PART 2 THE AASHTO LRFD SPECIFICATIONS 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6. 1.7. 2.

0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 210 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 Limit State Load Combinations Design Vehicle Live Load Fatigue Load Impact (Dynamic Load Allowance = IM) Wind Distribution Factor Steel Material Fatigue and Fracture Limit State Resistance Factor Tension Members Compression Members I-Section Flexural Members Cross-Section Proportion Limits Constructibility Service Limit State (Permanent Deformations) Fatigue and Fracture Limit State Strength Limit State Flexural Resistance-Composite Sections in Positive Flexure Composite Sections in Negative Flexure and Noncomposite Sections Shear Resistance Shear Connectors Transverse Stiffeners Bearing Stiffeners Longitudinal Stiffeners

STEEL STRUCTURES

PART 2 THE AASHTO LRFD SPECIFICATIONS 1.0 INTRODUCTION The AASHTO LRFD Specifications are written based on probabilistic limit state theory with several load combinations listed. These load combinations correspond to four limit states, Service, Fatigue, Fracture, Strength and Extreme-Event. Service limit states are restrictions on stress, deformation and crack width under regular service conditions. They are intended to allow the bridge to perform acceptably for its service life. Fatigue and fracture limit states are restrictions on stress range under regular service conditions reflecting the number of expected stress range excursions. They are intended to limit crack growth under repetitive loads to prevent fracture during the design life of the bridge. Strength limit states are intended to ensure that strength and stability, both local and global, are provided to resist the statistically significant load combinations that a bridge will experience in its design life. Extensive distress and structural damage may occur under strength limit states, but overall structural integrity is expected to be maintained. Extreme event limit states are intended to ensure the structural survival of a bridge during a major earthquake, or when collided by a vessel, vehicle or ice flow, or where the foundation is subject to the scour which would accompany a flood of extreme recurrence, usually considered to be 500 years. They are considered to be unique occurrences whose return period is significantly greater than the design life of the bridge.

2-1

1.1

Limit State Definition: A condition beyond which the bridge or component ceases to satisfy the provisions for which it was designed. Requirement i i Qi Rn = Rr (LRFD Eq. 1.3.2.1-1)

(a)

For loads for which a maximum value of i is appropriate:

i = D R I 0.95
(b)

(LRFD Eq. 1.3.2.1-2)

For loads for which a minimum value of i is appropriate:

i = 1 D R I 1.0
(1) D = Ductility factor

(LRFD Eq. 1.3.2.1-3)

1.05 Strength Limit State; non-ductile components and connections = 1.00 Strength Limit State; conventional designs and details complying with these specifications And all other Limit States 0.95 Strength Limit State; additional ductility - enhancing measures (2) R = Redundancy factor

1.05 Strength Limit State; non-redundant members = 1.00 Strength Limit State; conventional levels of redundancy And all other Limit States 0.95 Strength Limit State; exceptional levels of redundancy (3) I = Operational Importance -2

 1.05 Strength Limit State; important bridges (critical or essential bridges with earthquakes 475-year and 2500year return periods, respectively) = 1.00 Strength Limit State; typical bridges And all other Limit States 0.95 Strength Limit State; relatively less important bridges Example: Major Bridge. Multi-girder Steel. (redundant member) Fatigue Strength Others Minor Bridge. Fatigue Strength Others

= (1.0)(1.0)(1.0) = (1.0)(1.0)(1.05) = (1.0)(1.0)(1.0)

= 1.0 = 1.05 = 1.00

= (1.0)(1.0)(1.0) = (1.0)(1.0)(0.95) = (1.0)(1.0)(1.0)

= 1.00 = 0.95 = 1.0

1.2.

Load Combinations The permanent and transient loads and forces listed in Section 1.6 shall be considered in

the various load combinations. The complete list is in Tables 1-1 and 1-2 (LRFD Table 3.4.1-1 & Table 3.4.1-2).
Q = i i qi

(LRFD Eq. 3.4.1-1)

(1) Strength I -

Normal vehicle, no wind

P D + 1.75 L + ...
(2) Strength II Permit vehicle, no wind

P - DC = 1.25 - 0.9
DW = 1.5 - 0.85

P D + 1.35 L + ...
(3) Strength III No live load, max. wind

P D + 1.4WS + ...
-3

(4) Strength IV -

Dead load only (for large bridge)

P D + ...
(5) Strength V Normal vehicle with 55mph Wind

P - DC = 1.5 - 0.9

P D + 1.35 L + 0.4 WS + 1.0 WL + ...

(6) Extreme I Earthquake

P D + EQ L + EQ
(7) Extreme II Ice load, collision and certain hydraulic events

P D + 0.5 L + Max. (IC, CT, CV) + ...

(8) Service I Normal operation with 55mph Wind D + L + 0.3 WS + 1.0WL + ... (9) Service II Overload event, intended to control yielding of steel structures and slip of slip-critical connections due to vehicular live load. D + 1.3 L + ... (10) Service III (11) Service IV (12) Fatigue Tension in prestressed concrete superstructure D + 0.8L + . . . Tension is prestressed concrete substructure D + 0.7 WS + Fatigue event, stress range of a single design truck 0.75 L So: Superstructure Check Strength I, II, Service I, II, (III,) Fatigue. For large bridges, also check Strength III, IV, V, Extreme Substructure Check Strength I, II, III, IV, V, Extreme, Service I, II (,III). (Add WA + FR to all the conditions.)

-4

TABLE 1-1 AASHTO LOAD COMBINATION TABLE & TABLE 1-2 AASHTO LOAD FACTORS FOR PERMANENT LOADS TABLE
Load Combination Limit State STRENGTH-I (unless noted) STRENGTH-II STRENGTH-III STRENGTH-IV STRENGTH-V EXTREME EVENT-I EXTREME EVENT-II SERVICE-I SERVICE-II SERVICE-III SERVICE-IV FATIGUE-LL, IM & CE ONLY DC/DD DW/EH EV/ES EL P P P P P P P 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 LL/IM CE/BR PL/LS 1.75 1.35 1.35 EQ 0.50 1.00 1.30 0.80 0.75 WA WS WL FR TU CR SH 0.50/1.20 0.50/1.20 0.50/1.20 0.50/1.20 0.50/1.20 1.00/1.20 1.00/1.20 1.00/1.20 1.00/1.20 TG SE Use One of These at a Time EQ TG TG TG TG TG TG TG SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 1.0 1.00 IC 1.00 CT 1.00 CV 1.00 -

1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 -

1.40 0.40 0.30 0.70 -

1.0 1.0 1.0 -

1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 -

(AASHTO LRFD TABLE 3.4.1-2 Load Factors for Permanent Loads, P)

Type of Load DC: Component and Attachments DC: Strength IV only DD: Downdrag Piles, Tomlinson Method Piles, Tomlinson Method Drilled Shafts, ONeill and Reese(1999) Method

Load Factor Maximum Minimum 1.25 0.90 1.5 0.9 1.4 1.05 1.25 1.50 1.50 1.35 1.35 1.00 1.00 1.35 1.30 1.35 1.95 1.50 1.50 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.65 0.90 0.90 N/A 1.00 N/A 1.00 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.75

DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure Active At-Rest AEP for anchored walls EL: Locked-in Erection Stresses EV: Vertical Earth Pressure Overall Stability Retaining Structure(Walls and Abutments) Rigid Buried Structure Rigid Frames Flexible Buried Structures other than Metal Box Culverts Flexible Metal Box Culverts ES: Earth Surcharge

-5

FIGURE 1-1 LRFD DESIGN VEHICULAR LIVE LOAD, HL-93

-6

1.3.

