There are many kinds of educational philosophies, but for the sake of simplicity it is possible to extract five distinct

ones. These five philosophies are (1) perennialism, (2) idealism, (3) realispl, (4) experimentalism, and (5) existentialism. Collectively, these philosophies represent a broad spectrum of thought about what schools should be and do. Educators holding these philosophies would create very different schools for students to attend and learn in. In the following sections, each of these standard philosophies is discussed in terms of its posture on axiological, epistemological, and ontological questions. The five standard philosophies are compared in Table 2.1 in terms of attitudes on significant questions.

Perennialism
The most conservative, traditional, or inflexible of the five philosophies is perennialism, a philosophy drawing heavily from classical definitions of education. Perennialists believe that education, like human nature, is a constant. Because the distinguishing characteristic of humans is the ability to reason, education should focus on developing rationality. Education, for the perennialist, is a preparation for life, and students should be taught the world's permanencies through structured study. For the perennialist, reality is a world of reason. Such truths are revealed to us through study and sometimes through divine acts. Goodness is to be found in rationality itself. Perennialists would favor a curriculum of subjects and doctrine, taught through highly disciplined drill and behavior control. Schchls for the perennialist exist primarily to reveal reason by teaching eternal truths. The teacher interprets and tells. The student is a passive recipient. Because truth is eternal, all change in the immediate school environment is largely superfiaal.
,Idealism

idealism is a philosophy that espouses the refined wisdom of men and women. Reality is seen as a world within a person's mlnd. Truth is to be

TABLE 2.1 Five Major Educational Philosophies

Perennialism Ixeality (ontology)

A world of reason and Cod

Idealism A world of thc mind Consistency

Realism
A world of

Experimentalism A world of experience What works, what is The public test

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Existentialism
A world of existing

things Correspondence .and sensation (as we see i t ) .Laws of nature

Truth or lieason and knowledge revelation . (epistemology) Coodness (axiology) Teaching reality Rationality

. of ideas

Personal, subjective -choice Freedom

Imitation of ideal self, person to be emulated Subject of the rni~ld-literary, philosophical, religious, Teaching ideas via. lecture, discussion Imitating heroes and other cxclnplilrs

Disciplinary 'subjects and doctrine Discipline of tht*mind via drill Disciplining behavior (to . rcilsoll)

Subjects of physical worldmil th, science Teaching for mastery of inforAln tion-demonstrntc, recite Training in rules of conduct

Subject matter of .Subject matter of social experiences rhoic-art, ethics, -social studies philosophy Problem solving, project method Arousing personal responses. rluestioning Awakening self to responsibility

Tqaching truth

.'

Teaching good ncss (values)

Making group decisions in light of consequences .

TABLE 2.1' (cnntinucld)

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Perennialism Why schools exist What should be taught To reveal reason and God's will Eternal truths

Idealism To sharpen the mind and intellectual processes Wisdom of the ages

Realism To reveal the order of the world and 1 1 niverse Laws of physical reality

Experimentalism
To discover and

Existentialism
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expand t11c society we live in to sl~arc experiences Group inquiry into social problems and social sciences, method and subject together Aids, consulta~lt

To aid children in knowing themselves and their place in society Unregimented topic areas

Role of the teacher Role of the student

.. School's

Interprets, tells Passive reception Truth .is eternal, no . real change

Reports, person to be emulated Receives, memorizes Truth to be preserved, antichange

Displays, imparts knowledge

Questions, assists student in personal journey Determines own rule Change is necessary at a11 times

Manipulates, Active participation, passive participation contributes Always coming toward perfection, orderly change Change is everpresent, a process

.-attitude toward change

found in the consistency of ideas. Goodness is an ideal state, something to be strived for. 'Idealism would favor schools teaching subjects o f the mind, such as is found in most public school classrooms. Teachers, for the idealist, would be models of ideal behavior. For idealists, the schools' function is to sharpen intellectual processes, to present the wisdom of the ages, and to present models of behavior that are exemplary. Students in such schools would have a somewhat passive role, receiving and memorizing the reporting of the teacher. Change in the school program would generally be considered an intrusion on the orderly process of educating.

