Stud.

Techn. Nora Marie Lundevall Arnet

Project thesis

Evaluation of technical challenges and need for standardization for LNG bunkering

Trondheim, June 10, 2013

NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology Department of Energy and Process Engineering

Source: Swedish Marine Technology Forum

Preface
This project report is written as a part of the five year Master Degree Program I attend at the Department of Energy and Process Engineering at Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). First of all I wish to express my gratitude to my supervisor Reidar Kristoffersen. During the semester he has given me academic guidance on report matters and great freedom in choosing a topic of interest. The project report consists of a literature review regarding LNG bunkering. The topic is current and much of the information is gathered from publications made within the last five years and from direct communication with people in the industry. The list of people who have contributed and whom I wish to thank is therefore extensive. The report is written in cooperation with Det Norske Veritas (DNV). Lars Petter Blikom, Segment Director for Natural Gas, DNV, has been my industrial supervisor. I would like to thank Mr. Blikom for providing me with assistance on the topic and valuable insight form the industry. His support and encouragement throughout the process has been highly appreciated. I also wish to thank the natural gas team at DNV, Erik Skramstad and Katrine Lie Strm for their help on technical matters. Individuals who contributed with insight, relevant material, outlining and establishing the basis of the project report include; Per Magne Einang and Dag Stenersen (MARINTEK/SINTEF), ystein Bruno Larsen (BW Offshore), Ernst Meyer and Henning Mohn (DNV), Rolv Stokkmo (Liquiline), ystein Klaussen (Gassteknikk) and Jens Klstad (Kongsberg). Nora Marie Lundevall Arnet

Abstract
The shipping industry is searching for cleaner solutions to comply with upcoming regulations on emissions. A favorable solution is to use Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) as bunker fuel, on ferries and other smaller vessel travelling set routes. Implementation of innovative solutions in the large-scale LNG distribution has been successful, but the industry is now requiring solutions for the small-scale LNG distribution networks. An expansion of small-scale LNG infrastructure holds a great potential for cost effective fuel for the industry. Several LNG bunkering solutions exist today and new projects are announced frequently, but detailed descriptions are rarely published due to the intense competition in the emerging market. The industry is also faced with lack of standardization within certain areas of the bunkering process. Leaving procedures open to discretion and a potentially higher risk of failure. This project report aims to evaluate essential aspects relevant to the emerging LNG bunkering market focusing on technical challenges and need for standardization. It will include an overview of LNG safety aspects, a technical step-by-step approach to LNG bunkering and essential equipment used, assessment of current standards, and finally a discussion of critical areas for LNG bunkering to compete with current solutions.

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Content
1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Motivation ...................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Bunkering ................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1.2 New Projects ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.3 The Drive ................................................................................................................................. 2 1.2 Underlying Hypothesis ................................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Main Goal of the Report ................................................................................................................. 3 1.4 Scope of the Report ........................................................................................................................ 3 2 LNG ........................................................................................................................................................ 4 2.1 LNG characteristics ......................................................................................................................... 4 2.2 LNG Chain ....................................................................................................................................... 4 2.2.1 Gas Field (Reservoir) ................................................................................................................ 4 2.2.2 Liquefaction Terminal: Onshore Processes ............................................................................. 4 2.2.3 Marine Transport .................................................................................................................... 4 2.2.4 Receiving Terminal .................................................................................................................. 4 2.3 LNG Safety Issues ........................................................................................................................... 5 3 LNG Advantages .................................................................................................................................... 6 3.1 Environmental advantages ............................................................................................................. 6 3.1.1 Alternative Energy Sources ..................................................................................................... 6 3.1.2 Emission Control ...................................................................................................................... 6 3.1.3 Emissions Requirements ......................................................................................................... 7 3.1.4 Natural Gas - The Solution ....................................................................................................... 7 3.2 Economical Advantages .................................................................................................................. 8 3.2.1 Investment Costs ..................................................................................................................... 8 3.2.2 Infrastructure .......................................................................................................................... 8 3.2.3 Marine Fuel Costs .................................................................................................................... 9 4 Bunkering ............................................................................................................................................ 10 4.1 LNG Bunkering Definition ............................................................................................................. 10 4.1.1 Engines .................................................................................................................................. 10 4.2 LNG Bunkering Scenarios ............................................................................................................. 10 4.3 LNG Bunkering Procedure ............................................................................................................ 11 4.3.1 Step 1 Initial Precooling 1 ................................................................................................... 12 4.3.2 Step 2- Initial Precooling 2 ..................................................................................................... 13 4.3.3 Step 3 Connection of Bunker Hose ..................................................................................... 13 4.3.4 Step 4 - Inerting the Connected System ................................................................................ 14 4.3.5 Step 5 Purging the Connected System ............................................................................... 14 4.3.6 Step 6 Filling Sequence ....................................................................................................... 15 4.3.7 Step 7 Liquid Line Stripping ................................................................................................ 16 4.3.8 Step 8 Liquid Line Inerting .................................................................................................. 16 4.3.9 Step 9 Disconnection .......................................................................................................... 16 4.4 Equipment .................................................................................................................................... 17 4.4.1 Tanks ..................................................................................................................................... 17 4.4.2 Valves .................................................................................................................................... 18 4.4.3 Hose ....................................................................................................................................... 18 4.4.4 Loading arms ......................................................................................................................... 18 4.4.5 Pipes ...................................................................................................................................... 18 4.4.6 Pump ..................................................................................................................................... 18 4.4.7 Emergency Shutdown Systems (ESD) .................................................................................... 19 4.4.8 Emergency Release Systems (ERS) ........................................................................................ 19 4.4.9 Emergency Release Couplers (ERC) ....................................................................................... 19 4.4.10 Control and Monitoring Systems ......................................................................................... 19 III

