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SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

The term sensor is used for an element which produces a signal relating to the quantity being measured. Thus in the case of an electrical resistance temperature element, the quantity being measured is temperature and sensor transforms an input of temperature into a change in resistance. The term transducer is often used in place of the term sensor. They are defined as elements that when subject to some physical change experience a related change. Thus sensors are transducers. However a measurement system may use transducers, in addition to the sensor, in other parts of the system to convert signals from one form to another form. Definition of sensor It is a part of the measurement system that provides response to the particular measurable physical parameter, which can be one of the input energy domain transformed into another form of energy domain with or without aid of modulating energy domain. The six energy domains identified to accept, transfer and modulate by a sensor are Mechanical. Distance, velocity, force, acceleration or size etc. are covered in this domain. Electrical. Current, resistance, voltage, inductance, capacitance form the basis of this domain. Magnetic. Field strength and flux density can be considered in this domain. Thermal. The effect of temperature like heat capacity, latent heat, phase changes, sensible heat, superheating can be identified in this domain. Radiant. The frequency, phase, intensity, polarity of electromagnetic radiation fall in this domain. Chemical. The concentration of the chemical substances crystal structure, and aggregation of state concerning the behaviors of the matter exemplify this domain.

Prepared by Shijin C.S.

St.Josephs College of Engineering and Technology, Palai.

Module |1 Classification of Sensors

Introduction to Mechatronics

The static and dynamic performance characteristics play important role in the selection of the type of sensors needed for the applications suitable to the mechatronic system. The range, error, accuracy, sensitivity, repeatability, stability and resolution are some of the static performance parameters to be looked into before selecting a right sensor. Response time, rise time, settling time and time constant are the main dynamic characteristics usually considered in mechatronic application of sensors.

i) Pressure Sensors
The mechanical pressure gauge with collapsible tube and analogue indication is the most beginning in pressure measurement which still finds application in mechanical industries. In fluid power systems with dynamic fluctuations electrical pressure sensors are preferred. In these the elastic deformations depending upon the materials physical properties, are transformed into electrical signal. The strain gauges find the frequent usage in pressure measurements. Piezoelectric sensors are most suitable for dynamic pressure measurements and small in size. For both static and dynamic pressure signals best solutions are piezoresistive sensors. Vapour deposited thick film sensors on silicon wafers constitute the measuring element. The signal gets amplified by the integrated differential amplifier. This has the disadvantage of being sensitive to temperature changes.

ii) Flow Sensors

The result of flow management is influenced by the parameters like pressure pulsation, temperature, and viscosity of the flow medium. The principle of flow measurement is fraught with the effects of flow captured via physical properties and then transformed into a signal proportional to volume flow. Knowing the cross-section of the medium at a point where the velocity of the stream is measured to obtain the flow rate. Gear pump can be used for measure flow with high accuracy. But they have the drawbacks of higher pressure loss and are prone to seizing due to contaminations. Measuring turbine is another mechanical application of flow measurement in which the flow drives the turbine wheel that induces an electrical impulse for each blade.

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iii) Hall Effect Sensors

E.R. Hall in 1879 discovered the Hall Effect. A beam of charged particles passing through a magnetic field experience a force that defect the beam from the straight line path. This is known as Hall Effect. Electrons (negative charged particles) are made to pass through a plate of rectangular cross section and a magnetic field is applied at right angle to the plane of the plate as shown in fig. The electrons are deflected towards one side of the plate, making that side negatively charged and the other side becomes positively charged. The force due to the applied magnetic field is called Lorentz force. The mechanism of deflection is governed by the balance in Lorentz force and the force on the charged particle due to electric field.

Fig : Principle of Hall effect The potential difference, V, created in between the transverse face of the plate, is given by

V = Hc
Where,

FL T t

HC = Halls co-efficient FL = Magnetic flux density due to Lorentz force I = Current flowing through the plate t = Thickness of the plate V = Hall voltage

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iv) Light Sensors

Any radiation of appropriate wavelength fall on the depletion layer of p-n junction develops a potential difference between the junctions. The voltage across the layer is proportional to the illumination of the incident radiation. Figure (a) shows the incidence on light rays on the n layer of the p n junction. Figure (b) is the characteristic curve showing the variation of voltage with wavelength of radiation.