Realism
For the realist, the world is as it is, and the job of school's would be to teach students about the world. Goodness, for the realist, would be found in the laws of nature and the order of the physical world. Truth would be the simple correspondences o f observation. The realist would favor a school dominated by subjects of the hereand-now world, such as math and science. Students would be taught factual information for mastery. The teacher would impart kno~vledge of this and study. Classreality to students or display such reality for observatio~~ rooms would be highly ordered and disciplined, like nature, and the students would be passive participants in the study of things. Changes in school would be perceived as a natural evolution toward a perfection of order.

Experimentalism
For the experimentalist, the world is a n ever-changing place. Reality is what is actually experienced. Truth is what presently functions. Goodness is what is accepted by public test. Unlike the perennialist, idealist, and realist, the experimentalist openly accepts change and continually seeks to discover new ways to expand and improve society. The experimentalist would favor a school with heavy emphasis on social subjects and experiences. Learning would occur through a problemsolving or inquiry format. Teachers would aid learners or consult with learners who would be actively involved in discovering and experiencing :the world in which they live. Such a n education program's focus on value development would factor in group consequences.

Existentialism
The existentialist sees the world a s one personal subjectivity, where goodness, truth, and reality are individually defined. Reality is a world of existing, truth subjectively chosen, and goodness a matter o f freedom.

HGURE 2 1 Philosophy Preference Assessment

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O each ~ item below. respond according tq the strength o f you; klief, x o 4 n g .the i t e m o n a scale'of 1 through 5 : A one ( I ) indicates strong . . disagreementi : . . .a.. five451 . strong '. . . , agieeqent. Use a separate sheet of paper.
1. Ideal teachers are constant questioners.

2. Schools exist for societal improvement3. Teaching should center around the inquiry technique.
4. Demonstration and recitation are essential components for learning. 5. Students should always be permitted to determine their own rules. in the educational process. 6. Reality is spiritual and rational. 7. Curriculum should be b a s 4 on the laws of natural science 8. The teacher should be a strong authority figure 1n the classroom 9. he student is a receiver of knowledge. 10. Ideal teachers interpret knowledge. 11. Lecture-discussion is the most effective teaching techn~que. 12. Institutions should seek avenues toward self-improvement through an orderly process. 13. Schools are obligated to teach moral truths. 14. School programs should focus on social problems and issues. 15. Institutions exist to preserve and strengthen spiritual and social values 16. Subjective opinion reveals truth. 17. Teachers are seen as facilitators of learning. 18. Schools should be educational "smorgasbords." 19. Memorization is the key to process skills. 20. Reality consists of objects. 21. Schools exist to foster the intellectual process. 22. Schools foster an orderly means for change. 23. There are essentisl skills everyone must learn. 24. Teaching by s u b j j t area is the most effective approach. 25. Students should play an active part in program design and evaluation. 26. A functioning member of society follows rules of conduct. 27. Reality is rational. 28. Srhools should reflect the society they serve. 29. The teacher should set an example for the students. 30. The most effective learning does not take place in a highly structured, strictly disciplined environment. 31. The curriculum should be based on unchanging spiritual truths. 32. The most effective learning is nonstmbured. 33. Truth is a constant expressed through ideas. 34. Drill and factual knowledge are important components o f any learning environment. 35. Societal consensus determines morality. 36. Knowledge is gained primarily throogh the senses3 7 . There are essential pieces o f knowledge that everyone should know. 38. The school exists to facilitate self-awareness. 39- Change is an ever-present process. 40. Truths are best taught through the inquiry process.
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For existentialists, if schools existed at all, they would L x places that assisted students in knowing themselves and learning of their place in m i ety..If subject matter existed, it would b d a matter ot interpretation such a s the arts, ethics, or philosophy. Teacherstudent intcraction would center around assisting students in their personal learning journeys. Change i1.r school environments would be embraced a s both a natural and necessary phenomenon.