5 Regulations .......................................................................................................................................... 20 5.1 Standardization Bodies ................................................................................................................. 20 5.1.1 International Maritime Organization (IMO) .......................................................................... 20 5.1.2 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) ............................................................ 20 5.1.3 Society of International Gas Tanker & Terminal Operators (SIGTTO) ................................... 20 5.1.4 Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) ........................................................... 20 5.1.5 European Committee for Standardization (CEN) .................................................................. 21 5.2 International Rules and Guidelines .............................................................................................. 21 5.2.1 IMO International Gas Code (IGC) ......................................................................................... 21 5.2.2 IMO International Gas Fuel Interim Guidelines (MSC.285(86)) ............................................. 21 5.2.3 SIGGTO: Guidelines for LNG transfer and Port Operation .................................................... 21 5.2.4 OCIMF: Guidelines for Oil transfers, Ship-to-Ship oil bunkering procedures ........................ 21 5.2.5 CEN European Standard ..................................................................................................... 21 5.2.6 Local regulations and authorities .......................................................................................... 22 5.3 The ISO Standard ISO/TC 67/WG 10/PT1 .................................................................................. 22 5.4 Foreseen Governance of LNG Bunkering Operations ................................................................... 23 6 On Site ................................................................................................................................................. 24 6.1 Best Practice ................................................................................................................................. 24 6.2 Bunkering Area ............................................................................................................................. 24 6.3 Purging ......................................................................................................................................... 24 6.3.1 Zero Emission Solutions ........................................................................................................ 24 6.3.2 Pressure Testing .................................................................................................................... 25 6.4 Filling Sequence - Tank Pressure and Temperature ..................................................................... 25 6.4 1 Standard Quality Explanation of the Term ......................................................................... 25 7 Discussion ............................................................................................................................................ 26 7.1 Standards - Current Situation ....................................................................................................... 26 7.1.1 Bunkering vs. Large-Scale Transfers ...................................................................................... 26 7.1.2 LNG vs. Conventional Fuels ................................................................................................... 26 7.1.3 Port rules ............................................................................................................................... 26 7.1.4 Bunkering scenarios .............................................................................................................. 27 7.2 ISO/TC 67/WG 10 ......................................................................................................................... 27 7.2.1 Lacking elements ................................................................................................................... 27 7.2.2 Implementation ..................................................................................................................... 27 7.2.3 Equipment ............................................................................................................................. 28 7.3 Passengers .................................................................................................................................... 28 7.4 Safety Zones ................................................................................................................................. 28 8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 30 Appendix A ............................................................................................................................................. 31 Appendix B ............................................................................................................................................. 32 Appendix C ............................................................................................................................................. 33 Standardization bodies ....................................................................................................................... 33 International Maritime Organisation (IMO) ................................................................................... 33 International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) ..................................................................... 33 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) ........................................................................... 33 Society of International Gas Tanker & Terminal Operators (SIGTTO) ............................................ 34 Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) .................................................................... 34 European Committee for Standardisation (CEN) ........................................................................... 34 Reference list ......................................................................................................................................... 36