Type of Light sensors 1. Photo diodes 2. Photo transistors 3. Photo conductors Photo Diodes: The reverse bias is applied against the p-n junction that results in a very high resistance. The light ray is made to fall on n-layer (depletion layer). This results in decrease in resistance of diode, developing a reverse current due to the sweep up of the electron-hole pair. The reverse current is the measure of intensity of the incident radiation. The response of photo diodes is quick and they can be used as variable resistance devices.

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Photo Transistors: A base-collector arranged in parallel to the photo diode a bipolar transistor is formed. In this PN junction collector-base is photo sensitive. The incident radiation on the base results in reverse current of photodiode, which is base current of the transistor. The base current is proportional to the intensity of light. The internal signal processing amplifies the base current to give higher sensitivity to the photo transistors.

Photo Conductors: By coating a layer of indium antimonide (InSb) or cadmium sulphide (CdS) on a layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) the photo resistors are produced. The base is the p-type material (SiO2) and n-type materials (In or CdS) are diffused on it. The incident light ray illuminating the n-type layer results in change of conductivity. The bridge circuit arrangement detects this change by the change in output voltage proportional to the intensity of incident light. The photo resistor design and the required circuitry are shown in figure.

Fig: Photo conductor, structure and bridge

v) Optical Sensor
The proximity of the object is detected by the action of the travelling light move. The light emitted by the transmitter focuses on the object which reflects to be received by the receiver photo diode. The constructional feature of the optical sensor is shown in figure. The light from the emitting diode is focused by the transmitter lens, on to the
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object surface. The reflected light waves travel back and received by the solid state photodiode through the receiver lens. The object within the range of sensor can detect the presence. The focal length of the sensor lenses decide the range within which the proximity of the object is detected.

Fig: Optical Sensor

Transducers
Transducer is a pedantic word formed from two Latin words. By definition the transducer is that part of a system that transfers information or data in the form of energy from one part of the system to another with or without changing the form of energy containing the informations. Some of the Parameters transduced by electro-mechanical devices are as follows: Force, Pressure, Temperature, Displacement, Proximity, Viscosity, Flow, Frequency, Time, Vibration and Chemical composition. Transducers are classified as 1. Electrical 2. Solid State (Resistive, Capacitive, Inductive, Thermo electric, Resonant etc.) (Magnetic, Thermal, Mechanical, Chemical etc.)

3. Optical (Radian energy, Photo detector, Vision system, Laser scanning, Fiber optic etc.) 4. Piezo-electric (Accelerometer, Humidity meter, Light Modulators, Actuators, Acoustic devices etc.) 5. Ultrasonic
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(Flow measurement, Distance, Velocity, Ultrasonic imaging etc.).

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Introduction to Mechatronics

DISPLACEMENT, POSITION AND PROXIMITY

Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement of the amount by which some object has been moved; position sensors are concerned with the determination of the position of some object with reference to some reference point. Proximity sensors are a form of position sensor and are used to determine when an object has moved to within some particular critical distance of the sensor. They are essentially devices which give on-off outputs. In selecting a displacement, position or proximity sensor, consideration has to be given to: 1. The size of displacement. 2. Whether the displacement is linear or angular. 3. The resolution required. 4. The accuracy required. 5. What material the measured object is made of. 6. The cost. Displacement and position sensors can be grouped into two basic types: contact sensors in which the measured object comes into mechanical contact with the sensor or non-contacting where there is no physical contact between the measured object and the sensor. The following are the examples of commonly used displacement sensors. 1. Potentiometer sensor A potentiometer consists of a resistance element with a sliding contact which can be moved over the length of the element. Such elements can be used for linear or rotary displacements, the displacement being converted into potential difference. The rotary potentiometer consists of a circular wire-wound track or a film of conductive plastic over which a rotatable sliding contact can be rotated. The track may be single turn or helical. with a constant input voltage Vs, between the terminals1 and 3, the output voltage Vo between terminals 2 and 3 is a fraction of the input voltage, the fraction depending on the ratio of the resistances R23 between terminals 2 and 3 compared with the total resistance R13 between terminals 1 and 3, i.e. Vo/Vs=R23/R13. If the track has a constant resistance per unit length, i.e. per unit angle, then the output is proportional to the angle through which the slider has rotated. Hence the angular displacement can be converted into potential difference.
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Fig : Rotary Potentiometer With a wire-wound track the slider in moving from one turn to the other will change the voltage output in steps, each step being a movement of one turn. If the potentiometer has N turns then the resolution, as a percentage, is 100/N. Thus the resolution of a wide track is limited by the diameter of the wire used and typically ranges from about 1.5 mm for a coarsely wound track to 0.5 mm for a finely wound one. Errors due to non-linearity of the track tend to range from less than 0.1% to about 1%. The track resistance tends to range from about 20 to 200 k. Conductive plastic has ideally infinite resolution, errors due to non-linearity of track of the order of 0.05% and resistance values from about 500 to 80 k. The conductive plastic has a higher temperature coefficient of resistance than the wire and so temperature changes have a greater effect on accuracy. 2. Strain-gauged element The electrical resistance strain gauge (in fig) is a metal wire, metal foil strip, or a strict of semiconductor material which is water-like and can be stuck onto surfaces like a postage stamp.

