~

Pergamon

PII:S0043-1354(96)00169-8

Wat. Res. Vol. 30, No. 12. pp. 3061-3073, 1996 Copyright 1996ElsevierScienceLtd Printed in Great Britain.All rights reserved 0043-1354/96$15.00+ 0.00

MIXING IN UPFLOW ANAEROBIC FILTERS A N D ITS INFLUENCE ON P E R F O R M A N C E A N D SCALE-UP

LYNN C. SMITH ~*, D. J. ELLIOT 2 and A. JAMES 2 'Binnie Consultants Limited, Pak Hok Ting Street, Shatin, Hong Kong and 2Civil Engineering Department, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, NEI 7RU, U.K. (First received August 1995; accepted in revised form May 1996) Abstract--Tracer studies were carried out in laboratory-scale and pilot-scale upflow anaerobic filters to determine the effect of liquid velocity, gas production and media depth on mixing patterns. A computer simulation model was developed to analyse tracer-response curves. In water studies at laboratory scale, gas production was shown to have a significantly greater effect on mixing than liquid upflow velocity. A reduction in the quantity of media also resulted in greater mixing due to the greater void space in which synthetic gas bubbles could cause turbulence. In the presence of sludge during reactor operation, at pilot and laboratory-scale, gas production had a significantinfluenceon mixing. However, liquid velocityplayed an important role in solids distribution in the filter, in conjunction with media depth. At pilot-scale, at a low solids concentration, a high liquid velocity lifted the sludge "bed", raising the source of gas production. The absence of gas below the sludge bed resulted in a plug flow regime which the incoming substrate entered. A reduction in the quantity of media increased the degree of mixing for a given liquid velocity and gas surface load. Lower liquid upflow velocities are required at a reduced media depth to prevent excessive biomass loss. Shear rates increase at high liquid and gas velocities, resulting in detachment of solids from the media and biomass washout. A close correlation was established between mixing and process performance which led to the development of a programme for start-up and operation of the filter to maintain optimum biomass/substrate contact. A strategy for scale-up was proposed through the development of correlations obtained from laboratory-scale filter studies which were used to predict pilot-scale mixing characteristics. This research highlighted the important factors influencing mixing patterns and scale-up in anaerobic upflow filters. Copyright 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd Key words--anaerobic upflow filter, tracer studies, mixing characteristics, design factors, scale-up, performance

INTRODUCTION The performance of large-scale reactors is affected primarily by the retention time of substrate in the reactor (Young, 1991) and the degree of contact between incoming substrate and a viable bacterial population (Fan et al., 1971; Chiang et al., 1992). These parameters are primarily a function of the hydraulic regime in the reactor. The importance of mixing in achieving efficient substrate conversion has been noted by many workers (Levenspiel, 1962; Murphy, 1971; Monteith and Stephenson, 1981) although the optimum mixing pattern is a subject of much debate. Under plug flow conditions, incoming substrate remains in the reactor for one retention time, allowing maximum time for conversion. However, high substrate concentrations resulting from lack of dispersion may inhibit bacterial activity. On the other hand, excessive dispersion may result in short-circuiting of substrate. An intermediate degree of mixing appears to be optimal for substrate conversion. *Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed.

The hydraulic characteristics of a reactor may be measured through mixing studies using a tracer material to obtain a tracer curve of retention times within the reactor. Comparison of laboratory-scale and large-scale reactor tracer curves enables their relative hydraulic performance to be evaluated. This paper describes the tracer experiments carried out on a pilot-scale upflow anaerobic filter used for treatment of waste from an ice-cream factory and a geometrically similar laboratory scale upflow filter, scaled down by a volumetric factor of 88. Quantification of the degree of mixing in a reactor may be determined in a number of ways including single-point indices and simple models. However, these have been shown to be unreliable under certain conditions as a means of describing mixing patterns in continuous flow systems (Smith et al., 1993; Ugurlu and Forster, 1993). This research aims to provide an alternative and more consistently reliable means of describing the hydraulic patterns within a reactor and evaluating the effect of mixing upon reactor performance in an upflow anaerobic filter. A hydraulic model was therefore developed to explain the hydraulic patterns observed in the pilot-

3061

3062

L.C. Smith et al. to g ~ meter

pH

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cross-shaped effluent hne overflow tank for recycle ~ =3 recycle line - manhole cover to
remove

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mecfio

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: ~ "ampl~; ent~luent

effluent

11
recycle pump

4 smaller Npes

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Fig. 1. Diagram of pilot scale upfiow anaerobic filter. scale filter. Examination of the tracer curves suggests that the filter may be conceptually partitioned into three compartments with different volumes and hydraulic retention times. F r o m the limited n u m b e r of tracer studies which it was possible to perform, some significant qualitative inferences could be drawn from the data relating operational parameters (liquid upflow velocity and gas production) to the degree of mixing in the reactor, as described by the relative proportions of the conceptual compartments in the hydraulic model. Tracer studies were carried out in the laboratoryscale filter under more closely controlled conditions in order to establish a model which could be used to predict the hydraulic patterns in a pilot-scale filter and ultimately in a full-scale plant. MATERIALS AND METHODS The laboratory- and pilot-scale anaerobic filters are diagramatically presented in Fig. 1 and the dimensions listed in Table 1.
Tracer study experiments

(Anderson et al., 1991). The lithium solution was pumped into the reactor via the feed line over a defined period of time which could be incorporated into the model. Most methods of analysis assume an "instantaneous" input, an assumption which may lead to significant errors in evaluating the degree of mixing (Levenspiel, 1962). Effluent lithium concentrations were analysed using a flame photometer (Jenway Model PF77). Exit age distribution curves of effluent tracer concentrations with time were drawn for each study. All C curves were normalised (Levenspiel, 1962) to enable comparisons to be made between studies with different retention times. Examples of normalised C curves in the pilot and laboratory-scale upflow filters containing water only are shown in Fig. 2. Mixing studies were carried out at each scale with only water present to study the effect of liquid upflow velocity on mixing patterns in the absence of gas production and sludge.