Design Vehicle Live Load

(LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2)

The vehicular live loading for LRFD is designated HL-93 (Figure 2-1), which consists of a combination of the: (1) (2) ! Design Truck + Design Lane Design Tandem + Design Lane For M - or Reactions at interior piers, two 90% Design Trucks spaced at least 50ft + 90% Design Lane Multiple presence factors are not to be applied to the fatigue limit state for which one design truck is used, regardless of the number of design lanes. Thus, the factor 1.20 must be removed from the single lane distribution factors when they are used to investigate fatigue. Number of Loaded Lanes 1 2 3 >3 Multiple Presence Factors, m 1.20 1.00 0.85 0.65

FIGURE 1-2 AASHTO LRFD MULTIPLE PRESENCE FACTORS

-7

1.4.

Fatigue Load Design truck only with constant 30' between 32-kip axles. ADTTsingle-lane = where p = = = p x ADTT 1.0 0.85 0.80 for one-lane bridge for two-lane bridge for three-lane or more bridge ADTT/ADT 0.2 0.15 0.15 0.10 (LRFD Art. 3.6.1.4)

Class of Highway Rural Interstate Urban Interstate Other Rural Other Urban Example:

Rural Interstate 4-lane bridge (Major) ADTTsingle-lane = ADTTsingle-lane = (Max ADT = (0.8)(0.2)ADT (0.85)(0.15)ADT = = 0.16 ADT 0.1275 ADT Rural 2-lane bridge (Minor) 20,000 vehicles/lane/day) (LRFD Art. 3.6.2) IM = 75% IM = 15% IM = 33%

1.5.

Impact (Dynamic Load Allowance = IM) Deck Joints All Limit States

All other components, Fatigue and Fracture Limit State All other components, All other Limit States

Applied to design truck or tandem only; not to be applied to pedestrian loads or to the design lane load.

-8

1.6. (1)

Wind On structure: WS Windward (a) Trusses, Columns and Arches (b) Beams 0.05 ksf (0.30 klf min.) 0.05 ksf (0.30 klf min.) (c) Large Flat Surfaces 0.04 ksf NA Leeward 0.025 ksf (0.15 klf min.) NA *H

(LRFD Art. 3.8)

VD2 / 10,000

A multi-girder bridge. 55 mph design Wind. d = 5 p = = (2) 1.7. On Vehicles 0.05 x 5 x 552 / 10,000 0.30 x 552 / 10,000 = WL = = 0.075625 klf 0.09075 klf govern

(100 lb/ft acting 6 ft above the roadway, based on 55 mph) (LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2)

Distribution Factor

(Steel I-Beams, Prestress Concrete, Concrete T-Beam on Concrete deck) Definition: The AASHTO Specs permit a simplified method by modeling a longitudinal girder or a strip of unit width for obtaining longitudinal moments and shears due to live load. This beam is isolated from the rest of the structure and treated as a one-dimensional beam. This isolated beam is subjected to loads comprising one axle of the design vehicle multiplied by a load fraction g. This g is defined as Axle Load Distribution Factor in LRFD Specs., which is different from the Wheel Load Distribution Factor defined in the AASHTO Specs.

-9

A.

Moment (1) Interior (a) One lane (Table 1-3 & AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1)
0.1

g interior (b)

0.4 0.3 kg S S = 0.06 + 3 14 L 12 Lt s

Two or more lanes g interior

0.6 0.2 kg S S = 0.75 + 3 9.5 L 12 Lt s 0.1

3 6 S 16 , 4.5 t s 12 , 20 L 240 , N b 4

(2)

Exterior (a) (b) One lane Two or more lanes, gexterior = e ginterior e = 0.77 + de / 9.1

(Table 1-4 & AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2d-1) Use level rule.

1 0 de 5 6

FIGURE 1-3 ILLUSTRATION OF THE G-VALUE METHOD

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TABLE 1-3 AASHTO TABLE FOR THE MOMENT DISTRIBUTION FACTOR OF THE INTERIOR BEAMS
(AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1 Distribution of Live loads Per Lane for Moment in interior Beams)

Type of Beams

Wood Deck on Wood or Steel Beams Concrete Deck on Wood Beams Concrete Deck, Filled Grid, Partially Filled Grid or Unfilled Grid Deck Composite with Reinforced Concrete Slab on Steel or Concrete Beams; Concrete T-Beams, T- and Double T-Sections Cast-in-Place Concrete Multicell Box

Applicable Cross-Section from Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 a, l l a, e, k and also i, j if sufficiently connected to act as a unit

Distribution Factors

Range of Applicability

See Table 4.6.2.2.2a-1 Once Design Land Loaded: S/12.0 Two or More Design Lanes Loaded: S/10.0 One Design Lane Loaded:
S S Kg 0.06 + 3 14 L 12.0 Lt s Two or More Design Lanes Loaded: 0.1 0.6 0.2 Kg S S 0.075 + 3 9.5 L 12.0 Lt s
0.4 0.3 0.1

S 6.0 3.5 S 16.0 4.5 ts 12.0 20 L 240 Nb 4 10,000 Kg 7,000,000 Nb = 3

Use lesser of the values obtained from the equation above with Nb = 3 or the lever rule.

