Technical Note by K.L. Soderman and J.P.

Giroud

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN UNIAXIAL AND BIAXIAL STRESSES AND STRAINS IN GEOSYNTHETICS

ABSTRACT: Theoretical relationships between tensile characteristics (i.e. modulus, yield stress and yield strain) of geosynthetics in uniaxial and biaxial states of stress are proposed. The use of the relationships is illustrated through practical applications which show that the tensile characteristics of geosynthetics vary greatly depending on the stress state. KEYWORDS: Geosynthetic, Modulus, Yield stress, Yield strain, Uniaxial stress, Biaxial stress. AUTHORS: K.L. Soderman, Project Engineer, and J.P. Giroud, Senior Principal, GeoSyntec Consultants, 621 N.W. 53rd Street, Suite 650, Boca Raton, Florida 33487, USA, Telephone: 1/407-995-0900, Telefax: 1/407-995-0925. PUBLICATION: Geosynthetics International is published by the Industrial Fabrics Association International, 345 Cedar St., Suite 800, St. Paul, MN 55101, USA, Telephone: 1/612-222-2508, Telefax: 1/612-222-8215. Geosynthetics International is registered under ISSN 1072-6349. DATES: Original manuscript received 25 August 1994, accepted 2 November 1994. Discussion open until 1 November 1995. REFERENCE: Soderman, K.L. and Giroud, J.P., 1995, Relationships Between Uniaxial and Biaxial Stresses and Strains in Geosynthetics, Geosynthetics International, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 495-504.

INTRODUCTION

In a previous technical note (Giroud 1992), theoretical relationships between tensile characteristics (i.e. modulus, yield stress and yield strain) of geosynthetics in uniaxial and biaxial states of stress were proposed. To derive these relationships, Giroud considered that a geosynthetic yields at a given energy level regardless of the state of stress, and he adopted a simple yield criterion for geosynthetics based on the strain energy at yield associated with the major principal stress in the plane of the geosynthetic. In this technical note, the same principle is used, but a more appropriate yield criterion is

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adopted as a basis for deriving theoretical relationships between tensile characteristics of geosynthetics in uniaxial and biaxial states of stress. The relationships and their derivation are presented herein. 2 2.1 UNIAXIAL AND BIAXIAL STATES OF STRESS Constitutive Law

In deriving the theoretical relationships presented in this technical note, the constitutive law governing the stress-strain behavior of the geosynthetic is assumed to be Hookes law. In other words, the geosynthetic is assumed to be an isotropic linear elastic material prior to yield. 2.2 Principal Stresses

Every state of stress can be characterized by three principal stresses, 1 , 2 , and 3 . In this technical note, only tensile stresses, i.e. positive stresses, are considered, and the three principal stresses are ranked as follows: 1 2 3 . 2.3 Uniaxial State of Stress

The uniaxial state of stress is defined as a state of stress where two of the three principal stresses are equal to zero: 1 0 , 2 = 0 , 3 = 0 (1)

It should be noted that, according to Hookes law, a triaxial state of strain corresponds to the uniaxial state of stress: 1 = 1E 2 = 3 = 1E (2) (3)

where: 1 , 2 and 3 = principal strains; E = Youngs modulus; and = Poissons ratio. A uniaxial state of stress exists, for example, when a narrow strip of geosynthetic is subjected to a traditional tensile test. 2.4 Biaxial State of Stress

A biaxial state of stress is defined as a state of stress where one of the three principal stresses is equal to zero:

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1 0 ,

2 0 ,

3 = 0

(4)

In the case of a biaxial state of stress, Hookes law can be written as follows: 1 = (1 2)E 2 = (2 1)E 3 = ( 1 + 2)E (5) (6) (7)

From the above three equations, it appears that the state of strain that corresponds to a biaxial state of stress is usually triaxial. However, it can be biaxial if the ratio between the two principal stresses is . For example: 2 = 1 In this case, Equation 6 shows that there is no strain in the direction of 2 : 2 = 0 (9) (8)

This state of stress is often called a plane strain state of stress or a state of plane strain. However, this terminology may be misleading because this state of stress is only the special case of state of plane strain that corresponds to a biaxial state of stress, whereas the general case of state of plane strain (which is often considered in geotechnical engineering) corresponds to a triaxial state of stress. To designate this special state of stress, the terminology plane strain biaxial stress state is proposed and used herein. A biaxial state of stress exists every time a geosynthetic is subjected to stresses (1 , 2 ) within its plane and no stresses normal to its plane (3 = 0). A plane strain biaxial stress state exists if there is no stress normal to the plane of the geosynthetic (3 = 0) and no strain in one of the directions within the plane of the geosynthetic (e.g. 2 = 0). 2.5 Stress and Tension