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0.0

Normalisecl time Fig. 2. Comparison of c curves from pilot-scale and laboratory-scale upflow filters.

Mixing in upflow anaerobic filters Table 1. Dimensions of pilot-scale and laboratory-scale filters Characteristic Total volume (l) Liquid volume (2/3 media) (1) Liquid volume 0/3 media) (I) Height (m) Diameter (m) Media type Media diameter (m) Surface area (m2/m 3) Voidage (%) Pilot-scale 5984 5430 5510 5 1.2 Etapak Pall rings 0.065 100 95 Laboratory-scale 68 62 1.2 0.268 Pall rings Small: Large: 0.047 0.067 200 100 95 95 Pilot:laboratory ratio 88 88 4.17 4.48

3063

Each filter was then filled with sludge and after acclimatisation to the feed source, a series of tracer studies were carried out to determine the combined effect of liquid velocity, gas production and the presence of sludge on mixing patterns. The operational conditions during pilotscale and laboratory-scale experiments are shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. Due to operational requirements of the pilot-scale filter, it was not possible to control the liquid velocity and gas production parameters exactly as required; however, by grouping the studies as shown in Table 2, it is possible to make comparisons of several of the studies in which only one parameter was changed. In scaling down the upflow filter, the linear, areal and volumetric ratios are different (Table 1). Maintaining the same liquid velocity as the pilot-scale filter (17m/d) resulted in a reduction in the hydraulic retention time of the laboratory-scale system. Two sets of tracer studies were therefore carried out in the laboratory-scale filter: one set at equivalent upflow velocities (8, 17 and 25 m/d) and one set at liquid velocities providing equal hydraulic retention times to the pilot-scale filter. Tracer studies were also carried out with different sizes of Pall ring media occupying 1/3 or 2/3 of the reactor volume to study the effect of media on hydraulic patterns. Studies of gas production include simulated gas production through diffuser rings at different levels in the reactor filled with water, and gas production during operation of the laboratory-scale filter. Reactor performance in terms of % COD reduction, methane production, volatile fatty acids concentrations and solids distribution within each reactor was monitored during each study using Standard Methods of Analysis (APHA, 1989).

Tracer curve analysis Computer simulation model analysis. Although several

techniques are available to evaluate tracer curves (including single-point indices, dispersion models and graphical analysis techniques (Levenspiel, 1962; Tomlinson and Chambers, 1979)) none were found to accurately represent mixing characteristics in a continuous flow system (Smith et al., 1993). A simulation model, based on the principle of mass balance, was developed in an attempt to quantify the relative sizes of the conceptual zones (Smith, 1993). Each zone was represented by a series of stirred tank reactors. The greater the number of tanks used to describe the zone, the more the model output represents plug flow conditions (i.e. a small amount of mixing). A flow diagram of the model is shown in Fig. 3. Adjustment of the relative volumes of the zones and the number of stirred tank reactors for each volume enabled the exit age distribution curves to be simulated as shown in Fig. 4. Flow through the mixed (VM) and plug flow (Vp) zones was assumed to be sequential. The dead zone (Vo) was assumed to be parallel to the mixed zone with a mechanism for transfer of material between the zones, the rate of transfer (Kc) being proportional to the difference in concentration between the zones. It was assumed that most mixing takes place in the space below the filter media because the origin of the majority of the gas production is in the sludge bed which exists below the media. The plug flow zone was predominantly in the filter bed. This model was applied to both the pilot-scale and laboratory-scale upflow anaerobic filters.
RESULTS

Table 2. Operational conditions during pilot-scale anaerobic filter tracer studies Liquid Gas Gas surface upflow velocity production loading Study (m/d) (m3/m3/d) (m3/m2/d)
1 2 3 4 5 16.60 7.86 17.90 26.60 6.00 0.00 2.95 2.18 2.44 1.95 0.00 14.26 10.49 11.73 9.38

T h e results o f these studies will be presented in terms o f pilot-scale observations, laboratory-scale results, reactor p e r f o r m a n c e related to hydraulic patterns in each reactor and, finally, scale-up considerations to enable utilisation o f these findings for full-scale filter design a n d operation.