One Design Lane Loaded:

S 1 1 1.75 + 3.6 L Nc Two or More Design Lanes Loaded: 13 S 1 N c 5.8 L One Design Lane Loaded:
S Sd 2 3.0 12.0 L Two ore More Design Lanes Loaded:
0.35 0.25

0.35

0.45

7.0 S 13.0 60 L 240 Nc 3 If Nc > 8 use Nc = 8

0.3

0.25

Concrete Deck on Concrete Spread Box Beams

b, c

6.0 S 18.0 20 L 140 18 d 65 Nb 3

S Sd 2 6.3 12.0 L Use Lever Rule

0.6

0.125

S > 18.0

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TABLE 1-3 AASHTO TABLE FOR THE MOMENT DISTRIBUTION FACTOR OF THE INTERIOR BEAMS (Continued)

Type of Beams

Concrete Beams Used in MultiBeam Decks

Applicable Cross-Section from Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 f

Distribution Factors

Range of Applicability 35 b 60 20 L 120 5 Nb 20

One Design Lane Loaded: b I k 33.3L J where: k = 2.5 (Nb)-0.2 1.5 Two or More Design Lanes Loaded: b b I k 305 12.0 L J Regardless of Number of Loaded Lanes: S/D where: C = K (W/L) D = 11.5 NL +1.4 NL (1 0.2C )2 when C 5 D = 11.5 NL when C > 5 (1 + )I K= J for preliminary design, the following value of K may be used: Beam Type K Nonvoided rectangular beams 0.7 Rectangular beams with circular voids: 0.8 Box section beams 1.0 Channel beams 2.2 T-Beam 2.0 Double T-Beam 2.0 One Design Lane Loaded: S/7.5 if tg < 4.0 IN S/10.0 if tg 4.0 IN Two or More Design Lanes Loaded: S/8.0 if tg < 4.0 IN S/10.0 if tg 4.0 IN Regardless of Number of Loaded Lanes: N 0.425 0.05 + 0.85 L + Nb NL
0.6 0.2 0.06 0.5 0.25

g if sufficiently connected to act as a unit h

g, i, j if connected only enough to prevent relative vertical displacement at the interface

Skew 45 NL 6

Open Steel Gird Deck on Steel Beams

S 6.0 FT

S 10.5 FT
NL 1.5 Nb

Concrete deck on Multiple Steel Box Girders

b, c

0.5

2-12

TABLE 1-4 AASHTO TABLE FOR THE MOMENT DISTRIBUTION FACTOR OF THE EXTERIOR BEAMS (AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2d-1)

Type of Superstructure
Wood Deck on Wood or Steel Beams Concrete Deck on Wood Concrete Deck, Filled Grid, Partially Filled Grid, or Unfilled Grid Deck Composite with Reinforced Concrete Slab on Steel or Concrete Beams; Concrete T-Beams, T and Double T sections Cast-in-Place Concrete Multi Cell Box

Applicable CrossSection from Table 4.6.2.2.1-1

a, l l a, e, k and also i, j if sufficiently connected to act as a unit

One Design Lane Loaded

Lever Rule Lever Rule Lever Rule

Two or More Design Lanes Loaded

Lever Rule Lever Rule g = e ginterior

Range of Applicability
N/A N/A -1.0 de 5.5

d e = 0.77 + e 9.1
Nb = 3 Use lesser of the values obtained from the equation above with Nb = 3 or the lever rule.

g=

We 14

g=

We 14

We S

Concrete Deck on Concrete Spread Box Beams Concrete Box Beams Used in Multi-Beam Decks Concrete Beams other than Box Beams Used in Multi-Beam Decks

b, c

Or the provisions for a wholewidth design specified in Article 4.6.2.2.1 Lever Rule g = e ginterior

d e = 0.97 + e 28.5
f, g Lever Rule Use Lever Rule g = e ginterior

0 de 4.5 6.0 < S 18.0 S > 18.0 -1.0 de 2.0

e = 1.04 +
h i, j if connected only enough to prevent relative vertical displacement at the interface a b, c Lever Rule

de 25
N/A

Lever Rule

Open Steel Gird Deck on Steel Beams Concrete Deck on Multiple Steel Box Girders

Lever Rule

Lever Rule

N/A

As specified in Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1

2-13

(3)

Reduction on skew supports. (Table 1-5 & AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2e-1) R = 1 c1 (tan 2)1.5
0.25

kg c1 = 0.25 12 Lt 3 s if

S L

0.5

2 < 30o then c1 = 0.0 2 > 60o use 2 = 60o 30 60, 3.5 S 16.0, 20 L 240, Nb 4

TABLE 1-5 AASHTO TABLE FOR THE MOMENT DISTRIBUTION FACTOR ON SKEWED SUPPORTS
(AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2e-1 Reduction of Load Distribution Factors for Moment in Longitudinal Beams on Skewed Supports)

Type of Superstructure Concrete Deck, Filled Grid, Partially Filled Grid, or Unfilled Grid Deck Composite with Reinforced Concrete Slab on Steel or Concrete Beams; Concrete T-Beams, T or Double T Section Concrete Deck on concrete Spread Box Beams, Cast-in-Place Multicell Box Concrete Beams, and Double T Sections used in Multi-Beam Decks

Applicable CrossSection from Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 a, e, k

Any Number of Design Lanes Loaded 1 c1(tan )1.5

0.5 Kg S c1 = 0.25 3 12.0 Lt s L If < 30 then c1 = 0.0 If > 60 use = 60 0.25

Range of Applicability 30 60 3.5 S 16.0 20 L 240 Nb 4

i, j if sufficiently connected to act as a unit b, c, d,f, g

1.05 0.25 tan 1.0 if > 60 use = 60

0 60

-14

FIGURE 1-4 EXAMPLE FOR THE CALCULATION OF MOMENT DISTRIBUTION FACTORS

Component Top Flange 12 Web 7/16 16 Bottom Flange 7/8 16

A 9.00 15.75 14.00 38.75

D 18.38 -18.44

Ad 165.4 -258.2 -92.8

I 3,040 1,701 4,760 4,761 9,502 2.39(92.8) = 222 I NA = 9,280 in.4

Ad2 3,040

Io 0.42 1,701 0.89

ds =

92.8 2.39 in. 38.75

dBOT OF STEEL = 18.88 2.39 = 16.49 in. SBOT OF STEEL =

dTOP OF STEEL = 18.75 23.9 = 21.14 in. STOP OF STEEL =

9,280 = 439.0 in.3 21.14

9,280 = 562.8 in.3 16.49

n=8

eg =

8.0 + 2.0 + 21.14 0.75 = 26.39 in. 2

2 K g = n(I + Ae g ) = 8 9,280 + 38.75(26.39) = 290,134 in.4 2 0.4 0.3 kg S S = 0.06 + 3 Lt 12 14 L s 0.1

g interior

= 0.484 lanes

(for this case two lane loaded govens where g interior = 0.698 lanes

Exterior Girder Strength Limit State DF = 7.0 = 0.700 10.0

(use the level rule for one lane loaded)

Multiple presence factor m = 1.2 (Table 3.6.1.1.2-1) 1.2 (0.700) = 0.840 lanes

-15

B. (1)

Shear Interior (a) (b) One lane Two or more lanes, (Table 1-6 & AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1) ginterior = 0.36 + S/25 ginterior = 0.2 + S/12 (S/35)2.0

3-5 S 16-0, 20 L 240, 4.5 ts 12.0, Nb 4

(2)

Exterior (a) (b) One lane. Two or more lanes

(Table 1-7 & AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3b-1) Use level rule. gexterior = e ginterior e = 0.6 + de / 10 -1.0 de 5-6

(3)

Correction on the obtuse corner (Table 1-8 & AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3c-1)
0.3