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Fig: Strain gauges: (a) metal wire, (b) metal foil, (c) semiconductor When subjected to strain, its resistance R changes, the fractional change in resistance R/R being proportional to the strain , i.e.
R = G R

Where G, the constant of proportionality, is termed the gauge factor. Since strain is the ratio (change in length/ original length) then the resistance change of a strain gauge is a measurement of the change in length of the element to which the strain gauge is attached. The gauge factor of the metal wire or foil strain gauges with the metals generally used is about 2.0. silicon p-type and n-type semiconductor strain gauges have gauge factors of about +100 or more for p-type silicon and -100 or more for n-type silicon. The gauge factor is normally supplied by the manufacturer of the strain gauges from the calibration made of a sample of strain gauges taken from a batch. The calibration involves subjecting the sample gauges to known strains and measuring their changes in resistance. A problem with all strain gauges is that their resistance not only changes with strain but also with temperature. Semiconductor strain gauges have a much greater sensitivity to temperature than metal strain gauges. 3. Capacitive element The capacitance c of a parallel capacitor is given by

C=

r o A d

Where r is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates, o a constant called the permittivity of free space, A the area of overlap between the two plates and d the plate separation. Capacitive sensors for the monitoring of linear displacements might thus take the forms shown in figure. In (a) one of the plates is moved by
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displacement so that the plate separation changes; in (b) the displacement causes the area of overlap to change; in (c) the displacement causes the dielectric between the plates to change.

Fig : Forms of Capacitive sensing element For the displacement changing the plate separation (Fig. (a)), if the separation d is increased by a displacement x then the capacitance becomes:

C - C =

r o A d+x

4. Differential transformers The linear variable differential transformer, generally referred to by the abbreviation LVDT, consists of three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The central coil is the primary coil and the other two are identical secondary coils which are connected in series such a way that their outputs oppose each other. A magnetic core is moved through the central tube as a result of displacement being monitored.

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Fig : LVDT When there is an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating emfs are introduced in the secondary coils. With the magnetic core central, the amount of magnetic material in each of the secondary coils is the same. Thus the emfs induced in each coil are the same. Since they are so connected their outputs oppose each other, the net result is zero output. However, when the core is displaced from the central position there is a greater amount of magnetic core in one coil than the other, e.g. more in secondary coil 2 than coil 1. The result is that a greater e.m.f. is induced in one coil than the other. There is then a net output from the two coils. Since greater displacement means even more core in one coil than the other, the output, the difference between the two emfs increases the greater the displacement being monitored.

Fig : LVDT output

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The emf induced in a secondary coil by a changing current i in the primary coil is given by:

e=M

di dt

Where M is the mutual inductance, its value depending on the number of turns on the coils and the ferromagnetic core. Thus, for a sinusoidal input current of i = I sint to the primary coil, the emfs induced in the two secondary coils 1 and 2 can be represented by:

v1 = k1 sin(i - ) and v2 = k 2 sin(i - )

where the values of k1, k2 and depend on the degree of coupling between the primary and secondary coils for a particular core position. is the phase difference between the primary alternating voltage and the secondary alternating voltages. Because the two outputs are in series, their difference is the output :

Output voltage = v1 -v2 = (k1 -k 2 ) sin (t-)

when the core is equally in both the coils, k1 equals k2 and so the output voltage is zero. When the core is more in 1 than in 2 we have k1 > k2 and:

Output voltage = (k1 -k 2 ) sin (t-)

when the core is more in 2 than in 1 we have k1 < k2. A consequence of k1 being less than k2 that there is a phase change of 1800 in the output when the core moves from more in 1 to more in 2. Thus:

Output voltage = -(k1 -k 2 ) sin (t-) = (k 2 -k1 ) sin [ t + (-)]

A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the measurement of rotation; it operates on the same principle as that of an LVDT. The core is a cardioid-shaped piece of magnetic material and rotation causes more of it to pass into one secondary coil than the other. The range of operation is typically 400 degree with a linearity error of about 0.5% of the range.