In some cases, it is preferable to use tensions, T, instead of stresses, , especially with geosynthetics that do not have a uniform thickness and/or are composed of several components. Examples of such geosynthetics are geogrids, reinforced geomembranes, and geocomposites. However, for the sake of simplicity, only stresses are used herein and the reader can convert stresses into tensions using the following equation: T = t (10)

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where t is the thickness of the geosynthetic. 3 3.1 APPROACH Yield

In this technical note, yield refers to the onset of inelastic behavior. For example, in the case of materials with a yield peak in their stress-strain curve, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE) geomembranes, yield is considered to begin at the peak in the stress-strain curve, well before break. For materials without a yield peak, such as most geotextiles, yield is considered to begin just prior to break. 3.2 Yield Criterion

The condition for yield is defined by the Mises-Hencky yield criterion (Shames 1964), which is dependent on the octahedral shear stress, oct . The octahedral shear stress is the shear stress on the octahedral plane, which is a plane equally inclined to the principal directions. The octahedral shear stress, oct , is given by the following classical equation of continuum mechanics: oct = 13 (1 2) 2 + ( 2 3) 2 + ( 3 1) 2
0.5

(11)

The Mises-Hencky yield criterion states that yield begins when the octahedral shear Y stress reaches a certain value, Y oct . The value of oct is dependent on the material. According to the Mises-Hencky yield criterion, for a given material the magnitude of octahedral shear stress at yield should be the same regardless of the type of stress state (e.g. uniaxial or biaxial). The Mises-Hencky yield criterion is often used for predicting yield in metals and is based on the premise that the yield condition is independent of the isotropic stress. In other words, stress changes that are equal in all directions do not affect yield. Adopting the Mises-Hencky yield criterion is equivalent to stating that yield occurs when a certain level of distortion strain energy is reached (distortion strain energy being defined as the strain energy associated with deformations involving no volume change). This is so because distortion strain energy is a function of the octahedral shear stress (Shames 1964). 3.3 Tensile Characteristics in Uniaxial State of Stress

According to Equation 1, the uniaxial state of stress has two principal stresses equal to zero: 2 = 0 and 3 = 0. If the other principal stress is equal to the yield stress in a uniaxial state of stress, Yu , the octahedral shear stress at yield in a uniaxial state of stress, Yu oct , is derived from Equation 11 as follows:
2 Yu + (0 0) 2 + (0 Yu)2 oct = 13 ( Yu 0) 0.5

(12)

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hence: Yu oct = 2 3 Yu (13)

According to the theory of elasticity (see Equation 2), Youngs modulus, also called modulus of elasticity, is defined by: E = Yu (14) Yu where Yu is the yield strain in a uniaxial state of stress. 3.4 Steps for the Development of the Relationships

The approach used to develop the relationships between tensile characteristics in uniaxial and biaxial states of stress involves the following four steps: Step 1. Derive expressions for the octahedral shear stress at yield in a biaxial state of stress using Equation 11, Hookes law (as needed), and the stresses at yield. Step 2. Derive relationships between uniaxial and biaxial stresses at yield by equating the expressions for the octahedral shear stress at yield in a uniaxial state of stress and a biaxial state of stress. Step 3. Derive the relationships between uniaxial and biaxial strains at yield using Hookes law and the expressions derived in Step 2. Step 4. Derive the relationships between tensile moduli in uniaxial and biaxial stress states from the relationships derived in Steps 2 and 3. 4 DEVELOPMENT OF THE RELATIONSHIPS

In the following development of relationships between tensile characteristics, two different biaxial stress states are considered: the isotropic biaxial stress state, and the plane strain biaxial stress state. For each of these stress states, the four steps described above are used to develop the relationships. 4.1 Isotropic Biaxial Stress State

Step 1. The isotropic biaxial stress state is characterized by two equal principal stresses: 1 = 2 . Since it is a biaxial stress state, the third principal stress is equal to zero (3 = 0). If the yield stress for the case of an isotropic biaxial stress state is designated Yib , then the value of Yib oct for an isotropic biaxial stress state can be determined from Equation 11 as follows:

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2 Yib + ( Yib 0)2 + (0 Yib)2 oct = 13 ( Yib Yib)

0.5

(15)

hence: Yib oct = 2 3 Yib (16)

Step 2.