12 Lt s3 tan g = 1 + 0.2 k g 0 60, 3-5 S 16-0, 20 L 240, Nb 4

-16

TABLE 1-6 AASHTO TABLE FOR THE SHEAR DISTRIBUTION FACTOR OF THE INTERIOR BEAMS
(AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1 Distribution of Live Load Per Lane for Shear in Interior Beams)

Type of Superstructure Wood Deck on Wood or Steel Beams Concrete Deck on Wood Beams Concrete Deck, filled Grid, Partially Filled Grid, or Unfilled Grid Deck Composite with Reinforced Concrete Slab on Steel or Concrete Beams; Concrete T-Beams, T- and Double T-Sections Cast-in-Place Concrete Multicell Box Concrete Deck on Concrete Spread Box Beams Concrete Box Beams Used in Multi-Beam Decks Concrete Beams Other Than Box Beams Used in Multi-Beam Decks

Applicable CrossSection from Table 4.6.2.2.1-1

a, l

One Design lane Loaded

Two or More Design Lanes Loaded

See Table 4.6.2.2.2a-1

Range of Applicability

l a, e, k and also i, j if sufficiently connected to act as a unit

Lever Rule

Lever Rule

N/A
2.0

0.35 +

S 25.0

S S 0.2 + 12 3
Lever Rule

Lever Rule

3.5 S 16.0 20 L 240 4.5 ts 12.0 10,000 Kg 7,000,000 Nb 4 Nb = 3

S d 9.5 12.0 L S d 10 12.0 L

Lever Rule
0.15 0.6

0.6

0.1

S d 7.3 12.0 L S d 7.4 12.0 L

Lever Rule
0.4 0.1

0.6

0.1

b, c

0.1

0.8

0.1

f, g

b 130 L

I J

0.05

b b I 156 12.0 L J b > 1.0 48

0.05

b 48

Open Steel Grid Deck on Steel Beams Concrete Deck on Multiple Steel Box Beams

h i, j if connected only enough to prevent relative vertical displacement at the interface a

Lever Rule

Lever Rule

6.0 S 13.0 20 L 240 35 ts 110 Nc 3 6.0 S 18.0 20 L 140 18 d 65 Nb 3 S > 18.0 35 b 60 20 L 120 5 Nb 20 25,000 J 610,000 40,000 I 610,000 N/A

Lever Rule

Lever Rule

N/A

b, c

As specified in Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1

2-17

TABLE 1-7 AASHTO TABLE FOR THE SHEAR DISTRIBUTION FACTOR OF THE EXTERIOR BEAMS
(AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3b-1 Distribution of Live Load Per Lane for Shear in Exterior Beams)

Type of Superstructure Wood Deck on Wood or Steel Beams Concrete Deck on Wood Beams Concrete Deck, Filled Grid, Partially Filled Grid, or Unfilled Grid Deck Composite with Reinforced Concrete Slab on Steel or Concrete Beams; Concrete T-Beams, T- and Double TBeams Case-in-Place Concrete Multicell Box

Applicable CrossSection from Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 a, l l a, e, k and also i, j if sufficiently connected to act as a unit

One Design Lane Loaded Lever Rule Lever Rule Lever Rule

Two or more Design Lanes Loaded Lever Rule Lever Rule g = e ginterior d e = 0.6 + e 10 Lever Rule

Range of Applicability N/A N/A -1.0 de 5.5

Nb = 3

Lever Rule

g = e ginterior

-2.0 de 5.0

Concrete Deck on Concrete Spread Box Beams

b, c

Concrete Box Beams Used in Multi-Beam Decks

f, g

d e = 0.64 + e 12.5 Or the provisions for a whole-width design specified in Article 4.6.2.2.1 Lever Rule g = e ginterior d e = 0.8 + e 10 Lever Rule g = e ginterior g = e ginterior
e = 1.25 + de 1 .0 20
48 / b 1.0

0 de 4.5

S > 18.0 de 2.0 35<b<60

b d e + 2. 0 12 e =1+ 40

0 .5

1 .0

Concrete Beams Other Than Box Beams Used in MultiBeam Decks

Open Steel Grid Deck on Steel Beams Concrete Deck on Multiple Steel Box Beams

h i, j if connected only enough to prevent relative vertical displacement at the interface a b, c

Lever Rule

Lever Rule

N/A

Lever Rule

Lever Rule

N/A

As specified in Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1

2-18

TABLE 1-8 AASHTO TABLE FOR THE DISTRIBUTION CORRECTION FACTOR FOR SUPPORT SHEAR OF THE OBTUSE CORNER
(AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3c-1 Correction Factors for Load Distribution Factors for Support Shear of the Obtuse Corner)

Type of Superstructure

Concrete Deck, Filled Grid, Partially Filled Grid, or Unfilled Grid Deck Composite with Reinforced Concrete Slab on Steel or Concrete Beams; Concrete T-Beams, T- and Double T Section Cast-in-Place Concrete Multicell Box

Applicable Cross-Section from Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 a, e, k i, j if sufficiently connected to act as a unit

Correction Factor

Range of Applicability 0 60 3.5 S 16.0 20 L 240 Nb 4

12.0 Lt s3 1.0 + 0.20 K g

0.3

tan

12.0 L 1.0 + 0.25 + tan 70d

Concrete Deck on Spread Concrete Box Beams

b, c

Ld 1.0 + 12.0 tan 6S 1.0 + 12.0 L tan 90d

Concrete Box Beams Used in Multi-Beam Decks

f, g

0 60 6.0 S 13.0 20 L 240 35 d 110 Nc 3 0 60 6.0 S 11.5 20 L 140 18 d 65 Nb 3 0 60 20 L 120 17 d 60 35 b 60 5 Nb 20

-19

2.0 2.1

STEEL STRUCTURES Steel Material

(LRFD Art. 6.4)

Structural Steel

Pins, Rollers Rockers

AASHTO M270 Grade 36 50 50W 70W 100/100W M169 M102

Bolts M164 M253 M291 M239 M169 M192 M103 M163

Nuts Washers Studs Cap Cast Steel

Ductile Iron Ferritic Malleable Iron Castings Cast Iron Casting Stainless Steel

Equiv. ASTM A709 Grade 36 50 50W 70W 100/100W A108 Grade 36 A668 Class C 33 Class D 37.5 Class F 50 Class G 50 A307 A325 A490 A563 F436 A108 A109 A486 A27 A743 A536 A47 Grade 35018 A48 A176 A240 A276 A666 A510 A641(Zinc-Coated) A99 (Epoxy-Coated) A603(Zinc-Coated Wire Rope) A586(Zinc-Coated Parallel and Helical )

M105 Class 30

Wires (Cables)

2-1

.2

Fatigue and Fracture Limit State

(LRFD Art. 6.6)

The fatigue provisions of the Steel Structures Section of the AASHTO LRFD Specification for Highway Bridge Design combine aspects of both the AASHTO Standard Specification for Highway Bridges (AASHTO 1996) and the Guide Specification for Fatigue Design of Steel Bridges (AASHTO 1989). These provisions are based upon two principles of fatigue of welded steel details:
z

If all of the stress ranges that a welded steel detail experiences in its lifetime are less than the constant-amplitude fatigue threshold (i.e., the maximum stress range is less than the threshold), the detail will not experience fatigue crack growth; otherwise

the fatigue life of the detail can be estimated considering an effective (weighted average of sorts) stress range, which represents all of the varying magnitudes of stress range experienced by the detail during its lifetime.