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VELOCITY & MOTION

The following are the examples of sensors that can be used to monitor linear angular velocities and detect motion. The application of motion detectors includes security systems used to detect intruders and interactive toys and appliances, e.g. the cash machine screen which becomes active when you get near to it. 1. Incremental encoder The incremental encoder described in the previous section can be used for a measurement as angular velocity, the number of pulses produced per second being determined. 2. Tachogenerator The tachogenerator is used to measure angular velocity. One form, the variable reluctance tachogenerator, consists of a toothed wheel of ferromagnetic material which is attached to the rotating shaft (in fig.). A pick-up coil is wound on a permanent magnet. As the wheel rotates, so the teeth move past the coil and the air gap between the coil and the ferromagnetic material changes. We have a magnetic circuit with an air gap which periodically changes. Thus the flux linked by a pick-up coil changes. The resulting cyclic change in the flux linked produces an alternating e.m.f in the coil.

Fig : Variable Reluctance Tachogenerator If the wheel contains n teeth and rotates with an angular velocity , then the flux change with time for the coil can be considered to be of the form:

= 0 + a cos nt
where 0 is the mean value of the flux and a the amplitude of the flux variation. The induced e.m.f 'e' in the N turns of the pick-up coils is thus:

e=-N
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d d = - N ( 0 + a cos nt ) = N a n sin nt dt dt
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Introduction to Mechatronics

FORCE
A spring balance is an example of a force sensor in which a force, a weight, is applied to the scale pan and causes a displacement, i.e. the spring stretches. The displacement is then a measure of the force. Forces are commonly measured by the measurement of displacements, the following method illustrating this. 1. Strain gauge load cell A very commonly used form of force-measuring transducer is based on the use of electrical resistance strain gauges to monitor the strain produced in some member when stretched, compressed or bent by the application of the force. The arrangement is generally referred to as a load cell. Figure shows an example of such a cell.

Fig : Strain gauge load cell This is a cylindrical tube to which strain gauges have been attached. When forces are applied to the cylinder to compress it, then the strain gauges give a resistance change which is a measure of the strain and hence the applied forces. Since temperature also produces a resistance change, the signal conditioning circuit used has to be able to eliminate the effects due to temperature. Typically such load cells are used for forces up to about 10 MN, the non-linearity error being about O.03 % of full range, hysteresis error O.02 % of full range and repeatability error 0.02 % of full range. Strain gauge load cells based on the bending of a strain-gauged metal element tend to be used for smaller forces, e.g. with ranges varying from 0 to 5 N up to 0 to 50 kN. Errors are typically a non-linearity error of about 0.03 % of full range, hysteresis error 0.02 % of full range and repeatability error 0.02 % of full range.
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FLUID PRESSURE
Many of the devices used to monitor fluid pressure in industrial processes involve the monitoring of the elastic deformation of diaphragms, capsules, bellows and tubes. The types of pressure measurements that can be required are: absolute pressure where the pressure is measured relative to zero-pressure, i.e. a vacuum, differential pressure where a pressure difference is measured and gauge pressure where the pressure is measured relative to the barometric pressure.

Fig : Diaphragms: (a) flat, (b) corrugated For a diaphragm (Fig.(a) and (b)), when there is a difference in pressure between the two sides then the centre of the diaphragm becomes displaced. Corrugations in the diaphragm result in a greater sensitivity. This movement can be monitored by some form of displacement sensor, e.g. a strain gauge, as illustrated in figure given below. A specially designed strain gauge is often used, consisting of four strain gauges with two measuring the strain in a circumferential direction while two measure strain in a radial direction. The four strain gauges are then connected to form the arms of a Wheatstone bridge. While strain gauges can be stuck on a diaphragm, an alternative is to create a silicon diaphragm with the strain gauges as specially doped areas of the diaphragm.