Pilot-scale upflow filter tracer studies Effect o f gas production. Results o f the simulation for each o f the tracer studies are shown in Table 4, indicating relative zone sizes a n d the n u m b e r of stirred t a n k s used for the plug flow zone. The first study with only water present in the upflow filter was simulated by a large plug flow volume comprising 900 tanks in series (Fig. 2). T h e results from the simulation model show a significant decrease in the plug flow volume in the presence o f gas (studies 2-8). There is a corresponding d r a m a t i c increase in the n u m b e r o f tanks required to simulate this zone. These results agree with the o b s e r v a t i o n by Y o u n g a n d Y o u n g (1988), w h o

6 7 8 Studies
1 and 3

16.30 23.94 5.90 Common parameters

2/3 media Liquid velocity

1.62 1.31 1.48

Gas production

7.74 6.28 7. I0

Altered parameter Liquid velocity Liquid velocity

3 and 4 5, 6 and 7

2/3 media Gas production 1/3 media Gas production

3064

L.C. Smith et al. Table 3. Operationalconditionsduring laboratory-scaleanaerobicfilter tracer studies Gas Gas production surfaceload Liquid velocity Tracer studies (m3/m~/d) (mJ/m2/d) (m/d) Water only--no gas production 2/3 large Pall tings --1.83, 3.89, 5.72, 8, 17, 25 1/3 large Pall rings --8, 17,25 2/3 small Pall rings --8, 17,25 1/3 small Pall tings --8, 17, 25 Simulated gas production 2/3 large Pall rings 0.05-1.41 0.0625-1.71 8, 17, 25 I/3 large Pall tings 2/3 small Pall rings 0.26-1.41 0.314-1.71 1/3 small Pall rings Sludge studies 2/3 large Pall tings 0.29-0.37 0.36-0.45 8, 17, 25 0.74 0.907 17 1.03-1.18 1.25-1.43 8, 17, 25 2.06-2.35 2.56-2.86 8, 17, 25

showed gas production significantly increased the mixed zone portion of the filter. The dead volume remains the same although there is a decrease in the dead zone flow (QD) with increasing gas production. Tracer entering a dead zone containing only water will readily be drawn back into the main flow. Muslu (1986) observed improved contact between stagnant regions and the dynamic liquid phase as gas bubbles passed through a packed column. In an operating reactor, the biofilm attached to the media of an anaerobic filter acts as a biological dead space (Choi and Burkhead, 1982; Grobicki et al., 1992) over which liquid flows. An increase in gas production increases the rate of diffusion in and out of the biofilm layer which ensures a steady supply of substrate to the biomass (Solisio et al., 1987). Effect of liquid upflow velocity. The liquid upflow velocity in study 2 is half that of study 3, whilst the gas production is significantly higher. These conditions produce a smaller plug flow zone in study 2 and a larger mixed zone, indicating that gas production has a greater effect on mixing than liquid QR

velocity. An increase in liquid velocity in study 4 compared with study 3, at a similar gas production rate, resulted in increased dispersion and a smaller plug flow zone, implying that increased liquid velocity enhances the degree of mixing. Liquid velocity has little effect on dead zone parameters. The correlation between increased mixing and higher upflow velocity has been observed by other workers (Joubert et al., 1987; Thirumurthi, 1988). Thirumurthi observed poor reactor performance at liquid velocities below 16m/d which he attributed to inadequate mixing of the sludge "bed" and poor substrate/biomass contact. Performance also deteriorated during operation at upflow velocities above 163 m/d due to excessive biomass shear and loss in the effluent. This range of velocities is far higher than those used in the present studies. Effect of quantity of media. The complexity of the relationship between gas production, liquid upflow velocity and mixing was shown in tracer studies 5, 6 and 7 when the media volume was reduced by 50%. Gas production was similar during these three

QF

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I l QF

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Mixed zone Plug flow zone Dead zone Feed flow rate Recycle flow rate Dispersion coefficient between VM and VD Fig. 3. Flow diagram of simulation model.

Mixing in upflow anaerobic filters

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Fig. 4. Simulation of tracer study C curve from operating pilot-scale filter. studies, but the degree of mixing decreased as liquid velocity increased (larger plug flow zone with a greater number of tanks required to model the zone (Table 4)). This contrasted with studies utilising 2/3 media. However, there is an important difference between the two sets of tracer studies which may be explained with reference to the reactor performance during the studies. The effect of a reduced quantity of media is evident from a comparison of studies 2 and 5. The liquid velocity in these two studies is similar but the gas surface load is much greater in study 2. Assuming that gas production is the primary cause of mixing in the filter, the lower gas production in study 5 would be expected to produce a smaller mixed zone. However, the mixed volumes in the two studies are similar in size. This implies that the removal of the lower 50% of the media increases the region where dispersive mechanisms occur, resulting in a larger mixed zone for a given gas production. The quantity of media therefore has a significant effect on mixing patterns in the filter. The combined effect of liquid and gas velocity on the mixed volume of the filter is shown in Fig. 5 for 2/3 media. The greatest degree of mixing occurs at a high liquid and gas velocity. The effect of liquid velocity is minimal. The opposite effect is shown in Fig. 6 for 1/3 media. The mixed proportion decreases with increasing liquid upflow velocity, indicating that high liquid velocities result in passage of the tracer through the filter with minimal dispersion. This has important implications for process operation to avoid build up of high substrate concentrations.

Liquid Upflow Velocity

Tracer studies carried out in the absence of gas production showed that maintaining an equal upflow velocity (17 m/d) as that used in the pilot-scale filter produced a more similar mixing pattern than maintaining a similar retention time (liquid velocity of 3.89 m/d) (Fig. 2). Liquid upflow velocities in the same range as the pilot-scale filter were therefore used for laboratory-scale operation.