These two principles result in two branches in the flow of fatigue design, infinite life design and finite life design. Fatigue details for bridges with higher truck traffic volumes are designed for infinite life. This practice is carried over from both the Standard Specifications and the Guide Specifications. Bridges with lower truck traffic volumes are designed for the fatigue life required by the estimated site-specific traffic volumes projected for their lifetimes.

(f ) (F )n
(1)

(LRFD Eq. 6.6.1.2.2-1)

Infinite Fatigue Life (When the design stress range is less than one-half of the constantamplitude fatigue threshold, the detail will theoretically provide infinite life.) Detail Category A B B C C D E E 75-year (ADTT)SL equivalent to Infinite Life 535 865 1035 1290 745 1875 3545 6525

-2

(2)

Finite Fatigue Life

1

A 3 1 Fn = F = (F )TH ; 2 N

N = (365)(75)(n )(ADTT )singlelane

Category A B B C C D E E Example:

A 2.5 x 1010 1.2 x 1010 6.1 x 109 4.4 x 109 4.4 x 109 2.2 x 109 1.1 x 109 3.9 x 108

( F)TH (ksi) 24 16 12 10 12 7 4.5 2.6 =

n Simple-span Continuous (1) Near Interior Support (2) Elsewhere

> 40 1.0

< 40 2.0

1.5 1.0

2.0 2.0

(ADTT)single-lane Category C. N F

1500, 80-80 Continuous bridge. = 6.159 107 = 4.106 107 = 4.15 ksi = 4.75 ksi 5 ksi Interior support elsewhere Interior support elsewhere governs

= (365)(75)(1.5)(1500) (1.0) = (4.4 x 109/6.159 x 107)1/3 /4.106 = = (10) = 5 ksi

( F)TH Use F

FIGURE 2-1 AASHTO STRESS RANGE VS NUMBER OF CYCLES

-3

FIGURE 2-2 AASHTO ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES FOR FATIGUE DETAILS

-4

2.3

Resistance Factor

(LRFD Art. 6.5.4.2)

For

flexure shear axial compression steel only axial compression, composite tension, fracture in net section tension, yielding in gross section

f v c c u y

= = = = = =

1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.80 0.95 (LRFD Art. 6.8)

2.4

Tension Members

(1)

Axial Tension

Pr > Pn

where

Pr = y Fy Ag } Pr = u Fu AnU

lesser

(LRFD Eq. 6.8.2.1-1 & -2)

where the reduction factor, U, may be taken as: for sections subjected to a tension load transmitted directly to each of the cross sectional elements by bolts or welds U = 1.0 for bolted connections for rolled I-shapes with flange widths not less than 2/3 * depth, and structural tees cut from these shapes, connection is to the flanges and 3 fasteners for all other members and 3 fasteners for all members with 2 fasteners U U U = = = 0.90 0.85 0.75

When a tension load is transmitted by fillet welds to some, but not all, elements of a cross-section, the weld strength shall control. (2) Combined Axial Tension and Bending -5

If Pu / Pr < 0.2

(LRFD Eq. 6.8.2.3-1)

M uy Pu M 1.0 + ux + 2 Pr M M ry rx
If Pu / Pr 0.2 (LRFD Eq. 6.8.2.3-2)

M uy Pu 8 M 1.0 + ux + Pr 9 M M ry rx
(3) Limiting Slenderness Ratio
2.5

(LRFD Art. 6.8.4)

l / r 140

main members, subject to stress reversal main members, not subject to stress reversal bracing members

l / r 200 l / r 240

Compression Members

(LRFD Art. 6.9)

Limitation of Plate Slenderness of plates

b E k t Fy

(LRFD Eq. 6.9.4.2-1)

where k

= 0.56 = 0.75 = 0.45

Flanges and projecting legs or plates (one edge supported) Stems of rolled tees (one edge supported) Other projecting elements (one edge supported) Box flanges and cover plates (two edges supported) Webs and other plate elements (two edges supported)

= 1.4 = 1.49

-6

= 1.86 Wall thickness of tube circular

Perforated cover plates (two edges supported)

D E 2.8 t Fy b E 1.7 t Fy

(LRFD Eq. 6.9.4.2-5)

rectangular

(LRFD Eq. 6.9.4.2-6)

FIGURE 2-3 AASHTO LIMITING WIDTH-THICKNESS RATIOS

-7

(1)

Axial Compression

Pr = Pn

where Pn = 0.66 Fy As

for 2.25 (LRFD Eq. 6.9.4.1-1)

Pn =

0.88Fy As

for > 2.25

(LRFD Eq. 6.9.4.1-2)

Kl Fy = r s E
For lateral support, in both directions, at their ends K = = = (2) 0.75 1.0 for bolted or welded end For single angles, regardless of end connection (LRFD Art. 6.9.2.2) 0.875 for pinned ends (LRFD Art. 4.6.2.5)

Combined Axial Compression and Bending If Pu /Pr < 0.2

M uy Pu M 1.0 + ux + 2 Pr M M ry rx
If Pu /Pr 0.2

(LRFD Eq. 6.9.2.2-1)

M uy Pu 8 M 1.0 + ux + Pr 9 M M rx ry
(3) Limiting Slenderness Ratio main members bracing members
Kl / r 120

(LRFD Eq. 6.9.2.2-2)

(LRFD Art. 6.9.3)

Kl / r 140

-8

(4)

Composite column and Axial compression Pn = 0.66 Fe As

0.88 Fe As

for

2.25

(LRFD Eq. 6.9.5.1-1)

Pn =

Kl Fe = r s Ee
2

for

> 2.25

(LRFD Eq. 6.9.5.1-2)

(LRFD Eq. 6.9.5.1-3)

Ar Fe = Fy + C1 Fyr A s

Ac + C 2 f c A s

(LRFD Eq. 6.9.5.1-4)

C Ac Ee = E 1 + 3 n As
Column Type Concrete Filled tubing Concrete encased shape

C1 1.0 0.7 C2 0.85 0.6

(LRFD Eq. 6.9.5.1-5)

C3 0.4 0.2

-9

2.6

I-Section Flexural Members

2.6.1 Composite Sections

(1)

Effective Width

(LRFD Art. 4.6.2.6)

(a)

Interior -

min. of

{ {

1 Leff 4 12t slab + max .of ( 1 t web and 1 wtopflange ) 2 2 average spacing of adjacent beams

(b)