Fig : Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

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TEMPERATURE
Changes that are commonly used to monitor temperature are the expansion or contraction of solids, liquids or gases, the change in electrical resistance of conductors and semiconductors and thermoelectric e.m.f.s. The following are some of the methods that are commonly used with temperature control systems. 1. Bimetallic strips This device consists of two different metal strips bonded together. The metals have different coefficients of expansion and when the temperature changes the composite strip bends into a curved strip, with the higher coefficient metal on the outside of the curve. This deformation may be used as a temperature-controlled switch, as in the simple thermostat which was commonly used with domestic heating systems. The small magnet enables the sensor to exhibit hysteresis, meaning that the switch contacts close at a different temperature from that at which they open.

Fig : Bimetallic Thermostat 2. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) The resistance of most metals increases, over a limited temperature range, in a reasonably linear way with temperature (Fig.).

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Fig : Variation of Resistance with temperature for metals For such a linear relationship:

Rt = Ro (l + t)
where Rt is the resistance at a temperature t0 C, Ro the resistance at 0C and a constant for the metal termed the temperature coefficient of resistance. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are simple resistive elements in the form of coils of wire of such metals as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys; platinum is the most widely used. Thin film platinum elements are often made by depositing the metal on a suitable substrate, wirewound elements involving a platinum wire held by a high temperature glass adhesive inside a ceramic tube. Such detectors are highly stable and give reproducible responses over long periods of time. They tend to have response times of the order of 0.5 to 5 s or more. 3. Thermistors Thermistors are small pieces of material made from mixtures of metal oxides, such as those of chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel. These oxides are semiconductors. The material is formed into various forms of element, such as beads, discs and rods (in Fig.).

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Fig : Thermistor The resistance of conventional metal-oxide thermistors decreases in a very nonlinear manner with an increase in temperature, as illustrated in Figure.

Fig : Variation of Resistance with temperature for a typical thermistor Such thermistors having negative temperature coefficients (NTC). Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistors are, however, available. The change in resistance per degree change in temperature is considerably larger than that which occurs with metals. The resistance-temperature relationship for a thermistor can be described by an equation of the form

R t = K e/t
where Rt is the resistance at temperature t, with K and being constants. Thermistors have many advantages when compared with other temperature sensors. They are rugged and can be very small, so enabling temperatures to be monitored at virtually a point. Because of their small size they respond very rapidly to changes in temperature. They give very large changes in resistance per degree change in temperature. Their main disadvantage is their non-linearity.
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ACTUATORS
Actuation systems are the elements of control systems, which are responsible for transforming the output, of a microprocessor or control system into a controlling action on a machine or a device. Thus, or e.g., we might have an electrical output from the controller which has to be transformed into a linear motion to move a lode. Another e.g. might be where an electrical output from the controller has to be transformed into an action which controls the amount of liquid passing along a pipe.
DEFINITION OF ACTUATOR AND ACTUATOR SYSTEM

Any mechanical, electrical or electro mechanical system that produces linear or rotary motion to drive mechanical events like shafts, screws, slide or a manipulator can be termed as actuator. Along with the actuator other elements like connecting parts, fixtures, attachments and hardware that serve the purpose of generation of motion either linear or rotational can be termed as actuator system. Examples. A hydraulic cylinder with connecting yoke or clevis and mounting flange or trunnion can be treated as actuator system. An electrical motor with output shaft provided with key or flanged coupling and mounting plate, forms an actuator system. The purpose of actuator is to convert one form of energy into mechanical work in the form of motion. The energy comes in the form of electrical energy or mechanical energy. Electrical conductors are the transfer elements for the electrical energy. The hydraulic oil or air is the medium to carry the mechanical energy. The actuator that works on the pressure energy supplied by the hydraulic oil is called the "Hydraulic Actuator".
CLASSIFICATION OF ACTUATORS

The first level of classification is based on the type of motion produced by an actuator, i.e., linear or rotational. In the next level of classification the type of energy and the energy medium is taken as the basis. In the third level the configuration of design forms the basis of classification. In the first level of classification the type of motion bifercates the actuators into linear and rotary actuators. Translation is the function of linear actuators where as rotation is the function of rotary actuators. Sometimes the rotatory actuators with the
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aid of mechanical elements produce translatory motion in the mechatronic system. In some mechanical systems the reciprocatory motion is converted to rotary motion by cranking action. The output of translation is the displacement and force exertion. The rotary actuation results in the output of angular displacement and torque. Both type of actuations are responsible for some form of power development that can do work. The types of medium conveying energy to the actuating system further classify each actuator in this level. The electrical energy is most commonly used form of energy that directly and indirectly assists the function of actuation. The pressurized hydraulic oil and compressed air are other kinds of media that help in carrying energy to the hydraulic and pneumatic actuators. It is the electrical energy that is used to create the pressure in hydraulic and pneumatic media. The third level of classification has the design configurations as the basis. The functional requirements, the output specifications, the characteristic performance indicators are taken as the base to configure various designs. This base of classification is application dependent. The style, the manufacturing considerations, cost considerations, the reliability consideration and size consideration form the basis.