Gas Production and the Effect of Media Size and Quantity

The effect of gas production on the mixed volume at a constant upflow velocity of 17 m/d was more dramatic than that of liquid upflow velocity (studies 1 to 4 in Table 5). An increase in gas production resulted in an increase in the degree of mixing, the effect being greater at a lower liquid velocity (compare studies 22 and 23 with 24 and 25).

Effect of Media Size and Quantity

Table 5 shows the effect of media size and gas production on mixing patterns. The greatest proportion of plug flow was present with 2/3 small media, the least with 1/3 large media (compare studies 9 and 6). This is due to the different movement of gas through liquid alone and through packing media. In the absence of media, the movement of gas bubbles is limited only by the boundary walls. In the media, particularly in small size media, movement is restricted by the constant impact with obstacles to the gas bubble flow, resulting in gas hold-up, coalescence and disintegration. In regions without media, movement is unrestricted and rapid upward movement of the bubble creates turbulence in a larger volume than movement through the media. An increase in the media quantity therefore reduced the degree of mixing. Tilche et al. (1993) studied gas bubble kinetics in upflow filters and showed that when less packing is present, gas bubbles generated

Laboratory-scale upflow filter tracer studies Water studies. A series of tracer studies was carried out with only water present in the reactor to evaluate the effect of liquid velocity, gas production, gas origin and media size and quantity on the mixing characteristics of a laboratory-scale upflow filter.

Table 4, Computer simulation results for pilot-scale upflow filter tracer studies Tracer study 2 18 11.86 10.49 2.18 2/3 % 12.7 87.1 0.2 3000 2420 10 244 600 844 0.0001 0.11 6 55.2 44,6 0.2 1500 27.6 3920 72.2 10 0.2 254 1000 1254 0.00009 0.10 6 560 10.2 4946 89.6 10 0,2 284 0,0 284 0,0008 1.4 2 2400 3106 10 270 500 770 0.0006 0.55 3 43,5 56.3 0.2 3400 2106 10 276 852 1128 0.001 0.45 4 Vol. (I) % Vol. (1) % Vol. (1) % Vol. (1) % Vol. (I) % 61.6 38,2 0,2 27 13.26 11.73 2.44 2/3 6 10.6 9.38 1.95 1/3 16 8.77 7.74 1,62 1/3 24 7,1 6.28 1.31 1/3 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 8.01 7.1 1,48 1/3 Vol. (1) 540 4966 10 280 0.0 280 0.0008 2.3 2 % 9.8 90.0 0.2

Criterion

Liquid velocity (m/d) Gas production (m~/d) Gas surface load (m~/m2/d) Gas production (m3/m3/d) Volume of media in filter

17 0,0 0.0 0,0 2/3

8 16 14.26 2.95 2/3

Model parameter

Vol. (I)

Vol. (1)

Plug flow zone (Vr) Mixed zone (VM) Dead zone (VD) Feed [low (QF) (I/h) Recycle flow (Qa) Total flow (Q) Dead zone flow (Qn) (l/h) Dispersion coefficient (Kc) Number of tanks in Vp

5000 420 10 780 0.0 780 0.0017 30.0 900

92.1 7.7 0.2

690 4730 10 373 0.0 373 0.0008 1.0 2

Table 5. Computer simulation results for tracer studies in laboratory-scale upflow filter Tracer study (gas production from base of filter with different sizes and quantities of media) 3 17 0.89 0.80 2/3 large 24 74 4 Tracer studies (no gas production) 18 19 20 21 17 1.71 1.54 2/3 large 16 82 3 17 0.063 0.056 I/3 large 51 47 10 17 0.314 0.284 1/3 large 29 69 3 17 0.89 0.80 I/3 large 14 84 3 17 1.71 1.54 1/3 large I1 87 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 17 0,314 0,284 2/3 small 48 50 8 10 17 0.89 0.80 2/3 small 40 58 3 11 17 1.71 1.54 2/3 small 21 77 3 12 17 0.314 0,284 1/3 small 48 50 2 Tracer studies (gas production and different upfow velocities) 22 23 24 25 25 1.71 1.54 2/3 large . 19 79 4 17 --2/3 large . . 77 21 90 25 --2/3 large . . 63 35 30 8 8 0,314 1.71 0.284 1.54 2/3 large 2/3 large . . . 58 18 40 80 3 2 25 0,314 0.284 2/3 large . 55 43 6 13 17 0.89 0.80 1/3 small 16 82 4 14 17 1.7t 1.54 1/3 small 11 87 4

Criterion

Liquid velocity (m/d) Gas surface load (m~/m2/d) Gas surface load (m3/m~/d) Media type and quantity Plug flow zone, V~ (%) Mixed zone, VM (%) Number of tanks, N ~

17 0.063 0.056 2/3 large 61 37 8

17 0.314 0.284 2/3 large 42 56 6

Tracer study (with gas production from different heights from the base of filter) 17 17 0.89 0.80 1/3 large 0.49 70 28 8 17 0.89 0.80 1/3 large 0.76 91 7 30

Criterion

15

16

Liquid velocity (m/d) Gas surface load (m~/m2/d) Gas surface load (m~/m3/d) Media type and quantity Height of diffuser tubes (m) Plug flow zone, Vp (%) Mixed zone. Vu (%) Number of tanks, Nw

