both the 'line of sight' path and the applied magnetic field. The separation of charge establishes an electric field that opposes the migration of further charge, so a steady electrical potential builds up for as long as the charge is flowing. For a simple metal where there is only one type of charge carrier (electrons) the Hall voltage VH is given by

Where I is the current across the plate length, B is the magnetic flux density, d or t is the depth of the plate, e is the electron charge, and n is the charge carrier density of the carrier electrons. The Hall coefficient is defined as

Where j is the current density of the carrier electrons. In SI units, this becomes

As a result, the Hall Effect is very useful as a means to measure either the carrier density or the magnetic field.

Section 3.5: Scanning stage

The basic idea behind the formation of the translation stage was to construct a platform on which the specimen could be placed and then through the use of actuators and computer controlled motors it (i.e. the specimen) could be

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positioned or moved under the sensor probe for the purpose of measurement of cracks and discontinuities. We have ensured the stability of the scanning stage by introducing two stainless rods that provided stable working of the Translation Stage by minimizing the vibrations caused due to the working motor. Lead screw were also introduced, which further contributed to the stability (acetone is used to clean the screw, so as to remove any load produced due to friction or drag). Plastic was used to for the outer body as it is both light weight and non magnetic. Bearing was used for the smooth working of the micrometer screw in the translation stage, improving stability and reducing friction. Interior Walls (also made of Plastic) ware introduced in between to provide a more stable structure. In the first translation stage we used a micrometer to control the precision motion with manual motion control. The step size was calculated and fixed to 0.5mm for one complete revolution (i.e. for 1/100th movement on the radial scale there is a linear displacement of 0.01mm).

Figure 3-3 Translation Stage (Top View) The labeled pats in the above figure are described below: 1) Moving platform: The specimen is to be placed on top of this in such a way that it does not fall off once the platform starts to move along the lead screw.

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2) Stainless steel rods: These non magnetic rods provide stability to the whole structure of the translation stage as well as restrict the vibrational movements to a desirable minimum. 3) Lead Screw: It forms the basis for the graded movement of the specimen. Its pitch and angle of screw is equal to that of a micrometer screw gauge. Lead was chosen to be the material for its construction due to its nonmagnetic nature. 4) Stepper Motors: These are responsible for the movement of the platform along the lead screw. The type of stepper motors used are Bipolar 6 wire stepper motors 5) Parallel port Connection: The interface of the DB 25 to the 8 pin ports of the stepper motor controllers (including the colour coding as well) is illustrated in section 3.6.3. The translation stages were constructed in such a way that they were placed (or stacked on top of one another), in such a way that one is placed directly above the centre of the other

Section 3.6: Motion Control Circuit

The translation or motion of the scannng stage is controlled through the use of Bipolar stepper motors. The stepper motor controller boards used for the motion control of the scanning stage use inverted logic. Such three stepper motor controller boards were stacked on top of each pther and then enclosed in a plastic box, each providing motion control for a single translation in each of the three axis respectively i..e. X, Y and Z.

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FIGURE-3-4 Stepper Motor Control Unit

Section 3.6.1: Stepper Motor Control

Stepping motors come in two varieties, permanent magnet and variable reluctance. Permanent magnet motors tend to "cog" when someone tries to twist the rotor with their fingers, while variable reluctance motors almost spin freely. An ohmmeter can also be used to distinguish between the two varieties. Variable reluctance motors usually have three (sometimes four) windings, with a common return, while permanent magnet motors usually have two independent windings, with or without center taps. Center-tapped windings are used in unipolar permanent magnet motors. Stepping motors come in a wide range of angular resolution. The coarsest motors typically turn 90 degrees per step, while high resolution permanent magnet motors are commonly able to handle 1.8 or even 0.72 degrees per step. The stepper motor used in our FYP has the step size of 200 steps, thus producing 1.8 degrees per step. With an appropriate controller, most permanent magnet and

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hybrid motors can be run in half-steps, and some controllers can handle smaller fractional steps or microsteps. a) Unipolar Motors Unipolar stepping motors, both Permanent magnet and hybrid stepping motors with 5 or 6 wires are usually wired as shown in the schematic in Figure 8, with a center tap on each of two windings. In use, the center taps of the windings are typically wired to the positive supply, and the two ends of each winding are alternately grounded to reverse the direction of the field provided by that winding.