Exterior

min. of

1 Leff 8 6t slab + max .of ( 1 t web and 1 wtopflange ) 2 4 width of the overhang

2008: Interior - one-half the distance to the adjacent girder on each side of the component; Exterior one-half the distance to the adjacent girder plus the full overhang width. (2) Yield Moment Resistance Solve for the MAD from My = MD1 + MD2 + MAD

Fy =
SNC SST SLT

M D1 M DL M AD + + S NC S LT S ST
= = = = Non-composite section modulus

(LRFD D6.2.2-1)

Short-term composite section modulus Long-term composite section modulus Moments due to the factored loads

MD1, MD2 & MAD (3)

Depth of Web in Compression Elastic (Dc)

Positive flexure (distance from web top to elastic neutral axis)

fC Dc = d t f fC + ft

(LRFD D 6.3.1-1)

Negative flexure (distance from web bottom to elastic neutral axis) Dc may be computed for the section consisting of the steel girders plus the longitudinal reinforcement.
-10

Plastic (Dcp), Positive flexure (distance from web top to plastic neutral axis)

The plastic natural axis is in the web.

Dcp =

D Fyt At Fyc Ac 0.85 f cAs Fyr Ar + 1 Fyw Aw 2

(LRFD D 6.3.2-1)

All others, DCP = 0 The plastic natural axis is in the web

Dcp = D (Fyt At + Fyw Aw + Fyr Ar Fyc Ac ) 2 Aw Fyw

Plastic (Dcp), Negative flexure (distance from web bottom to plastic neutral axis)

(LRFD D 6.3.2-2)

All others, DCP = D

Figure 2-4 Computation of Dc at sections in Positive Flexure

-11

TABLE 2-1 AASHTO TABLE OF THE PLASTIC MOMENT FOR THE POSITIVE BENDING SECTIONS
(AASHTO LRFD Table D6.1-1 Calculation of

y and Mp for Positive ending Sections)

CASE I

PNA In Web

CONDITION
Pt + Pw Pc + Ps + Prb + Prt

y AND Mp
D P Pc Ps Prt Prb y = t + 1 Pw 2 2 2 P M p = w y + D y + [Ps d s + Prt d rt + Prb d rb + Pc d c + Pt d t ] 2D t P + P Ps Prt Prb y = c w t + 1 Pc 2 2 Pc 2 Mp = y + t c y + [Ps d s + Prt d rt + Prb d rb + Pw d w + Pt d t ] 2t c

)]

II

In Top Flange

Pt + Pw + Pc Ps + Prb + Prt

)]

III

Slab, Below Prb

C Pt + Pw + Pc rb Ps + Prb + Prt t s

P + Pw + Pt Prt Prb y = (t s ) c Ps 2 y P s Mp = + [Prt d rt + Prb d rb + Pc d c + Pw d w + Pt d t ] 2t s

IV

Slab, at Prb

Pt + Pw + Pc + Prb C rb Ps + Prt t s

y = C rb
y2P s Mp = + [Prt d rt + Pc d c + Pw d w + Pt d t ] 2t s P + Pc + Pw + Pt Prt y = (t s ) rb Ps

Slab, Above Prb, Below Prt

C Pt + Pw + Pc + Prb+ Prt rt t s

P s

y2P s Mp = 2t s
Pt + Pw + Pc + Prb Crb Ps + Prt t s

+ [P d + P d + P d + P d + P d ] rt rt rb rb c c w w t t

VI

Slab, at Prt

P + Pc + Pw + Pt Prt y = (t s ) rb Ps 2 y P s Mp = + [Prt d rt + Prb d rb + Pc d c + Pw d w + Pt d t ] 2t s P + Pc + Pw + Pt Prt y = (t s ) rb Ps 2 y P s Mp = + [Prt d rt + Prb d rb + Pc d c + Pw d w + Pt d t ] 2t s

VII

Slab, above Prt

C Pt + Pw + Pc + Prb < rt t s

P + Prt s

-12

TABLE 2-2 AASHTO TABLE OF THE PLASTIC MOMENT FOR THE NEGATIVE BENDING SECTIONS
(AASHTO LRFD Table D6.1-2 Calculation of

y and Mp for Negative Bending Sections) y and Mp

CASE I

PNA In Web

CONDITION

Pc + Pw Pt + Prb + Prt

II

In Top Flange

Pc + Pw + Pt Prb + Prt

D P Pt Prt Prb + 1 y = c Pw 2 2 Pw 2 Mp = y + D y + [Prt d rt + Prb d rb + P t d t + Pc d c ] 2D t P + Pc Prt Prb y = t w + 1 Pt 2 2 Pt 2 Mp = y + t t y + [Prt d rt + Prb d rb + P w d w + Pc d c ] 2t t

)]

)]

-13

2.6.2

Noncomposite Sections

Sections where the concrete deck is not connected to the steel section by shear connectors designed in this section shall be considered noncomposite sections. Depth of web in compression for plastic: If: FywAw |FycAc FytAt| Then
Dcp = D (Fyt At + Fyw Aw Fyc Ac ) 2 Aw Fyw

(LRFD Eq. D 6.3.2-4)

Otherwise

Dcp = D
2.7 Cross-Section Proportion Limits (LRFD Art. 6.10.2)

w/o longitudinal Stiffeners

Web Proportions w longitudinal Stiffeners

D 150 tw D 300 tw bf
2t f 12.0

(LRFD Eq. D 6.10.2.1.1-1) (LRFD Eq. D 6.10.2.1.2-1) (LRFD Eq. D 6.10.2.2-1) (LRFD Eq. D 6.10.2.2-2) (LRFD Eq. D 6.10.2.2-3) (LRFD Eq. D 6.10.2.2-4)

Compression Flanges Flange Proportions Tension Flanges

bf D / 6 t f 1.1t w
0.1

I yc I yt

10

-14

2.8

Constructibility

(LRFD Art. 6.10.3)

(1)

Flexural Requirement For sections with slender

f bu + f l f Rh Fyc
Discretely Braced Flanges in Compression

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.3.2.1-1)

webs, it shall not be checked when f l is equal to zero.

f bu +

1 f l f Rh Fyc (LRFD Eq. 6.10.3.2.1-2) 3 For sections with compact or (LRFD Eq. 6.10.3.2.1-3) noncompact webs, It shall not be checked.

f bu f Fcrw
Discretely Braced Flanges in Tension Continuously Braced Flanges in Tension or Compression

f bu + f l f Rh Fyt

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.3.2.2-1)

f bu f Rh Fyf

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.3.2.3-1)

The longitudinal tensile stress in a composite concrete deck due to the factored loads shall Concrete Deck not exceed f r during critical stages of construction, unless longitudinal reinforcement is provided according to the provisions of LRFD Article 6.10.1.7. (2) Shear Requirement

f r shall be taken as the

modulus of rupture of the concrete determined as specified in LRFDArticle 5.4.2.6