17 0.89 0.80 2/3 large 0.49 87 11 10

17 0.89 0.80 2/3 large 0.76 84 14 18

8 --2/3 large . 73 25 35

Mixing in upflow anaerobic filters

3067

i----I

Above

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83.90 75 - /13 6S-76 ~ D - 88 53 - BO 48-b'3 ~1-46 30-38

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Fig. 5. Effect of gas and liquid velocities on percent mixed volume in model for pilot-scale filter tracer studies (2/3 media). below the packing hit the packing with a greater impact, thus enhancing mixing. They also showed that inconsistent gas production from a sludge bed results in explosions of large gas bubbles, which can cause channelling. Ugurlu and Forster (1993) found that the shearing effect of gas bubbles was more marked in thermophilic upflow filters and the effect on mixing corresponding increased. Media are often used in design to enhance plug flow (Naumann et al., 1983). These studies showed that, in water, the degree of plug flow was highest at a low gas production rate, 2/3 small media and a high liquid velocity. A similar effect was shown in the pilot-scale filter at low upflow velocities, that is, a reduction in media quantity enhanced mixing. Partial plug flow conditions were considered to predominate in filters which contain full packing (Dahab and Young, 1982; Ehlinger et al., 1987; Harper and Pohland, 1987; Noyola et al., 1988). More recent work has shown the importance of gas production in mixing (Young, 1991) and complete mixing is usually assumed in operating upflow filters.
Gas Origin

Evaluation of the sludge distribution pattern during mixing studies in the pilot-scale filter during operation indicated that a raised sludge bed changes the level at which gas is produced, affecting the degree of mixing. Studies were therefore conducted to simulate gas production at different levels in the laboratory-scale upflow filter. Tracer studies carried out with gas originating from the middle set of diffuser tubes showed a considerable decrease in the mixed zone, a reduced flowrate through the dead zone and an increase in the number of tanks representing the plug flow zone

[--'] ~ 8 105 [-'---] ~-105 91- 98

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Fig. 6. Effect of gas and liquid velocities on percent mixed volume in model for pilot-scale filter tracer studies (1/3 media).
W R 3I~12 I

3068

L.C. Smith et al.

* : * * * WATER 2 / 3 large media; 8 r n / d *-**,'-* WATER 2/,.3 lager media; 1 7 m / d
~ A ~

. = = = ~ SLUDGE 2 / 3 large media; 8m/cl SLUDGE 2 / 3 large media; 17m/d

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o o.o

'

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(Table 5) compared with gas originating from the base of the filter (compare studies 3 and 7 with studies 15 to 18). As expected, the degree of mixing was greater in the presence of 1/3 media than 2/3 media. The mixed zone volume decreased further in tracer studies in which gas was released from upper diffuser tubes. In this case, the presence of 2/3 media enhanced mixing compared with 1/3 media because the media produced a degree of turbulence in the absence of gas. In an operating filter, if the liquid upflow velocity is high enough to push the sludge bed into the packing media, a greater depth of media is beneficial for increasing the mixed volume of the reactor as well as retaining the sludge. Tracer studies with sludge present. The results from tracer studies carried out during reactor operation showed significant differences compared with water studies, particularly in terms of the effect of gas production and liquid upflow velocity upon mixing patterns (Fig. 7). Compared with water studies, in the presence of sludge, a higher gas production rate was required to create similar mixed conditions. The viscous nature of sludge, present in the "bed", provides more resistance to the inertial mixing force produced by the gas bubbles and liquid flow. A small amount of gas generates considerable mixing in water (56% mixed volume at 0.26 m3/m3/d) compared with only 11% mixed volume in the operating reactor at a gas production of 0.37 m3/m3/d. As in water studies, the

positive effect of gas production on mixed volume is greater at low liquid velocities. In the presence of sludge, liquid velocity has an important effect on mixing. The liquid flow agitates the sludge bed, thus releasing gas and the increase in mixed volume is therefore more noticeable than in water studies. Reactor performance related to hydraulic patterns. In pilot-scale filter study 2, the low liquid velocity concentrated solids at the base of the filter. As the liquid velocity increased to 18 m/d and 27 m/d, the solids at the base of the filter were raised to a more uniform distribution throughout the reactor resulting in an increase in % COD removal (Fig. 8). At 27 m/d, the effluent solids concentration increased due to a higher biomass concentration in the packing combined with the increased shear detaching biomass from the packing, a phenomenon also observed by other workers (Kennedy et al., 1989; Choi and Burkhead, 1989; Chiang et al., 1992). At the highest liquid velocity 27 m/d, the excellent % COD removal and methane yield (greater than the theoretical 0.35 m 3 C H j k g COD removed) is explained by the operation of the filter at 6 m/d immediately prior to this study. Inadequate mixing at such a low upflow velocity led to the accumulation of dead zones in the sludge bed where substrate was trapped unconverted. The dramatic increase in liquid velocity to 27 m/d agitated the sludge bed, releasing trapped substrate which was converted to gas resulting in apparently excellent performance. This contrasts with the