IV

List of Figures
Figure 1: The LNG fuelled fleet ................................................................................................................. 2 Figure 2: The Large Scale LNG Chain ........................................................................................................ 4 Figure 3: Explosion/Flammability Curve ................................................................................................... 5 Figure 4: ECA zones .................................................................................................................................. 6 Figure 5: Fuel Emissions, for a typical existing ship .................................................................................. 7 Figure 6: Lifecycle economics for a typical ship ....................................................................................... 9 Figure 7: Overall Bunkering Layout ........................................................................................................ 11 Figure 8: Bunkering Procedure Step 1 .................................................................................................... 12 Figure 9: Bunkering Procedure Step 2 .................................................................................................... 13 Figure 10: Bunkering Procedure Step 4 .................................................................................................. 14 Figure 11: Bunkering Procedure Step 5 .................................................................................................. 14 Figure 12: Bunkering Procedure Step 6 - Bottom Filling ........................................................................ 15 Figure 13: Bunkering Procedure Step 6 - Top Filling (Spray) .................................................................. 15 Figure 14: Bunkering Procedure Step 7 .................................................................................................. 16 Figure 15: IMO Type-C Tank, CRYO AB ................................................................................................... 17 Figure 16: Dry Break Coupling (Mann Teknik AB) .................................................................................. 19 Figure 17: Foreseen governance of LNG bunkering operations ............................................................. 23

List of Abbreviations
NG Natural Gas LNG Liquefied Natural Gas LEL Lower Explosion Level UEL Upper Explosion Level HFO Heavy Fuel Oil MDO Marine Diesel Oil MGO Marine Gas Oil mmbtu - million British thermal units ECA Emission Control Area IEA International Energy Agency TTS Truck-to-Ship STS Ship-to-Ship PTS Terminal (Pipeline)-to-Ship ERC Emergency Quick Release Connector/Couplers ESD Emergency Shutdown Systems ERS Emergency Release Systems IMO International Maritime Organization ISO International Organization for Standardization SIGTTO Society of International Gas Tanker & Terminal Operators OCIMF Oil Companies International Marine Forum CEN European Committee for Standardization NMD Norwegian Maritime Directorate EU European Union IGC IMO International Gas Code IGF IMO International Gas Fuel Interim Guidelines Sorted after order of appearance in the document.

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1 Introduction
1.1 Motivation
The LNG industry is the fastest growing segment of the energy industry around the world. Global oil is growing about 0.9% per annum, global gas at 2%, while Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) has been 1 growing at a comparatively soaring 4.5%. The International Energy Agency projects the natural gas used to account for more than 25% of the world energy demand (amounting to a 50% increase) by 2035, making it the fastest growing primary energy source of the world. For LNG, a 9% share in the global gas supply was estimated for 2010; by 2 2030 it is projected to account for 15%. Lloyds Register believes LNG could account for up to 9% of 3 total bunker fuel demand by 2025. 1.1.1 Bunkering 4 Small-scale distribution and bunkering of LNG has been booming as well. LNG was created as a way to transport natural gas in a more economical way over long distances, as it is reduced to th approximately 1/600 in volume through liquefaction. Transportation and handling of LNG as cargo on both land and sea have been proven for many decades. With new emission regulations the potential applications for LNG is expanding. Among these applications is use of LNG as marine fuel. Particularly attractive for marine vessels travelling set routes such as tug boats, ferries, and support vessels. LNG as main propulsion fuel is no longer a new invention and the technology is already 5 6 classified as proven. The first LNG fueled ship in the world (Glutra) was launched in Norway, in 2001. The transportation sector being the single-biggest contributor to oil demand in many countries 7 around the world, is always looking for ways to cut costs. Vessels running on LNG instead of oil are 8 already saving 25% on fuels costs in certain markets. Norway is currently operating 38 gas-fuelled ships. Based on intrinsic advantages LNG has as a fuel, it can and will probably be adopted on an international basis. In response to increasing demand, construction of LNG bunkering infrastructure is 9 under development. Development of a worldwide LNG supply chain based on ship-to-ship or shore-to-ship bunkering is of 10 paramount importance for LNG to become a real alternative to heavy fuel oil. The bunkering solutions most widely used today are truck and terminal supply. Both solutions are considered less feasible as trucks provide small volumes and terminals have high operational cost. Bunkering from vessel/barge, on the other hand, is much more flexible with respect to covering several sizes and locations that in turn lowers both cost and time spent on bunkering. 1.1.2 New Projects 11 New LNG projects and applications are being announced daily around the world. In Europe, the commission has set aside 2.1bn to equip 139 seaports and inland ports about 10 per cent of all ports with LNG bunker stations by 2025. The plan forms part of the 12 new EU strategy for clean fuels. 13 Singapore: developed and opened an open-access, multi-user import terminal. In Norway, Skangass in cooperation with Gassnor in Risavika Stavanger is establishing a bunker terminal. Washington State Ferries (WSF) is exploring an option to use liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a 14 source of fuel for propulsion. 1