Interior panels of webs with transverse stiffeners, with or without longitudinal stiffeners, shall satisfy the following requirement during critical stages of construction:

Vu vVcr
2.9 Service Limit State (Permanent Deformations)

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.3. 3-1) (LRFD Art. 6.10.4.2)

(1)

For Composite: a) For the top steel flange: -15

f f 0.95Rh Fyf
b) For the bottom steel flange:

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.4.2.2-1)

f f + 0.5 f l 0.95Rh Fyf

(2) For Noncomposite:

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.4.2.2-2)

f f + 0.5 f l 0.80 Rh Fyf f c Fcrw

2.10 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.4.2.2-3)

Except for composite sections in positive flexure, all sections shall satisfy: (LRFD Eq. 6.10.4.2.2-4)

(LRFD Art. 6.10.5.3)

The Fatigue load combination the fatigue live load shall follow Section 2.1.4 (LRFD Art. 3.6.1.4) The provisions for fatigue in shear connectors shall follow Section 2.2.15 (LRFD Art. 6.10.10) Special Fatigue Requirement for Webs Interior panels of webs w/ transverse stiffeners, w/ or w/o longitudinal stiffeners: Vu Vcr (LRFD Eq. 6.10.5.3-1)

2.11

Strength Limit State

(LRFD Art. 6.10.6)

2.11.1 Flexure (1) General If there are holes in the tension flange, the tension flange shall satisfy: A f t 0.84 n A g (2) Fu Fyt (LRFD Eq. 6.10.1.8-1)

Composite Sections in Positive Flexure a) Composite sections in straight bridges that satisfy the following requirements shall qualify as compact composite sections:
y y y

the specified minimum yield strengths of the flanges do not exceed 70.0 ksi, the web satisfies the requirement of Section 2.2.7 (LRFD Art. 6.10.2) the section satisfies the web slenderness limit:
-16

2 Dcp tw

3.76

E Fyc

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.6.2.2-1)

b) Compact and Noncompact sections shall satisfy the requirements of Section 2.2.12 (LRFD Art. 6.10.7). (3) Composite Sections in Negative Flexure and Noncomposite Sections Sections in kinked (chorded) continuous or horizontally curved steel girder bridges shall be proportioned according to provisions specified in Section 2.2.13 (LRFD Art. 6.10.8) 2.11.2 Shear Follow Section 2.2.14 (LRFD Art. 6.10.9) 2.11.3 Shear Connector Follow Section 2.2.15 (LRFD Art. 6.10.10)
2.12 Flexural Resistance-Composite Sections in Positive Flexure

(LRFD Art. 6.10.7)

(1)

Compact Sections: Mu + If D p 0.1Dt , Otherwise, In a continuous span, Unless:

y y

1 f l S xt f M n 3 Mn = M p

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.7.1.1-1) (LRFD Eq. 6.10.7.1.2-1)

Dp Mn = M p 1.07 0.7 D t

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.7.1.2-2) (LRFD Eq. 6.10.7.1.2-3)

M n 1.3Rh M y

the span under consideration and all adjacent interior-pier sections satisfy the requirements of LRFD Article B6.2, the appropriate value of RL from LRFD Article B6.6.2 exceeds 0.009 radians at all adjacent interior-pier sections.

(2)

Noncompact Sections
y Compression flange:

f bu f Fnc

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.7.2.1-1)

-17

where
y Tension flange:

Fnc = Rb Rh Fyc f bu + 1 f l f Fnt 3

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.7.2.2-1) (LRFD Eq. 6.10.7.2.1-2) (LRFD Eq. 6.10.7.2.2-2)

where
y For shored construction,

Fnc = Rh Fyt

the maximum longitudinal compressive stress in the concrete deck 0.6 f c (3) Ductility Requirement D p 0.42 Dt (LRFD Eq. 6.10.7.3-1)

2.13 Composite Sections in Negative Flexure and Noncomposite Sections (LRFD Art.

6.10.8) (1) General Compression Discretely Braced Flanges in Tension Continuously Braced Flanges in Tension or Compression (2) f bu + f bu + 1 f l f Fnc 3 1 f l f Fnt 3 (LRFD Eq. 6.10.8.1.1-1) (LRFD Eq. 6.10.8.1.2-1) (LRFD Eq. 6.10.8.1.3-1) Discretely Braced Flanges in

f bu f Rh Fyf

Compression-Flange Flexural Resistance

f pf
Local Buckling (FLB) Resistance otherwise Lb L p Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB) Resistance Lb > Lr L p < Lb Lr

Fnc = Rb Rh Fyc Fyr f pf Rb Rh Fyc Fnc = 1 1 R F h yc rf pf Fnc = Rb Rh Fyc Fyr Lb L p Rb Rh Fyc Rb Rh Fyc Fnc = Cb 1 1 R F L L h yc r p Fnc Rb Rh Fyc

-18

(3)

Tension-Flange Flexural Resistance Fnt = Rh Fyt (LRFD Eq. 6.10.8.3-1) (LRFD Art. 6.10.9) Vu vVn (LRFD Eq. 6.10.9.1-1)

2.14 Shear Resistance

At the strength limit state, straight and curved web panel shall satisfy:

A flowchart for determining the shear resistance of I-section is shown in Figure 2-9 (also AASHTO LRFD Figure C6.10.9.1-1)
Figure 2-5 Flowchart for Shear Design of I Sections

(1)

Unstiffened web Vn = CVp Vp = 0.58 Fyw Dtw -19

(LRFD Art. 6.10.9.2) (LRFD Eq. 6.10.9.2-1) (LRFD Eq. 6.10.9.2-2)

(2)

Stiffened web a) Interior Panels

2 Dt w (b fct fc + b ft t ft ) 2.5 :

(LRFD Art. 6.10.9.3.2)

if

0.87(1 C ) Vn = V p C + 2 do 1+ D

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.9.3.2-2)

otherwise:
0.87(1 C ) Vn = V p C + 2 d do 1+ + o D D

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.9.3.2-8)

for which Vp = 0.58 Fyw D tw (LRFD Eq. 6.10.9.3.2-3)

Determination of C

if

D Ek < 1.12 tw Fyw

C = 1.0 if 1.12 Ek D Ek 1.40 Fyw t w Fyw

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.9.3.2-4)

-20

C=

1.12 D tw

Ek Fyw

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.9.3.2-5)

if

D Ek > 1.40 tw Fyw

C=

Ek 1.57 2 F D yw t w
5 do D
2

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.9.3.2-6)

where k = 5 +

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.9.3.2-7)

b)

End Panels Vn = C Vp where Vp = 0.58 Fyw D tw w/o longitudinal stiffener: w/ longitudinal stiffener:

(LRFD Art. 6.10.9.3.3) (LRFD Eq. 6.10.9.3.3-1) (LRFD Eq. 6.10.9.3.3-2) do/D 1.5 do/D 1.5

-21

2.15

Shear Connectors

(LRFD Art. 6.10.10)