FIGURE 3-5 Unipolar Stepper Motor Unipolar stepping motors, both Permanent magnet and hybrid stepping motors with 5 or 6 wires are usually wired as shown in the schematic in Figure 8, with a center tap on each of two windings. In use, the center taps of the windings are typically wired to the positive supply, and the two ends of each winding are alternately grounded to reverse the direction of the field provided by that winding. The 30 degree per step motor in the figure is one of the most common permanent magnet motor designs, although 15 and 7.5 degree per step motors are widely available. Permanent magnet motors with resolutions as good as 1.8 degrees per step are made, and hybrid motors are routinely built with 3.6 and 1.8 degrees per step, with resolutions as fine as 0.72 degrees per step available.

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To rotate the motor continuously, we had to apply power to the two windings in sequence. Assuming positive logic, where a 1 means turning on the current through a motor winding, the following two control sequences will spin the motor illustrated in Figure 8 clockwise 24 steps or 4 revolutions: Winding 1a 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1 Winding 1b 0010 0010 0010 0010 0010 0010 0 Winding 2a 0100 0100 0100 0100 0100 0100 0 Winding 2b 0001 0001 0001 0001 0001 0001 0 Time Winding 1a 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100 1 Winding 1b 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0 Winding 2a 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0 Winding 2b 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1 Time Note that the two halves of each winding are never energized at the same time. Both sequences shown above will rotate a permanent magnet one step at a time. The top sequence only powers one winding at a time, as illustrated in the figure above; thus, it uses less power. The bottom sequence involves powering two windings at a time and generally produces a torque about 1.4 times greater than the top sequence while using twice as much power. a) Bipolar Motors Bipolar permanent magnet and hybrid motors are constructed with exactly the same mechanism as is used on unipolar motors, but the two windings are wired

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more simply, with no center taps. Thus, the motor itself is simpler but the drive circuitry needed to reverse the polarity of each pair of motor poles is more complex. The schematic in Figure 9 shows how such a motor is wired.

FIGURE 3-6 BPOLAR STEPPER MOTOR The drive circuitry for such a motor requires an H-bridge control circuit for each winding. an H-bridge allows the polarity of the power applied to each end of each winding to be controlled independently. The control sequences for single stepping such a motor are shown below, using + and - symbols to indicate the polarity of the power applied to each motor terminal: Terminal 1a +---+---+---+--- ++--++--++--++-Terminal 1b --+---+---+---+- --++--++--++--++ Terminal 2a -+---+---+---+-- -++--++--++--++Terminal 2b ---+---+---+---+ +--++--++--++--+ Time Note that these sequences are identical to those for a unipolar permanent magnet motor, at an abstract level, and that above the level of the H-bridge power switching electronics, the control systems for the two types of motor can be identical.

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Note that many full H-bridge driver chips have one control input to enable the output and another to control the direction. Given two such bridge chips, one per winding, the following control sequences will spin the motor identically to the control sequences given above: Enable 1 1010 1010 1010 1010 1111 1111 1111 1111

Direction 1 1x0x 1x0x 1x0x 1x0x 1100 1100 1100 1100 Enable 2 0101 0101 0101 0101 1111 1111 1111 1111 Direction 2 x1x0 x1x0 x1x0 x1x0 0110 0110 0110 0110 Time To distinguish a bipolar permanent magnet motor from other 4 wire motors, measure the resistances between the different terminals. It is worth noting that some permanent magnet stepping motors have 4 independent windings, organized as two sets of two. Within each set, if the two windings are wired in series, the result can be used as a high voltage bipolar motor. If they are wired in parallel, the result can be used as a low voltage bipolar motor. If they are wired in series with a center tap, the result can be used as a low voltage unipolar motor.

Section 3.6.2: Parallel Port Interfacing

The Parallel Port is the most commonly used port for interfacing homemade projects. This port will allow the input of up to 9 bits or the output of 12 bits at any one given time, thus requiring minimal external circuitry to implement many simpler tasks. The port is composed of 4 control lines, 5 status lines and 8 data lines. It's found commonly on the back of your PC as a D-Type 25 Pin female connector. There may also be a D-Type 25 pin male connector. This will be a serial RS-232 port and thus, is a totally incompatible port. Section 3.6.3: Wiring Configuration The wiring configuration for the control of each motor through the motor controller boards is given below:

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S. no

Connector 1 (Y-Axis)

Connector 2 (X-Axis) GREEN LIGHT YELLOW LIGHT ORANGE RED WHITE WHITE

Connector 3 (Z-Axis)

Connector 4 (Power Supply) WHITE

Connection of 4 to the DB 25 D0

PURPLE YELLOWGREEN BLACK

RED

GREEN GREEN LIGHT GREY BLACK WHITE BROWN

GREEN

D1

ORANGE

D2

BLUE

MAROON DARK BLUE LIGHT BLUE RED

D3

PINK

D4

YELLOW WHITE BLACK WHITE

BLUE

D5 Power (Adopter) Ground (Adopter)

PINK

BLUE

YELLOW

YELLOW

BLACK

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Section 3.7: Electronically controlled

The Internal Circuit diagram of the Stepper motor controller boards is given in the figure below.

