Proof. Suppose that X is compact. Then, as each projection pi is a continuous surjection, we get from Proposition 2 that each Xi is compact.

Now suppose that each Xi is compact. We would like to show that every ultralter of X converges; this is equivalent to compactness by Proposition 1. So let U be an ultralter on X . Since each projection pi is surjective, it follows that pi (U ) = {pi (b) | b U } is an ultralter on Xi . As each Xi is compact, we may introduce xi Xi such that pi (U ) converges to xi . The we dene X by (i) = xi . By Lemma 3, we obtain that U converges to . Compactness of Propositional Logic Tychonos theorem about the compactness of product spaces may be used to prove the compactness theorem for propositional logic. First lets recall what propositional logic is. We have a set = {pi | i I } of proposition letters. We have L = {, , } an algebraic signature. And the set of formulas F is the free Lalgebra with as generators. A valuation is a map v : 2, and as F is the free L-algebra with as generators, valuations extend uniquely to L-homomorphisms v from F to 2. Let X be the set which consists of all the valuations, i.e. maps v : 2. For each F we let B := {v | v () = 1}. Since B1 2 = B1 B2 and B = and B = X , we see that B = {B | F } forms a base for a topology T on X . Further B is a clopen base, since X B = B . T is compact in the topological sense i F is compact in the logical sense. In detail, T is compact i every collection of basic closed sets that is consistent has nonempty intersection. Since B is a closed base, this is equivalent to saying that for every F , the existence of a valuation v for each nite subset 0 of that satises 0 implies the existence of a valuation v that satises all of . This is the logical version of compactness for F . Let the L-algebra 2 be given the discrete topology (all sets are open). Of course, being nite, 2 is compact. And so 2 = v 2 is compact by Tychonos theorem. However, we claim that 2 is homeomorphic to X , from which it follows that X is compact as well. First note that the underlying sets of 2 and X are the same, and so it suces to show that the identity map id : 2 X is continuous, and its inverse is continuous. To see that id1 is continuous, we give ourselves a basic open set Oi1 Oin of 2 and show that it is open in X . We may assume that each Oij is either {0} or {1} (2 = {0, 1}), because if Oij = 2, we can remove it without changing the basic open set (or its the only thing to remove and the basic open set is 2 = X and so open in X ), and if its , then the basic open set is and so open in X by default. Now dene J {1, . . . , n} such that j J i Oij = {1}. Then dene an element of F by: :=
j J

pij
j {1,...,n}J

pij

It follows that B = Oi1 Oin . Conversely, to see that id is continuous, its enough to show that the inverse image of each basic open set in X is open in 2 . I.e., we want to show that B is open in 2 for each

10

 F . We may write in disjunctive normal form pij

i j 1 and then for each pij with a + there is a corresponding open set Oij = p pij ({1}) and 1 similarly for each pij with a there is Oij = p pij ({0}). Then

B =
i j

Oij

is open in 2 .

Separation Axioms

A space is hausdor if every pair of distinct points x1 and x2 can be separated by disjoint open sets. I.e., there exists disjoint open sets O1 and O2 such that x1 O1 and x2 O2 . A space is regular if points can be separated from closed sets by open sets. I.e., if C is a closed set and x C , then there exists disjoint open sets O1 and O2 such that x O1 and C O2 . Finally, a space is said to be normal if closed sets can be separated from closed sets by open sets. I.e., if C1 and C2 are disjoint closed sets, then there are disjoint open sets O1 and O2 such that C1 O1 and C2 O2 . Every hausdor normal space is regular, because in a hausdor space singletons are closed sets. Proposition 5. Every compact hausdor space Y is normal. Proof. First we show that Y is regular. Let C be a closed set and y C . For each x C let (Ux , Vx ) be disjoint open sets such that x Ux and y Vx . As C is a closed subset of a compact space, it is compact, so we may introduce x1 , . . . , xn such that Ux1 Uxn C . n Then the open sets n i=1 Vxi disjointly separate C and y . i=1 Uxi , Now let C and D be two disjoint closed sets. For each y C , by regularity we may separate it from D via disjoint open sets (Uy , Vy ). Then using compactness again we get Uy1 n Uyn C , and the disjoint open sets n i=1 Uyi , i=1 Vyi give the desired separation. Theorem 6 (Urysohn). Let X be any topological space. X is normal i there exists, for every pair of disjoint closed sets (A, B ), a continuous function f : X [0, 1] such that f (A) = {0} and f (B ) = {1} Proof. First assume that there is such a function for every pair of disjoint closed sets (A, B ). Then f 1 ([0, 1/2)) and f 1 ((1/2, 1]) are disjoint open sets that separate A and B . Now assume that X is normal. Let two disjoint closed sets A and B be given. In order to dene f , we shall nd it helpful to rst dene for every rational number an open set Up of X . For p < 0, we set Up := , and for p > 1 we set Up := X . Next, we dene U1 := B . Since 11