Yib Equating Yu oct from Equation 13 with oct from Equation 16 gives:

Yib = Yu

(17)

Therefore, based on the Mises-Hencky yield criterion, the yield stress in an isotropic biaxial stress state, Yib , is equal to the yield stress in a uniaxial stress state, Yu . Step 3. According to Hookes law for the case 1 = 2 (see Equations 5 and 6), the yield strain in an isotropic biaxial stress state, Yib , is given by: Yib = Yib (1 ) E (18)

Combining Equations 14, 17 and 18 gives: Yib Yu = 1 (19)

Equation 19 defines the ratio between the yield strain in an isotropic biaxial stress state, Yib , and the yield strain in a uniaxial stress state, Yu . Step 4. The modulus in a uniaxial stress state, Eu , is the same as Youngs modulus, defined by Equation 14, therefore: E u = Yu Yu Similarly, the modulus in an isotropic biaxial stress state, Eib , is defined by: E ib = Yib Yib Combining Equations 17, 19, 20 and 21 gives: (21) (20)

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E ib 1 = Eu 1

(22)

Equation 22 defines the ratio between the modulus in an isotropic biaxial stress state, Eib , and the modulus in a uniaxial stress state, Eu . 4.2 Plane Strain Biaxial Stress State

Step 1. In the case of the plane strain biaxial stress state, the relationship expressed by Equation 8 exists between the principal stresses in the plane of the geosynthetic, 1 and 2 . The third principal stress, which is perpendicular to the plane of the geosynthetic, is equal to zero (3 = 0). At yield, 1 is equal to Yps . Then, according to Equations 8 and 11, the value for Yps oct is: Yps = 13 (Yps Yps) 2 + ( Yps) 2 + ( Yps) 2 oct hence: Yps = oct 2 (1 + 2)0.5 3 Yps (24)
0.5

(23)

Step 2. gives:

Yps Equating Yu oct from Equation 13 with oct from Equation 24 and simplifying

Yps 1 Yu = (1 + 2) 0.5

(25)

Equation 25 defines the ratio between the yield stress in a plane strain biaxial stress state, Yps , and the yield stress in a uniaxial stress state, Yu . Step 3. Combining Equations 5 and 8 with 1 = Yps gives the yield strain in a plane strain biaxial stress state, Yps , as follows: Yps = Yps (1 2) E (26)

Combining Equations 14, 25 and 26 gives: Yps 1 2 = Yu (1 + 2) 0.5 (27)

Equation 27 defines the ratio between the yield strain in a plane strain biaxial stress state, Yps , and the yield strain in a uniaxial stress state, Yu .

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Step 4.

The modulus, Eps , in a plane strain biaxial stress state is defined by: Yps E ps = Yps (28)

Combining Equations 20, 25, 27 and 28 results in: E ps 1 = Eu 1 2 (29)

Equation 29 defines the ratio between the modulus in a plane strain biaxial stress state, Eps , and the modulus in a uniaxial stress state, Eu . 5 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE EQUATIONS

Equations 19, 22, 25, 27 and 29 depend only on the Poissons ratio for the geosynthetic. Therefore, to apply these equations it is necessary to know the value of Poissons ratio for the geosynthetic. This ratio quantifies the interaction between stresses and strains in two perpendicular directions. Three different values of Poissons ratio, each associated with a different type of geosynthetic, are considered in this practical application of the equations. These values of Poissons ratio are as follows (Giroud 1992):

S A non-reinforced geomembrane is considered to deform at constant volume and, ac-

cording to the theory of elasticity, such a material has a Poissons ratio of 0.5. In this case, there is maximum interaction between stresses and strains in two perpendicular directions. with a woven fabric), there is little interaction between two perpendicular directions as a result of the woven structure. Consequently, the Poissons ratio should be small, perhaps 0.1.