There are LNG passenger vessels currently under construction or in design for service in Argentina, Uruguay, Finland, and Sweden. The M/S Viking Grace was launched some months ago and is the worlds first large passenger 15 vessel to be powered by liquefied natural gas (LNG) Break-bulk terminal in Rotterdam. 16 Port of Antwerp, creating a LNG bunker vessel. LNG bunkering Ship to Ship report carried out by Swedish Marine Technology Forum in cooperation with Det Norske Veritas (DNV) and others. The document is a procedural description of how LNG bunkering between two ships should be done based on a real life 17 example. Currently there are 74 confirmed LNG fuelled ships contracted. The following figure includes developments in the fleet and future expansions plans for the next three years.

Figure 1: The LNG fuelled fleet

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1.1.3 The Drive The reason for this strong increase and interest in LNG as a marine fuel is based on two main factors: 1. The Marine Environmental Protection Committee part of International Maritime Organization (IMO) is introducing emission controls, constraining the extent of exhaust gas 19 emission. This is forcing the industry to rethink its fueling options. 2. The availability of natural gas has increased due to large offshore discoveries and unconventional gas finds in the US (shale gas), creating lower prices on natural gas compared to conventional fuels. This creates a drive in the industry, as consumers are able to obtain commercial saving against alternative fuels.

1.2 Underlying Hypothesis

The industry will continue to introduce technological innovations and infrastructure needed to supply the expanding LNG bunkering market as long as there is a cost benefit to use LNG compared to alternative fuels. Over the last decades the focus in the market has been on technical and commercial issues, but now that the technical solutions are in place and markets are growing the industry is 20 taking a closer look at strategic and regulatory matters. As LNG marine fuel becomes more common, regulations and standards need to be implemented alongside technical and procedural developments. Standards are necessary as it ensures a level of safety and create common grounds for the operators, again making it easier for the LNG industry to expand. There are several bodies that cover various aspects of currently incomplete legislation for the industry. One of the regulatory frameworks is the upcoming ISO/TC 67/WG 10 Technical Report (which DNV is leading). The technical report will be a high level document scheduled for completion in 2014. The objective of the ISO TC 67 WG 10 is the development of international guidelines for bunkering of gas-fuelled vessels focusing on requirements for the LNG transfer system, the personnel 21 involved and the related risk of the whole LNG bunkering process. Within this definition there are several questions raised as to what it should cover and what it needs to cover to be an effective tool in future bunkering expansion and to answer the industrys current demand for standardization. Currently it is the opinion of the industry that comprehensive international standards cannot be created, as the experience of bunkering LNG is too limited. Nonetheless, with increased use there will be a need for international standardization and guidelines.

1.3 Main Goal of the Report

The topic of the report will be an evaluation of LNG bunkering solutions, with main focus on identifying technical challenges, and to identify potential areas for industrys standardization.

1.4 Scope of the Report

The report will cover LNG characteristics, safety aspects and the current state of technology for bunkering of LNG. Present a technical step-by-step overview over the bunkering procedure and essential equipment used. It will further discuss problem areas, safety issues and areas where standards could be useful to promote more widespread use. The report is limited by the available technologies comprising a discharging unit to receiving ship for transferring LNG. There are many actors in the industry but the experience is limited and the solutions are proprietary.

2 LNG
2.1 LNG characteristics
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is Natural Gas (NG) cooled to about -162C (-260F) at atmospheric pressure. It is a condensed mixture of methane (CH4) approximately 85-96mol% and a small percentage of heavier hydrocarbons. LNG is clear, colorless, odorless, non-corrosive and non-toxic. In liquid form it is approximately 45% the density of water and as vapor it is approximately 50% density of air and will rise under normal atmospheric conditions. LNG is called a cryogenic liquid defined as substances that liquefies at a temperature below -73C (-100F) at atmospheric pressure. The process th of liquefaction reduces the volume to 1/600 of its original volume, providing efficient storage and 22 transport.