Fig : Tree diagram of classification of actuators

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MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS

These are consideration of mechanisms; mechanisms are devices which can be considered to be motion converters in that they transform motion from one form to some other required form. They might, for example, transform linear motion into rotational motion, or motion in one direction into a motion in a direction at right angles, or perhaps a linear reciprocating motion into rotary motion, as in the internal combustion engine where the reciprocating motion of the pistons is converted into rotation of the crank and hence the drive shaft. Mechanical elements can include the use of linkages, cams, gears, rack-andpinion, chains, belt drives, etc. For example, the rack-and-pinion can be used to convert rotational motion to linear motion. Parallel shaft gears might be used to reduce a shaft speed. Bevel gears might be used for the transmission of rotary motion through 90. A toothed belt or chain drive might be used to transform rotary motion about one axis to motion about another. Cams and linkages can be used to obtain motions which are prescribed to vary in a particular manner. Many of the actions which previously were obtained by the use of mechanisms are, however, often nowadays being obtained by the use of microprocessor systems. For example, cams on a rotating shaft were previously used for domestic washing machines in order to give a timed sequence of actions such as opening a valve to let water into the drum, switching the water off, switching a heater on, etc. Modern washing machines use a microprocessor-based system with the microprocessor programmed to switch on outputs in the required sequence. Mechanisms still, however, have a role in mechatronics systems. For example, the mechatronics system in use in an automatic camera for adjusting the aperture for correct exposures involves a mechanism for adjusting the size of the diaphragm. While electronics might now be used often for many functions that previously were fulfilled by mechanisms, mechanisms might still be used to provide such functions as: 1. Force amplification, e.g. that given by levers. 2. Change of speed, e.g. that given by gears. 3. Transfer of rotation about one axis to rotation about another. e.g. a timing belt. 4. Particular types of motion, e.g. that given by a quick-return mechanism. The term kinematics is used for the study of motion without regard to forces. When we consider just the motions without any consideration of the forces or energy involved then we are carrying out a kinematic analysis of the mechanism.
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FREEDOM AND CONSTRAINTS

Introduction to Mechatronics

An important aspect in the design of mechanical elements is the orientation and arrangement of the elements and parts. A body that is free in space can move in three, independent, mutually perpendicular directions and rotate in three ways about those directions (Fig.). It is said to have six degrees of freedom.

Fig: Types of motion The number of degrees of freedom is the number of components of motion that are required in order to generate the motion. If a joint is constrained to move along a line then its translational degrees of freedom are reduced to one. Figure (a) shows a joint with just this one translational degree of freedom. If a joint is constrained to move on a plane then it has two translational degrees of freedom. Figure (b) shows a joint which has one translational degree of freedom and one rotational degree of freedom.

Fig: Joints with: (a) one, (b) two degrees of freedom

GEAR TRAINS

Gear trains are mechanisms which are very widely used to transfer and transform rotational motion. They are used when a change in speed or torque of a rotating device is needed. For example, the car gearbox enables the driver to match the speed and torque requirements of the terrain with the engine power available.
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Rotary motion can be transferred from one shaft to another by a pair of rolling cylinders (Fig.); however, there is a possibility of slip. The transfer of the motion between the two cylinders depends on the frictional forces between the two surfaces in contact. Slip can be prevented by the addition of meshing teeth to the two cylinders and the result is then a pair of meshed gear wheels.

Fig: Rolling Cylinders Gears can be used for the transmission of rotary motion between parallel shafts and for shafts which have axes inclined to one another.
RATCHET AND PAWL

Ratchets can be used to lock a mechanism when it is holding a load. Figure shows a ratchet and pawl. The mechanism consists of a wheel, called a ratchet, with saw-shaped teeth which engage with an arm called a pawl. The arm is pivoted and can move back and forth to engage the wheel. The shape of the teeth is such that rotation can occur in only one direction. Rotation of the ratchet wheel in a clockwise direction is prevented by the pawl and can only take place when the pawl is lifted. The pawl is normally spring loaded to ensure that it automatically engages with the ratchet teeth. Thus a winch used to wind up a cable on a drum may have a ratchet and pawl to prevent the cable unwinding from the drum when the handle is released.