Mixing in upflow anaerobic filters laboratory-scale filter performance at 25 m/d upflow velocity where an increased effluent solids concentration and reduced gas yield was observed compared with operation at a lower upflow velocity. These results indicate that 25 m/d is the maximum operating velocity for the upflow filter, in contrast to the results of Thirumurthi (1988) who operated filters at liquid velocities of 16-163 m/d without the adverse effects. There is considerable debate over where the majority of the biomass exists in the upflow filter, a consequence of the different upflow velocities at which reactors are operated and also the type of media used (Tilche et al., 1993). Dahab and Young (1982) reported that the biomass remains primarily in the lower 1/3 of the reactor. Murray
36-""
II

3069

(1984) considered the majority of methanogenic activity to be associated with the biofilm. Liquid velocity is an important means of encouraging agitation of the sludge bed and enhancing biomass/substrate contact (Joubert et al., 1981; Oleszkiewicz et al., 1986). The optimum liquid velocity at which to operate a system is dependent on a number of factors: (a) sludge concentration; (b) sludge settleability; (c) organic loading rate and gas production; (d) quantity of media. A reduction in the quantity of media during pilot-scale studies 5, 6 and 7 altered the effect of liquid and gas velocities on mixing patterns. The lower biomass concentration (due to removal of

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Fig. 8. Average performance characteristics of pilot-scale anaerobic upflow filter.

3070
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L.C. Smith et al.

Port 0 Port 1 naomi Port Port 2 3 LIQUID VELOCITY 2 5 M / D 1 2 0 0 -I

UQUiD VELOCITY 8 M / O 1200 1200" 900-

U Q U I D VELOCITY 1 7 1 d / D

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I, .... -O- . . . . . . I 17 I I I I I I III O 50 100 Gas p r o d u c t i o n I~ . . . . I 200 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I-- I 5O 100 150 Gas p r o d u e U o n (I/d) Ilall .-O . . . . . . . Jllll .O J ill I 150

50 100 Goa production (I/d)

Fig. 9. Effect of gas production on reactor profiles during laboratory-scale filter tracer studies. the biomass with the packing) was easily agitated at 6 m/d upflow velocity, in contrast to the studies with high biomass concentrations and 2/3 packing media. The lower % COD removal (50-60%) during operation in the presence of 1/3 media was not caused by poor mixing; tracer studies showed almost complete mixing of the liquid phase. The decrease in biomass concentration in the system lowered its capacity to convert a given organic load. Both substrate/biomass contact and biomass retention are important in affecting reactor performance (Young and Yan, 1989; Oleszkiewicz et al., 1986; Tilche et al., 1993). Young (1991) recommended at least 2/3 of the filter to contain packing and a minimum depth of 2 m. Oleszkiewicz et al. (1986) observed a deterioration in performance in the filter as the media depth was reduced to 25% of the reactor height. However, Kennedy et al. (1989) oppose this view and recommend a reduction in media to 10% of the reactor height for economic reasons. The different conclusions drawn by different researchers are partly explained by the degree of sludge settleability attained and the operating liquid velocity. Most laboratory-scale filters operate at liquid velocities between 1 and 8 m/d. In full-scale filters, liquid velocites may reach 50 m/d (Young, 1991). The development of a highly settleable granular sludge in Kennedy's filter diminished the role of the media as a gas/solids separator. The turbulence created from gas production is responsible for solids washout and led Hashemian (1989) to recommend the use of gas separation devices at different levels in the reactor. Such discrepancies have created difficulties in preparing a unified approach to scale-up of filters and defining optimal operating conditions. These aspects will be considered with reference to the results of the present studies and other workers' findings.
Application o f mixing studies to filter start-up and operation

The present studies show that the optimum upflow velocity during start-up depends on the quantity of media and the biomass concentration in the reactor. Low gas production and poor mixing during start-up can result in inadequate substrate/biomass contact and erratic performance during some upflow filter studies (van den Berg et al., 1980). At a low solids concentration, a lower upflow velocity (8-10 m/d) is beneficial to retain biomass below the media, encouraging gas production in this region and reducing the solids loss in the effluent. As the biomass concentration increases, a greater liquid velocity (17m/d) reduces the formation of dead zones through agitation of the sludge bed. Young and Yang (1989) recommended start up at 10m/d to reduce short-circuiting, although they did not consider the biomass concentration as an additional factor. Monitoring the reactor profile at different stages of gas production enables the optimum liquid velocity to be determined, as recommended by Oleszkiewicz et al. (1986). In laboratory studies, the solids profile changed as liquid velocity increased (Fig. 9), particularly at Port 2 at high rates of gas production. Increased shear stresses detach solids from the packing under these conditions (Tilche et al., 1993) COD concentrations rose correspondingly at Ports 2 and 3 indicating incomplete conversion of substrate in the sludge bed due to channelling of incoming feed.