S In the case of a woven geotextile (and, to a lesser extent, a geomembrane reinforced

S The case of a nonwoven geotextile or a geomembrane reinforced with a nonwoven

geotextile is likely to be between the two preceding cases. Therefore, a Poissons ratio of 0.35 may be used. Equations 17, 19, 22, 25, 27 and 29 were used to determine the yield stress, yield strain and modulus ratios for the three different cases described above. The results are presented in Table 1. In addition, the results for a non-reinforced geomembrane, i.e. Poissons ratio of 0.5, are presented graphically in Figure 1. 6 DISCUSSION

The results shown in Table 1 and Figure 1 indicate that the yield stress, yield strain and modulus vary with the stress state. The yield strain and modulus are most significantly affected by stress state in the case of non-reinforced geomembranes. For this

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/Yu

Isotropic biaxial stress state (modulus Eib = 2Eu ) Plane strain biaxial stress state (modulus Eps = 1.33 Eu )

Uniaxial stress state (modulus Eu )

/Yu
Figure 1. Graphical representation of the results for the case of Poissons ratio equal to 0.5 (e.g. non-reinforced geomembrane).

case, the yield strain in a isotropic biaxial stress state is only one-half of the yield strain in a uniaxial stress state and the modulus in an isotropic biaxial stress state is twice the modulus in a uniaxial stress state. Therefore, it is extremely important when designing applications of non-reinforced geomembranes to use the tensile characteristics which are appropriate for the stress state anticipated in the field (Giroud et al. 1993). In contrast, the behavior of geosynthetics with a small Poissons ratio (such as woven geotextiles or geomembranes reinforced with woven fabrics) is not significantly different whether the stress state is uniaxial or biaxial. Therefore, it may not be justified to conduct expensive biaxial tensile tests on woven geotextiles and geomembranes reinforced with woven fabrics.
Table 1. Yield stress, yield strain and modulus ratios as a function of the Poissons ratio, .
Yib Yu 1 Yib Yu 0.5 Eib Eu 2.0 Yps Yu 1.15 Yps Yu 0.87 Eps Eu 1.33

Type of geosynthetic Non-reinforced geomembranes ( = 0.5) Nonwoven geotextile, or geomembrane reinforced with a nonwoven geotextile ( = 0.35) Woven geotextile, or geomembrane reinforced with a woven fabric ( = 0.1)

0.65

1.54

1.14

1.14

0.9

1.11

1.05

1.04

1.01

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The range of numerical values presented in Table 1 shows that biaxial tensile tests are justified in the case of non-reinforced geomembranes and, to a lesser extent, nonwoven geotextiles and geomembranes reinforced with nonwoven geotextiles. However, it is important to select the right type of biaxial test. In particular, it appears that the often used multiaxial hydrostatic test (i.e. the large scale burst test), which generates an isotropic biaxial stress state in the middle of the geomembrane specimen where failure usually occurs, tends to significantly exaggerate the geomembrane modulus if the actual state of stress in the field is close to a plane strain biaxial stress state. The plane strain biaxial stress state is better simulated by a wide-width tensile test than by a multiaxial hydrostatic test. The equations presented in this technical note may be used to correct the results of tests that do not simulate the field conditions. The results of calculations similar to those presented in Table 1, but performed using the earlier relationships developed by Giroud (1992), indicate that, for all practical purposes, these earlier relationships give the same ratios as those presented in this technical note for yield stress, yield strain and modulus in a plane strain biaxial stress state, and modulus in an isotropic biaxial stress state, but somewhat higher ratios than those presented in this technical note for yield stress and yield strain in an isotropic biaxial stress state. Because a more appropriate yield criterion was used in the derivation presented in this technical note, the expressions presented herein should be preferred to those presented earlier by Giroud (1992). The relationships presented by Giroud (1992) were developed by considering that yield occurs at the same level of energy regardless of the state of stress. The same concept is used herein, but with a more appropriate expression for the energy. In 1992, Giroud used the total energy related to each considered state of stress, whereas, in this paper, only the distortion energy is considered, which is more appropriate since the distortion energy is the energy related to yield. Finally, it is recommended that the theoretical expressions presented in this technical note be used with caution until such time that they are verified in practice through laboratory and field testing. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are grateful to G. Saunders for assistance in the preparation of this technical note. REFERENCES Giroud, J.P., 1992, Biaxial Tensile State of Stress in Geosynthetics, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 319-325. Giroud, J.P., Soderman, K.L. and Monroe, M., 1993, Mechanical Design of Geomembrane Applications, Proceedings of Geosynthetics 93, IFAI, Vol. 3, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, March 1993, pp. 1455-1468. Shames, I.H., 1964, Mechanics of Deformable Solids, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA, 532 p.

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