Fig : Ratchet and Pawl

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Introduction to Mechatronics

ELECTRICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS

The linear and rotary actuation is also effectively done using electrical medium. Certain advantages over hydraulic actuators make the extensive usage in mechatronic systems. The switching and control of electrical actuators form the part of mechatronics systems. The electric systems used as actuators for control are: 1. Switching devices such as mechanical switches, e.g. relays,or solid-state switches, e.g. diodes, thyristors, and transistors, where the control signal switches on or off some electrical device, perhaps a heater or a monitor. 2. Solenoid type devices where a current through a solenoid is used to actuate a soft iron core, as, for example, the solenoid operated hydraulic/ pneumatic valve where a control current through a solenoid is used to actuate a hydraulic/ pneumatic flow. 3. Drive systems, such as d.c. and a.c. motors, where a current through a motor is used to produce rotation.

MECHANICAL SWITCHES
Mechanical switches are often used as sensors to give inputs to systems, e.g. keyboards. The electrical relay is an example of a mechanical switch used in control as an actuator. Mechanically opening and closing of electrical circuits by breaking or making through one or more contact pairs is done by Mechanical switches. The opening is transmitted by 0 signal and closing is transmitted by 1. The terminals of separate electrical circuits that are to be switched by same action are termed as poles. The numbers of individual contacts for each pole are named as throws. Based on number of throws and poles in a switching action, they are classified into the following.

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Introduction to Control Systems Engineering

MODULE - 3 Introduction to control SYSTEMS engineering CONTROL SYSTEM

Control system is a system in which the output quantity is controlled by varying the input quantity. The output quantity is called controlled variable or response and the input quantity is called command signal or excitation.

The primary objective of any control system is to maintain the response of a process at a desired value. For example, we want to maintain the level at a desired value by controlling the inflow rate by adjusting valve opening.

Fig: Liquid level Control System The control system compares the desired level (set point) with the present level (controlled variable). The present level is obtained by a sensor (here Level Sensor). If any difference (error) between set point and controlled variable, the controller takes the necessary action to increase or decrease the valve opening. This was shown below as a block diagram.
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Introduction to Control Systems Engineering

This type of control system is called Closed Loop Control System (feed back control system). It is also called Automatic Control System. The sensitivity of the closed loop system may be made small to make the system more stable. Another division of control system is Open Loop Control System. Any system which does not automatically correct the variation in its output is called an open loop system. That is the output has no effect on its input.

In open loop system the output can be varied by varying the input. In open loop systems the changes in output are corrected by changing the input manually.

TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

Broadly control system can be classified as 1. Open Loop System and 2. Closed Loop System OPEN LOOP SYSTEM A system in which the output is dependent on input but input is totally independent of the output or changes in output of the system, is called an open loop system. That is any physical system which does not automatically correct for variation in its output, is called an open loop system. Such a system may be represented by the block diagram of figure.
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Introduction to Control Systems Engineering

Reference input, r(t) is applied to the controller which generates the actuating signal (u) required to control the process which is to be controlled. Process is giving out the necessary desired controlled output c(t). Usual case there will be no variation in output for a particular input. We can say for a given input the desired output is obtained. But if disturbances are occurred in between the controller and process, the output varies. Such an open loop system is shown below.

Here the controller output will force the system to give the desired response. Because of the disturbances present in the system, the output may or may not equal to the desired response. It can be described on the basis of an example shown in figure.

Here the driver wants to drive the car at 80 Km/hr. To achieve the desired speed, he applies required pressure on the accelerator pedal and the car starts moving in the desired speed. But after some time due to disturbances like wind velocity and road conditions, the speed of the car deviated from the desired speed. The car does not run at the desired speed even though there is no change in the pressure applied to accelerator pedal. The distinguished characteristic of an open loop system is that it cannot compensate or take corrective action for any disturbances that affect the system performance.
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Introduction to Control Systems Engineering

CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM A system in which the controlling action or input is somehow dependent on the output or changes in output is called closed loop system. To have dependence of input on the output, such system uses the feedback property. Feedback is a property of the system by which it permits the output to be compared with the reference input to generate the error signal based on which the appropriate controlling action can be decided. In such system, output or part of the output is feedback to the input for comparison with the reference input applied to it. Closed loop system can be represented as shown in figure.