Mixing in upflow anaerobic filters

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Scale-up. Young (1991) considered hydraulic retention time and media type and placement the most important factors in full-scale filter design. However, complete mixing was assumed, an assumption which the present studies have shown is not necessarily valid. The change in mixing patterns upon scale-up and the effect on process performance shown in these studies emphasises the need to predict and optimise mixing patterns in fullscale reactors is therefore considered an important feature in scaling-up treatment reactors (Tilche et al., 1993). The gas surface loading rate (GSL) is considered to be of particular importance in scaling-up upflow filters (Frostell, 1981; Hashemian, 1989; Young and Yang, t989). The range of GSL used at laboratory scale is low (0.36-2.89 m3/m2/d) compared with the GSL in a geometrically similar pilot-scale filter operated at a similar organic loading rate (OLR) and gas yield (7.1-14.3 m3/m:/d). This is because O L R is based on the volumetric scale ratio (88:1 in the present study), while GSL is based on the area scale ratio (20:1). The GSL increases at a faster rate than the volume scale. A very high GSL in a full-scale reactor may cause severe short-circuiting. For this reason, upflow filters are scaled-up horizontally to maintain a constant GSL (Young and Young, 1989). The present studies indicated other factors which are important in affecting mixing patterns in the filter; media quantity, liquid velocity, the level of gas production and the concentration of sludge in the sludge bed. A multiple regression analysis was carried out using the laboratory filter results from the simulation model for % plug flow and % mixed zone volumes in order to determine the importance of each factor in affecting the mixing pattern. The resulting correlations (Table 6) were used to predict the volumes of plug flow and mixed zones in the pilotscale filter under the conditions of gas surface load

and liquid velocity during the pilot filter studies and the results compared with original model data. In most of the pilot-scale studies, the correlation predictions for plug and mixed zone volumes approximate the original simulation model data which provided the best fit to the actual C curve. In two studies (2 and 4), the predictions overestimated the plug flow volume of the reactor. In study 2, the gas surface loading rate was much higher than the range used in the laboratory-scale studies. The correlation may not be accurate outside the range from which it was formulated. The upflow velocity in study 4 was high and the poor prediction values may be explained by the difficulty in quantifying the sludge distribution and its effect on mixing patterns. Correlations developed for the prediction of dead zone flowrate and dispersion coefficient showed poor correlation and further refinement of these correlations is required by means of a more extensive and controlled set of laboratory-scale and pilot-scale tracer studies to evaluate the effect of gas and liquid velocities at different sludge concentrations. CONCLUSIONS The combined results from tracer studies carried out in laboratory-scale and pilot-scale upflow filters showed that both design and operational factors affect mixing patterns in an operating filter: media size and depth; gas surface load (correlated with reactor geometry); liquid velocity; sludge concentration and height of sludge bed. Mixing was shown to have a significant effect on process performance in the operating upflow filter although this relationship is not a simple one. The optimum operational strategy appears to be the development of a well agitated sludge bed at the base of the reactor, in which incoming substrate is well

Table 6. Correlations for predictingmixing parameters in the upflow filter Correlation

R~

% Plug zone (liP) = 65.6 - 4.12(InGSL)+ 1.18(TSS)+ 49.23(MDHt) + 6.43(1nGO) 0.721 % Mixed zone (VM)= 32.2 + 4.12(InGSL)- 1.09(TSS)- 49.23(MDHt) - 6.44(1nGO) 0.722 Prediction of pilot-scalefilter mixing patterns using laboratory-scalecorrelations Pilot-scale Predicted model data Actual model data operational conditions (from correlations) (bestfit to C curve---Table4) Study L GSL MDHt VP VM VP VM 1 16.6 0.00 0.66 71.0 26.9 92.1 7.70 2 7.86 14.3 0.66 32.0 66.9 I2.7 87.1 3 17.9 10.5 0.66 51.2 46.7 55.2 44.6 4 26.6 11.7 0.66 57.1 40.9 27.6 72.2 5 6.00 9.40 0.33 7.10 90.9 10.2 89.6 6 16.3 7.70 0.33 60.5 37.5 43.5 56.3 7 23.9 6.30 0.33 65.3 32.6 61.6 38.2 8 5.90 7.10 0.33 8.80 89.2 9.80 90.0 L = liquid upflow velocity(m/d). GSL = gas surface load (m3/m2/d). TSS = total suspendedsolids (g/l).
M D H t = media depth:height ratio.

GO = gas origin (% of reactor height).