FIGURE 3-7 circuit diagram for stepper motor controller boards The circuit above shows the wiring configuration of the motor control mechanism. The main features of the circuitry are as follows: Instead of giving a positive voltage (around 15 Volts), we have used an inverted logic which prevents any damage to the wiring inside the motor. This means that a ground input urns the motors to an ON state. A Voltage regulator is used to maintain a controlled voltage to the whole of the circuit .Thus compensating for the need for a stabilizer. Speed of the motors can also be controlled manually The switches in the diagram allow the forward and reverse (clockwise or anticlockwise rotation) of the motors.

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The circuit is constructed in such a way that it can work under both AC and DC power supplies.

The 8051 Microcontroller is used to control the Unipolar and Bipolar control of the motor. {For further information see references A to E}

Section 3.8: Lock-In Amplifiers Internal Workings

A lock-in amplifier (also known as a phase-sensitive detector) is a type of amplifier that can extract a signal with a known carrier wave from extremely noisy environment (S/N ratio can be as low as -60 dB or even less). Lock in Amplifier was also used to generate the current inside the specimen. The response of which has been detected from the Hall effect sensors signal by measureing the the amplitude and phase of signal buried in noise.

Figure-3-8 Lockin Amplifier (SR-830) In this project the FYP model no. SR-830 lock in amplifier has been used. The specifications of the lock in Amplifier are as follows: 1 MHz to 102.4 kHz frequency range >100 dB dynamic reserve 5 ppm/C stability 0.01 degree phase resolution Time constants from 10 s to 30 ks (up to 24 dB/oct rolloff) Auto-gain, -phase, -reserve and -offset Synthesized reference source GPIB and RS-232 interfaces

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Section 3.9: Source Measuring Unit (SMU)

The SMU is a special kind of instrument that can work as a constant current source or as a constant voltage source. It simultaneously sources to a pair of terminals at the same time measuring the current or voltage across those terminals. Typically when an SMU sources constant voltage it measures current through the terminals. When it sources constant current through the terminals, it measures the voltage built up across those terminals. SMU used in our FYP has a model name KE 236 and it is interfaced with a GPIB in order to connect it to a computer.

Figure 3-9 Source Measuring Unit- KE 236

Section 3.10: General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB)

The GPIB is also known as Hewlett Packard Instrument Bus (HPIB). Its standard name is IEEE-488. It allows up to 15 devices to share a single 8-bit parallel electrical bus by daisy chaining. The speed of transaction is determined by the slowest device that participates in control and data transfer handshakes. There are three types of devices that can be connected to the IEEE-488 bus: Listener Talker and Controller In our FYP we have used the IEE-488 as a controller bus.

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Figure 3-10 Arrangement of the Lock In Amplifier and the Source Measuring Unit (SMU) with the specimen sample The main purpose of the source measuring unit in our FYP was to measure the Voltage and Current. The SMU is used to bias the Hall Effect sensor onto a fixed bias. Another reason for using the Source measuring Unit is that it is used to read the Hall Voltage which is directly proportional to the applied field or the field test. In our FYP, the current supplied was 10mA and the frequency of the current was 10 MHz. The data from the source measuring Unit was sent to the computer software made in LabView which processed the information and plotted its graph as shown in Chapter 4.

Section 3.11: Software used for Data Acquisition

The program that we used to control the translation stage was made in the software called LabView. The reasons for giving preference to using LabView instead of any other software (like MatLab and Simulink) were its following features: Labview and other NI software systems and hardware are very well designed for discrete automation and sequential motion applications. Labview is better for control, MatLab is better for data manipulation. Labview is essentially a tool for instrumentation control.

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Labview is a better tool for Data Acquisition

Figure 3-11 Front panel of the software made in LabView

We have designed the Labview software ourselves in such a way that it considers all the following aspects that need to be considered while doing NDE of a material specimen. These are listed below: Mode:
We have an option for selecting between line scan and area scan. The mode for the Line Scan shows the change in Amplitude with respect to time as it detects the hole or cracks. Selecting the Area Scan mode we can perform scan of a

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specific area of the specimen. (The maximum area that can be scanned is 8 x 8 cm2).