Here the output response (controlled variable) is measured and compared with the desired value (set point) and the deviation is given to the controller. The controller generates the manipulated variable that minimizes the deviation between the desired response and controlled response. If there is no difference between the desired value and measured value, the error signal becomes zero and the controller does not take any corrective action and the output of the controlled system is maintained at the desired response. Usually the output value changes due to external disturbances. In closed loop systems, the information about the instantaneous state of the output is feedback to the input and is used to modify it in such a manner as to achieve the desired output. The action of a man walking from a starting point to destination point along a prescribed path is an example for closed loop feedback control systems. Here the reference input is prescribed path. The eye performs the function of sensor. Brain compares the actual path of movement with prescribed path and generates an error signal. Then it amplifies the error signal and transmits a control signal to the legs to correct the actual path of movement to the desired path.
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Driving a car at the desired speed is another example for closed loop control. Here the driver compares the speed of the car with the desired speed. If he finds any deviation in speed from the desired speed due to some disturbances then he may increase or decrease the speed by increasing or decreasing the pressure on the accelerator pedal so that the deviation becomes zero. In this case the pressure applied on the accelerator pedal is manipulated variable or control variable.

Comparison between Open Loop and Closed Loop Control System

Open Loop Control System 1 2 3

Simple and economical Open loop system are stable Inaccurate and unreliable

Closed Loop Control System

Complex and Costlier Closed loop system are unstable Accurate and reliable

Open loop systems are affected by Closed loop systems are less affected

noise

by noise

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Introduction to Control Systems Engineering

AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM

Automatic control systems are a special case of closed loop control systems. Let us investigate the control aspect of the steering mechanism of an automobile (engine vehicle). The error between the actual and desired directions of the automobile is given to the controller (Here steering mechanism). The driver senses this error by tactile means (body movement) and by visually.

Fig: The driver uses the difference between the actual and desired direction of travel to adjust the steering wheel accordingly

Additional information is available to the driver from the feel (sensing) of the steering wheel through his hands, these informations constitute the feedback signals which are interpreted by driver's brain, who then signals his hand to adjust the steering wheel accordingly. This again is an example of a closed loop system where human visual and tactile measurements constitute the feedback loop. It is shown as a block diagram (given below).

Fig : Automatic Steering Control System 143

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Introduction to Control Systems Engineering

Usually closed loop systems involve continuous manual control by a human operator. So they are also called manually controlled systems. In many complex and fastacting systems, the presence of human element in the control loop is undesirable because the system response may be too rapid for an operator to follow or the demand on operator's skill may be unreasonably high. Furthermore, some of the systems e.g., missiles, are self destructive and in such systems human element must be excluded. Even in situations where manual control could be possible, an economic case can often be made out for reduction of human supervision. Thus in most situations the use of some equipment which performs the same intended function as a continuously employed human operator is preferred. A system incorporating such equipment is known as automatic control system. In fact in most situations an automatic control system could be made to perform intended functions better than a human operator, and could further be made to perform such functions as would be impossible for a human operator. The general block diagram of an automatic control system which is characterized by a feedback loop is shown in figure. An error detector compares a signal obtained through feedback elements, which is a function of the output response, with the reference input. Any difference between these two signals constitutes an error or actuating signal, which actuates the control elements. The control elements in turn alter the conditions in the plant (controlled member) in such a manner as to reduce the original error.

Fig : General block diagram of an Automatic Control System

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Introduction to Control Systems Engineering

SERVO MECHANISMS
Servomechanisms are feedback control systems in which the output is mechanical position (or time derivatives of position, example velocity and acceleration). Such a servomechanism is shown in figure.

Fig: Position Control System It is also called position control system. It consists of a servomotor powered by a generator. The load whose position has to be controlled is connected to motor shaft through gear wheels. Potentiometers are used to convert the mechanical motion to electric signals. The desired load position (QR) is set on the input potentiometer and the actual load position (QC) is fed to feedback potentiometer. The difference between the two angular positions generates an error signal, which is amplified and fed to generator field circuit. The induced emf of the generator drives the motor. The rotation of the motor stops when the error signal is zero, i.e. when the desired load position is reached. Few other examples of servomechanism are, 1. 2. 3. 4.
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Power steering apparatus for an automobile. Machine tool position control. Missile launchers. Roll stabilization of ships.
Prepared by Shijin C.S. | St.Josephs College of Engineering and Technology, Palai.