PHILOSOPHY PREFERENCE ASSESSMENT

It should be noted that tew educators hold a pure version of any oi thew philosophies because schools are complex p l a c ~ r\vi t11 ninny torccs v y ~ n g for prominence. These schools of thought have evc)lvcd as ~listincti\-c form< of philosophp following the examination of heliefs on prtincn: isst~cr When an educator chooses not to adopt a single philcwpl.ry. or blends philosophies for experience, or selectively applies educational philosophies in practice, it is called an eclectic position. Most classrmon~s anti public ~ l i c x ~ come closest to an eclectic stance, applying pliilosoyl.riz preiercnct5 as conditions demand Whatever the educator's philosophy or belithis ah)ut ~ l i ~ x ~ l s - a cach oi the five philosophies presented here is a Icgitimatc Lwlict-it is c r ~ t ~cal that these values be clarified and understocrl in tcnils c b t thcir i11ipliz.1tions To this end, the reader is invited to participate in a 41-itswssmcnt (Figure 2.1, see page 48) that has been developed tcr ';ho\z- prcicrencc~ on value-laden educational questions.
FIGURE L2 Compsite Graph for Philosophy Preference As%?;smcnt

P d t e n ~I . If your profile on the response grid is basti..rll\. il.~t. rctl~x-tin approximately the same score for each set of questions, an inability to discriminate in terms of preference is indicattd. Scu. Figurc 2.3.

FIGURE23 Pattem 1

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Pattem 2. If your pattern is generally a slanting line across the grid, then you show a strong structured or nonshuctured orientation in your reported beliefs about schools. See Figure 2.4.
FIGURE 2.4

Pattern 2

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Pattern 3. If your pattern appears as a bimodal or trimodal distribution (two or three peaks), it indicates indecisiveness on crucial issues and suggests,the need for huther clarification. The doser the peaks (adjacent sets) the less conhadiction in the responses. See Figure 25.
FIGURE 25 Pattern 3 .

Pullern 4. If the pattern appearsu-shaped, as in eitherof the graphs in ~ i ~ u r 6 2 . a,significant 6, amount of value inconsistency is indicated. Such a iespoxise would suggest strong beliefs: in very different and divergent systems. . . . . . .

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Putter11 5. Finally, a pattern that is simply a flowing curve \vitOout sharp peaks and valleys may suggest either an eclectic philosophy or a person only beginning to study his or her own philosophy. See F i ~ u r c 2.7.
FIGURE 2.7 Pattern 5

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What I s Your Philosophy?

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The question numbers from Figure 2 . 1 that relate to the five standard philosophies'of educa'tion are asfollows:
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1 . l'erennialist:
2; idealist: 3- Realist:
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6,8, 10, 13, 15,31, 34,37

9 , ll,19,21,24,27;29-33 4,?, 12,20,22, 23,26, 28

4. Experimentalist: 2,3, 14, 17,25,35,39,40 5. Existentialist: 1,5, 16, 18,30,32,36,38

Scoring Steps
1. For each set (for example, the eight perennialist questions) add the value of the answers given. In a single set of numbers, the total should fall between 8 (all ones) and 40 (all 5s). 2. Divide the total score for each set by 5 (exampIe: 40/5 = 8). 3. Plot the scores on the graph shown in Figure 2.2.

Interpretation of Scoring. Having scored and plotted your responses on the grid provided, you now have a profiIe distinctive to your own 'beliefs about schooIs. It can be noted that some patterns are common and therefore subject to interpretation. The pattern already on the grid (Figure 2.2). for instance, is a composite response by over 5,000 students, both graduate and undergraduate, at five universities.

PHILOSOPHIES AS FOUND IN SCHOOLS

During this century, schools in America have evolved from highly standardized content-focused institutions to more flexible and diverse forms of education. Our understandings of human development and the learning process and the pressures on our rapidly changing society account for these alterations of the schooling form. All schooIs are designed to promote an education but the design of school curriculums differ just as philosophies differ. Schools represent a blueprint or plan to promote learning; because the ends sought by planners differ, all schools are not alike. This section introduces. the fifteen dimensions of school design, dimensions by which schools can be compared and contrasted. Each dimension has been prepared to illuminate the various philosophic continuums within schools. While these continuums d o not match our five philosophies precisely, the reader can begin to see a rough parallel between these philosophies and the various dimensions of the school setting. Questions for planners are highlighted for reader consideration. The intentions of schooling might be thought of as a continuum of choices. On one end o f such a continuum is the belief that education is the process of shaping raw human talent into something definitive and useful to society. This classic view of education sees schools shaping and refining human thought and behavior through an increasingly controlled program of study. Such control, in the legitimate sense of the word, is accomplished by strudurixig the learning environment to facilitate highly predictable ends.