In the negative flexure regions, shear connectors shall be provided where the longitudinal reinforcement is considered to be a part of the composite section. Otherwise, shear connectors need not be provided in negative flexure regions, but additional connectors shall be placed in the region of the points of permanent load contraflexure. n AC = Ar f sr Zr (LRFD Eq. 6.10.10. 3-1)

(1)

Fatigue Limit State p nZ r Vsr (LRFD Eq. 6.10.10.1.2-1) (LRFD Eq. 6.10.10. 2-1) (LRFD Eq. 6.10.10. 2-2) (LRFD Eq. 6.10.10.4.1-1) (LRFD Eq. 6.10.10.4.1-2)

Zr = d2 5.5 d2/2; where = 34.5 4.28 log N (2) Strength Limit State Qr = sc Qn n= P Qr

(a)

Nominal Shear Force, Simple&continuous spans that are noncomposite for negative flexure: P = Pp2 + FP2 where
Pp = min . of 0.85 f cbs t s (LRFD Eq. 6.10.10.4.2 - 2) Fyw Dt w + Fyt b ft t ft + Fyc b fc t fc (LRFD Eq. 6.10.10.4.2 - 3)

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.10.4.2-1)

Fp = Pp

Lp R

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.10.4.2-4)

(For straight spans or segments, Fp may be taken equal to zero) Continuous spans that are composite for negative flexure:

P = PT2 + FT2
where -22

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.10.4.2-5)

PT = Pp + Pn
Pn = min . of Fyw Dt w + Fyt b ft t ft + Fyc b fc t fc 0.45 f cbs t s

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.10.4.2-6)

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.10.4.2 - 7 ) (LRFD Eq. 6.10.10.4.2 - 8)

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.10.4.2-9)

FT = PT

Ln R

(b)

Shear Resistance, Qn

Stud shear connector

Qn

= 0.5 Asc

f c Ec Asc Fu

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.10.4.3-1)

Channel shear connector

Qn

= 0.3(t f + 0.5t w )Lc

f c Ec

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.10.4.3-2)

2.16

Transverse Stiffeners

(LRFD Art. 6.10.11.1)

Stiffeners in straight girders not used as connection plates shall be tight fit at the compression flange, but need not be in bearing with the tension flange. Stiffeners used as connecting plates for diaphragms or cross-frames shall be attached to both flanges. The width, bt, of each projecting stiffener element shall satisfy:

bt 2.0 +
and

D 30.0

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.11.1.2-1)

16.0 tp bt 0.25 bf where :

(LRFD Eq. 6.10.11.1.2-2) = full-width of steel flange

bf

-23

The moment of inertia of any transverse stiffener must satisfy:

3 I t bt w J 1.5 D 4 t1.3 Fyw I t 40 E

min . of

(LRFD Eq.6.10.11.1.3-1&2)

for which: J where: =

D 2.5 d /D 2.0 0.5 o

(LRFD Eq.6.10.11.1.3-3)

It

moment of inertia of the transverse stiffener taken about the edge in contact with the web for single stiffeners and about the mid-thickness of the web for stiffener pairs

b tw do D

= = = =

the smaller of do and D web thickness the smaller of the adjacent web panel widths web depth

Transverse stiffeners used in web panels with longitudinal stiffeners must also satisfy:
bt D It b 3 .0 d Il o l

(LRFD Eq.6.10.11.1.3-5)

where:

bt bl Il D

= = = =

projecting width of transverse stiffener projecting width of longitudinal stiffener moment of inertia of the longitudinal stiffener determined by (LRFD Eq.6.10.11.3.3-1) web depth

-24

2.17

Bearing Stiffeners

(LRFD Art. 6.10.11.2)

Bearing stiffeners should be placed on webs of builtup sections at all bearing locations.

Bearing stiffeners should be placed on the webs of plate girders at all bearing locations and at all locations supporting concentrated loads. Bearing stiffeners consist of one or more plates or angles welded or bolted to both sides of the web. The connections to the web are to be designed to transmit the full bearing force due to the factored loads.

The stiffeners should extend the full-depth of the web and, as closely as practical, to the outer edges of the flanges.

The width, bt, of each projecting stiffener element must satisfy:

bt 0.48t p

E Fys

(LRFD Eq.6.10.11.2.2-1)

where:

tp Fys

= =

thickness of projecting element specified minimum yield strength of the stiffener

The factored bearing resistance, (Rsb )r , shall be taken as:

(Rsb )r = b (Rsb )n = 1.4b Apn Fys

where:

(LRFD Eq.6.10.11.2.3-1)

Fys Apn

= = =

specified minimum yield strength of the stiffener area of the projecting elements of the stiffener outside of the web-toflange fillet welds, but not beyond the edge of the flange resistance factor for bearing

-25

2.18 Longitudinal Stiffeners

(LRFD Art. 6.10.11.3)

Where required, longitudinal stiffeners should consist of either a plate welded to one side of the web, or a bolted angle. Longitudinal stiffeners shall be located at a vertical position on the web such that constructability (LRFD Eq. 6.10.3.2.1-3) is satisfied, requirement (LRFD Eq. 6.10.4.2.2-4) is satisfied at the service limit state, and all the appropriate design requirements are satisfied at the strength limit state. The flexural stress in the longitudinal stiffener, f s , due to the factored loads at the strength limit state and when checking constructability shall satisfy:

f s f Rh Fys

(LRFD Eq.6.10.11.3.1-1)

The projecting width, bl , of the stiffener must satisfy:

bl 0.48t s

E Fys

(LRFD Eq.6.10.11.3.2-1)

where:

ts Fys

= =

thickness of stiffener specified minimum yield strength of the stiffener

Longitudinal stiffeners must satisfy:

do 2 I l Dt 2.4 0.13 D
3 w

(LRFD Eq.6.10.11.3.3-1)

Fys E r F 1 0.6 yc Rh Fys 0.16d o

(LRFD Eq.6.10.11.3.3-2)

where:

curvature correction factor for longitudinal stiffener rigidity

-26


Z +1 6 Z +1 12 Il =

Case the longitudinal stiffener is on the side of the web away from the center of curvature the longitudinal stiffener is on the side of the web toward the center of curvature

Z: curvature parameter 0.95d 02 Z= 10 Rt w

moment of inertia of the longitudinal stiffener including an effective width of the web equal to 18 t w taken about the neutral axis of the combined section

radius of gyration of the longitudinal stiffener including an effective width of the web equal to 18 t w taken about the neutral axis of the combined section

D do tw Fys

= = = =

web depth transverse stiffener spacing web thickness specified minimum yield strength of the stiffener

A longitudinal stiffener meeting the requirements above will have sufficient area to anchor the tension field. Therefore, no additional area requirement is given for longitudinal stiffeners.

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Appendix - Modification Factor Cb (for non-uniform bending moment variation)

Cb for a Simple Span Bridge

Nominal Moment Strength Mu as affected by Cb

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