Sensitivity:
The sensitivity is the ability to respond to physical stimuli or to register small physical amounts or differences. The greater the value of sensitivity the greater is the

Hall Current and Voltage:

The reading of the Hall Voltage is obtained from the Lock In Amplifier.

No. of Averages:
After a particular time constant the measuring unit measures the value of the Hall Voltage and Current. Then the average is calculated, the number of times specified by the user i.e. this number specifies the quantity if reading that are to be measured the then averaged to get a more precise reading.

Data File:
After running the program for one clock pulse, it saves data read from the Source measuring unit and the Lockin Amplifier. The value of Hall Voltage and Hall Current measured by these devices is recorded into a file whose path is specified by the user at the start of the program.

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Chapter 4 Results and Observations

The above graph in indiicates the size and position of the crack in a specimen material. It is clear that from the reference point of 0 in the graph, there lie two holes: one ranging from -2 to -4 (on the x-axis) and the other from the position 1.5 to 4 (again, on the x-axis).

Figure 4-1 Crack detection in the specimen This means that through a hole or a crack, the Hall Voltage is very low, since the lines of flux prefer to flow through the conducting material than through an air gap. The specimen used in the above experiment was shaped in such a way that it contained two holes of 2mm diameter separated by 2mm, as shown in the figure below:

Figure 4-2 An illustration of the specimen showing two holes of 2mm each spaced 2mm apart

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Chapter 5 Conclusion and References

In our FYP we have constructed a Non Destructive Examination device that is capable of measuring the size of flaws (cracks and holes) with a precision of less than 3 micron scale size (3 x 10-6 m). The device uses Current injection technique according to which current is injected into the sample piece using a Lock in Amplifier, which is used to lock a certain value of frequency injected into the sample and then the Hall Probe Sensor is used in the detection of the Hall Voltage and the reading are detected and the Source Measuring unit is used to generate a voltage reading to the input current. The graph is then plotted of the Hall Voltage reading with respect to the distance moved over the sample.

Material Cost and Review

The translation stages are an expensive equipment to buy. Their prices vary according to their resolution. The smaller the resolution, the greater will be the price. As far as our project was concerned, the price of a translation stage with micron level precision is around Rs. 450,000/=, which is quite high. We managed to prepare the translation stage exceeding just a little over the budget and still managed to produce the translation stage costing a relatively small amount (i.e. about 5,000).

Future Scope and Conclusion

The project offers a wide scope for further studies and development in the design and development of the setup. This can be achieved by introducing another translation stage that could move in the Z direction, thus making the scanning stage ca[able of obtaining a 3D image of the specimen material.

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Appendix (A) Atmel 89C051 Microcontroller

42

Appendix (B) Bi-Polar Stepper Motor Control Circuit

Pin Configuration and Block diagram of L-297/298.

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Appendix (C) ULN-2003

44

45

Appendix (D) Parallel Port Configuration

Using Parallel ports to 8 input bits

DB25

46

Appendix (E) Stepper Motor drivers

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I.

Stepper Motor Drive Modes

II.

Stepper Motor Driver Configurations

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III.

Stepper Motor Switching Sequence a) Normal 4 Step Sequence

b) Step 8 Step Sequence

IV.

Method used for Controlling Motors Via Parallel Port

In this section the operation principle of a Bipolar stepper motor is explained which we implemented in our project.

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BIPOLAR STEPPER MOTER In the Bipolar stepper motor, a permanent magnet is used for rotor and coils are put on stator. The stepper motor model which has 4-poles is shown in the figure above. In case of this motor, step angle of the rotor is 90 degrees.

As for four poles, the top and the bottom and either side are a pair. coil and coil, coil corresponds respectively. For example, coil and

coil, coil

are put to the upper and lower pole. coil and coil are rolled up for the direction of the pole to become opposite when applying an electric current to the applying an electric current to the coil. It is similar about and coil and

, too. The turn , , and .

of the motor is controlled by the electric current which pours into

The rotor rotational speed and the direction of the turn can be controlled by this control.

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A) Clockwise control

CLOCK WISE CONTROL , , and are controlled in the following order. Step angle 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 90 1 0 1 0 180 0 1 1 0 270 B) Counterclockwise control , , and are controlled in

the following order. Step angle 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 -90 1 0 1 0 -180 1 0 0 1 -270 COUNTERCLOCKWISE CONTROL

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"0" means grounding.