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L.C. Smith et al. Grobicki A. and Stuckey D. C. (1992) Hydrodynamic characteristics of the anaerobic baffled reactor. Water Res. 26 (3), 371-378. Hall E. R. (1981) Biomass retention and mixing characteristics in fixed film and suspended growth anaerobic reactors. Proc. of the 1.4 WPR Specialised Seminar, Copenhagen, pp. 371-396. Harper S. R. and Pohland F. G. (1987) Enhancement of anaerobic treatment efficiency through process modification. J. Water Pollution Control Fed. 59 (8), 152-161. Joubert W. A. and Britz I. J. (1987) Performance and mixing characteristics of an anaerobic hybrid reactor treating a synthetic fatty acid containing substrate. Water SA 13 (2), 63-68. Kennedy K. J., Gorur S. S., Elliott C. A., Andras E. and Guiot S. R. (1989) Media effects on performance of anaerobic hybrid reactors. Water Res. 23 (11), 1397-1405. Levenspiel O. (1962) Chemical Reaction Engineering, 1st Edition, Chap. 9, pp. 242-308. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Monteith H. D. and Stephenson J. P. (1981) Mixing efficiencies in full scale anaerobic digesters by tracer methods. J. Water Pollution Control Fed. 53, 78-84. Murphy (1971) Significance of Flow Patterns and Mixing in Biological Waste treatment (Edited by R. P. Canale), pp. 35-50. Interscience, New York. Murray W. D. (1984) Distribution of methanogenic and acidogenic micro-organisms in a stationary fixed film reactor. Proc. 3rd European Congress on Biotechnology, Munich, Germany, pp. 145-149. Muslu Y. (1986) Distribution of retention times in model biological filters containing packed spheres. Water Res. 10 (3), 259-265. Naumann E. B. and Buffham B. A. (1983) Mixing in Continuous Flow Systems. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Noyola A., Capdeville B. and Roques H. (1988) Anaerobic treatment of domestic sewage with a rotating-stationary fixed film reactor. Water Res. 22 (12), 1585-1592. Oleszkiewicz J. A., Hall E. R. and Oziemblo J. Z. (1986) Performance of laboratory anaerobic hybrid reactors with varying depths of media. Environmental Technol. Lett. 7, 445-452. Smith L. C. (1991) Mixing characteristics of the contact process and anaerobic filter. PhD Thesis, University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Smith L. C., Elliot D. and James A. (1993) Characterisation of mixing patterns by means of tracer curve analysis. Ecological Modelling 69, 267-285. Solisio C. and Borghi M. D. (1987) The anaerobic design of surplus activated sludge in a fixed film reactor. Water Res. 21 (11), 1301-1305. Stevens D. K., Berthouex P. M. and Chapman T. W. (1986) The effect of tracer diffusion in biofilm on residence time distributions. Water Res. 20 (3), 369-375. Thirumurthi D. (1988) Effects of mixing velocity on anaerobic fixed film reactors. Water. Res. 22 (4), 517-523. Tilche A. and Vieira S. M. M. (1991) Discussion report on reactor design on anaerobic filters and sludge bed reactors. Water Sci. Technol. 34 (8), 193-206. Tomlinson E. J. and Chambers B. (1979) The effect of longitudinal mixing on the settleability of activated sludge. Water Res. Centre Technical Report TRI22. Ugurlu A. and Forster C. F. (1993) Mixing patterns in thermophilic upflow anaerobic filters with porous and non-porous packing. Trans: IChemE 71 (B), 129-133. Van den Berg L., Lentz C. P. and Armstrong D. W. (1980) Anaerobic waste treatment efficiency comparisons

distributed to enhance substrate/biomass contact. This is achieved by optimising distribution pipe design and encouraging conditions for good gas production. Partially treated substrate then passes upwards through a gas mixed zone into packing, where the restricted passage of liquid encourages plug flow conditions and completion of chemical reactions in the region of reduced substrate concentration. Reactor performance should be carefully monitored at all stages of operation, particularly following a change in the organic loading rate. The profile of solids, C O D and volatile fatty acids through the reactor height is particularly important to ensure a sludge " b e d " is present to convert the incoming substrate. Further studies are required at a wider range of liquid velocities and gas production rates to evaluate the critical levels for operation. The packing media depth and the solids concentration required at startup are factors of economic importance. The effect of these factors on process performance under different operating regimes requires investigation. The proposed development of a scale-up strategy for maintenance of optimum mixing and performance conditions shows the complexity of the process and the importance of both design and operation in achieving the required process performance in a fullscale upflow filter.

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Anderson G. K., Campos C. M. M., Chernicharo C. A. L. and Smith L. C. (1991) Evaluation of the inhibitory effects of lithium when used as a tracer for anaerobic digesters. Water Res. 25 (7), 755-760. APHA, AWWA, WPCF (1989) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 17th Edition (Edited by L. S. Clesceri, A. E. Greenberg and R. R. Truscell). APHA, Washington. Chiang C. F. and Dague R. (1992) Effects of reactor configuration and biomass activity on the performance of upflow static media anaerobic reactors. Water Environment Res. 64 (2), 141-378. Choi E. and Burkhead C. E. (1982) The hydrodynamic evaluation of a fixed media biological process. Proc. 1st Int. Conf. Fixed Film Biological Processes (Edited by Y. C. Wu et al.), p. 1542. Kings Island, OH, Civil Engineering Dept., University of Pittsburgh, PA. Cooper A. R. and Jeffreys G. V. (1971) Chemical Kinetics and Reactor Design. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Dahab M. F. and Young J. C. (1982) Retention and distribution of biological solids in fixed bed anaerobic filters. Proc. 1st lnt. Conf. Fixed Film Biological Processes (Edited by Wu Y. C. et al.), pp. 1337-1351. Kings Island, OH, Civil Engineering Dept, University of Pittsburgh, PA. Ehlinger F., Audic J. M., Verrier D. and Faup G. M. (1987) The influence of the carbon source on microbiological clogging in an anaerobic filter. Water Sci. Technol. 19, 261-273. Fan L. T., Tsai B. I. and Erickson L. E. (1971) Simultaneous effect of macromixing and micromixing on growth processes. AIChE J. 17(3), 689--696. Frostell B. (1981) Anaerobic treatment in a sludge bed system compared with a filter system. J. Water Pollution Control Fed. 53(2), 216-222.

Mixing in upttow anaerobic filters between fixed film reactors, contact digesters and fully mixed, continuously fed digesters. Proc. 35th Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, pp. 788-793. Young J. C. (1991) Factors affecting the design and performance of upflow anaerobic filters. Water Sci. Technol. 24 (8), 133-155.

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Young J. C. and Yang B. S. (1989) Design considerations for full-scale anaerobic filters. J. Water Pollution Control Fed. 61 (9), 1576-1587. Young H. W. and Young J. C. (1988) Hydraulic characteristics of upfiow anaerobic filters. J. Environmental Eng. ASCE 114 (3), 621-638.