From figure, it can be found that the rotor is stable in the middle of 2 poles of stator. When one side of the stator polarity is changed, the bounce by the magnetism occurs. As a result, the direction of rotor's turn is fixed. The characteristic of stepper motor is the angle can be correctly controlled and to be stable rotates ( It is due to the reliability of the control signal ). Moreover, because the rotor is fixed by the magnetism in the stationary condition as shown in the principle, the stationary power(Stationary torque) is large. It suits the use to make stop at some angle. The motor which we used in our project is of 200 steps and the step angle is 1.8 degrees. The way of controlling is the same as the previous example completely. It operates when controlling the electric current of coil, coil, coil and coil. The case of the clockwise control is shown below. The combination of repeats four patterns. Step angle 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1.8 3.6 5.4 7.2 9 10.8 12.6 14.4 16.2 18 19.8 21.6 23.4 25.2 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 Step angle 43.2 45 46.8 48.6 50.4 52.2 54 55.8 57.6 59.4 61.2 63 64.8 66.6 68.4 , , and

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0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

27 28.8 30.6 32.4 34.2 36 37.8 39.6 41.4

0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

70.2 72 73.8 75.6 77.4 79.2 81 82.8 84.6

The Following Pattern continues up to 360 degrees and then repeats in the same fashion till the length specified by the user to scan some area. For Counter clock wise motion of the motor the pulse sent through parallel port is inverted and the same pattern is followed but in the reverse order. V. Stepping Sequence used for controlling the Motors Stepper Motor Drivers specify the amount of Current that they output to a stepper motor in either RMS or Peak Current. Which of the two is better? RMS, which stands for Root Mean Square, is a fundamental measurement of the magnitude of an Alternating Current (AC) signal. The RMS value equals the amount of Direct Current (DC) required to produce an equivalent amount of heat in a same sized load. The shape of the alternating Current AC waveform is not important. RMS values simplify the calculation of average power and energy. However, Peak values, which only give the maximum value of the AC signal, require more information and can only be compared to RMS values if the shape of the waveform is known. For example, when the AC waveform is an ideal sine wave, the relationship between RMS and Peak Current is as follows: RMS Current = Peak Current x 0.707 or Peak Current = RMS Current x 1.414.

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The relationship between RMS and Peak stepper Current depends on the drivers configuration. The three common modes of operation for Stepper Motor Drivers include Full-Stepping, Half-Stepping, and Micro-stepping. If you were to view the Current waveform of these three modes on an oscilloscope, they would all appear different representing the relationship between the RMS and Peak Current:

Ideal Full-stepping waveform (Figure A.) Ideal Half-stepping waveform (Figure B.) Ideal Micro-stepping waveform (Figure C.)

All stepper motors are rated in RMS Current, and when Full Stepping, about 200 steps/rev, there is no difference in stepper drivers that output RMS Current and those that output Peak Current. The stepper driver simply outputs the Current value that the motor requires. For the following example, assume 1.0 Amp RMS: Figure A.

FULL STEPPING WAVEFORM: 1 AMP PEAK = 1 ARMS

However, when Half Stepping, 400 steps/rev, the RMS Current and Peak Current are not equal, as shown in Figure B. Unless the peak driver raises its output Current by 15% (as shown in figure B.) the motor will not receive its rated 1.0 Amp RMS Current, and is therefore not generating all of the torque that its capable of providing.

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Figure B.

HALF STEPPING WAVEFORM: 1.15 A PEAK = 1 ARMS

The Microstepping waveform illustrates an even larger difference between RMS and Peak Current. In this case the Peak Current setting must be raised by approximately 41% (as shown in Figure C.) to equal the required 1.0 Amp RMS motor current. Figure C.

MICRO STEPPING WAVEFORM: 1.414 A PEAK = 1 ARMS RMS Current controlled drives will send the motor the selected RMS value of the Current independent of the Current waveform. This may not be the case with Peak Current controlled drives, which output different RMS Currents dependent on the waveform.

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In conclusion, because stepper motors only specify torque curves and maximum ratings in RMS Current, using a stepper driver that is also specified in RMS Current instead of one that is specified in Peak Current simplifies the matching of a stepper motor to a stepper driver in any application.

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Bibliography
D.E. Bray and D. McBride (eds), Nondestructive Testing Techniques, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1992. D.E. Bray and R.K. Stanley, Nondestructive Evaluation: A Tool in Design, Manufacturing, and Service, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1997. L. Cartz, Nondestructive Testing, ASM International, Materials Park,

1995.

References
M.L. Allan, Survey .of Operation and Maintenance-Related Materials Needs in Geothermal Power Plants, BNL-65677, Brookhaven National Laboratory, 1998. G.B. Donaldson, in: SQUID Sensors, Kluwer, Dordrecht, NL, pp. 599-628 (1996). M. Grneklee et al., in: Rev. of Prog. in QNDE 17, Plenum, New York, (1998). M.I. Faley et al., in: Proc. of EUCAS'97, Institute of Physics Conference Series (1998). D.N. Alleyne, B. Pavlakovic, M.J.S. Lowe and P. Cawley, Rapid Long Range Inspection of Chemical Plant Pipework Using Guided Waves, 15th World Conference on Nondestructive Testing, Roma, 2000. A.V. Bray, C.J. Corley, R. Fischer, J.L. Rose and M.J. Quarry, Development of Guided Wave Ultrasonic Techniques for Detection of Corrosion Under Insulation in Metal Pipe, Energy Sources Technology Conference and Exhibition, ASME, 1998. M.J. Cohn and J.A. de Raad, Pulsed Eddy Current Projects for the Detection of Flow- Accelerated Corrosion, PVP-Vol. 380, Fitness-for Service Evaluations in Petroleum and Fossil Power Plants, ASME, pp. 4557, 1998. Crouch, R. Anglisano and M. Jarrah, Quantitative Field Evaluation of Magnetic Flux Leakage and Ultrasonic In-Line Inspection, Pipeline Pigging Conference, Houston, 1996.

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 W.G. Jenks, S.S.H. Sadeghi and J.P.Wikso Jr et al., in:SQUIDs for Non Destructive Evaluation,p.293-343(1996) J.C. Drury and A. Marino, A Comparison of the Magnetic Flux Leakage and Ultrasonic Methods in the Detection and Measurement of Corrosion Pitting in Ferrous Plate and Pipe, 15th World Conference on

Nondestructive Testing, Roma, 2000. 11 N.IK. Gupta and B.G. Isaacson, Real Time In-Service Inspection of Bare and Insulated Ablove-Ground Pipelines, Materials Evaluation, V. 55, No. 11, 1997. NDT&E International, V. 28, No. 4, pp. 211-214, 1995. H. Kwun and CM. Teller, Nondestructive Evaluation of Pipes and Tubes Using Magnetostrictive Sensors, U.S. Patent No. 5581037, 1995. J.H.J Stalenhoef, J.A. de Raad and P. van Rooijen, MFL and PEC Tools for Plant Inspection, NDT.net, V. 3, No. 12, 1998. SM. Walker, New NDE Developments Support Rapid, Economical Screening for Flow- Accelerated Corrosion, PVP-Vo1.375, Integrity of Structures and Components: Nondestructive Evaluations, ASME, 1998. J.P. Wikswo, IEEE Trans. on Appl. Supercond. 5, 77-120 (1995). J.P. Wikswo, in: SQUID Sensors, Kluwer, Dordrecht, NL, pp. 629-695 (1996). Y. Tavrin et al., Cryogenics 36, 83 (1996). M. v.Kreutzbruck et al., in: Proceedings of ISEM'97, MPB1-5, Braunschweig (1997). H.-J. Krause et al., in: Rev. of Prog. in QNDE 16, Plenum, NY, pp. 1053-1060 (1997). R. Hohmann et al., IEEE Trans. on Appl. Supercond. 7, 2860-2865 (1997). Y. Zhang et al., IEEE Trans. on Appl. Supercond. 7, 2866-2869 (1997). R. Hohmann et al., in: Cryocoolers 9, Plenum, New York, pp. 925-934 (1997). M.L. Luca et al., IEEE Trans. on Appl. Supercond. 7, 2878-2881 (1997). H.-J. Krause et al., Proc. of EUCAS'97, Institute of Physics Conference Series (1998).

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Additional NDT Resources

American Society for ND Testing British Institute of ND Testing Canadian Society of ND Testing European Federation for Nondestructive Testing International Committee for ND Testing International Foundation for the (www.ifant.org) Nondestructive Management Association e-Journal of ND Testing and Ultrasonics (www.ndtma.org) (www.NDT.net) (www.asnt.org) (www.bindt.org) (www.csndt.org) (www.efndt.org)

(www.aipnd.it/icndt.htm) Advancement of ND Testing

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