2.2 LNG Chain

Figure 2: The Large Scale LNG Chain

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2.2.1 Gas Field (Reservoir) The Chain starts with gas production. Raw NG comes from three types of wells: oil wells (associated gas), gas wells, and condensate wells (both non-associated gas). NG is a mixture of hydrocarbons. It consists mostly of methane, but also heavier hydrocarbons: ethane, propane, butane, and pentanes. In addition, raw NG contains water vapor, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, helium, nitrogen, and 24 other compounds. NG quality will vary depending on its composition. A full composition example of NG can be found in Appendix A. 2.2.2 Liquefaction Terminal: Onshore Processes The rich gas from the reservoirs is purified to increase its methane content. The pre-treatment includes removal of condensate, carbon dioxide (CO2), mercury, sulfur (H2S), and water (through dehydration). After pre-treatment the natural gas is now classified as dry/lean gas. This gas if further 25 refrigerated and eventually liquefied and stored. 2.2.3 Marine Transport Large-scale LNG is shipped from the liquefaction terminal to the receiving terminal by LNG carriers, 3 today the normal capacity range for carriers is 145,000-180,000m . 2.2.4 Receiving Terminal At the receiving terminal LNG is stored in large cryogenic tanks. The liquid is re-gasified/vaporized and transported to local market via the gas grid. In some markets a portion of the LNG is broken into smaller cargoes and distributed in smaller scale by rail, road or smaller LNG vessels. Small-scale 4

distributions can also originate from small-scale liquefaction plants; this is current practice in Norway and the US. The small-scale distribution scenarios are the focus of this project report.

2.3 LNG Safety Issues

In its liquid form LNG cannot explode and it is not flammable. Hazards arise when LNG returns to its gaseous state through an uncontrolled release. The release can as an example be caused by a tank rupture due to external impact, leaks from flanges in the pipework or a pipe break, etc. The hazards can be divided into two categories: 1. Cryogenic effects from LNG Exposure to a liquid at -163C will cause humans to freeze and steel equipment to become brittle. Brittle steel can break and cause additional secondary failures. 2. Fire and explosion Once the LNG has leaked, it will form a pool of liquid LNG. This pool will start to evaporate and form a cloud of gas, primarily consisting of methane. This gas will start mixing with air (with a 20.9% oxygen ratio) and once it reaches a mixture between 5-15% gas, it is ignitable. Outside the critical level an explosion or fire will not occur. Below the lower explosion level (LEL) there is insufficient amount of methane. Similarly, above the upper explosion level (UEL) there is insufficient amount of oxygen present. The critical level is at 9% ratio of NG to air. Without an ignition source, the gas will continue to evaporate, disperse at ground level while cold, start to warm and rise to the sky (as methane is lighter than air) and thereafter drift away until the entire liquid pool is gone. LNG evaporates quickly, and disperses, leaving no residue. There is no environmental cleanup needed for LNG spills on water or land. If an ignition source is present, the gas cloud could ignite, but only at the edges where the methane concentration is within the aforementioned range. There will be an initial flash, not very violent, as the gas cloud ignites, and it will continue to burn back to the pool as a flash fire. The gas will continue to burn as it evaporates until the pool of LNG is gone. For an explosion to take place the gas typically needs to be in a confined space (such as inside a building or vessel), reach the right mixture with oxygen and have the presence of an ignition source. In this event, there could be an explosion causing overpressure and drag 26 loads and potential damage to life and property.

Figure 3: Explosion/Flammability Curve

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3 LNG Advantages
For the shipping industry, as in all other, profit is crucial. The provider of the lowest voyage cost for a particular cargo wins the customers. In all cases fuel prices top the expense list representing 50%-70% 28 of the total costs of owning and operating a ship. For LNG to be a viable alternative fuel it needs to be price competitive. To understand why the industry is rethinking it fueling options and how LNG is a sustainable alternative, this chapter will present some of the advantages of LNG as marine fuel. The main source used is Greener Shipping in the Baltic Sea DNV Report, June 2010.

3.1 Environmental advantages

3.1.1 Alternative Energy Sources Through technological developments and innovations the world today has a wide range of alternative energy sources, besides its hydrocarbon-based sources. Examples are wind, solar, biomass, nuclear, and hydro electric. For the shipping industry though, most of these alternative do not apply: Electric: entire cargo area would have to be filled with batteries Biomass: would have to empty the world of organic material Solar: not enough surface area for the number of panels needed Wind: there is not enough stability in the vessels to carry the turbines on deck. Another type of wind source used in the past is sailing, but with respect to increased travel time this is not an option. The shipping industry needs to remain or further increase its efficiency and consequently has no 29 carbon neutral alternatives at their disposal. 3.1.2 Emission Control Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO), Marine Diesel Oil (MDO) and Marine Gas Oil (MGO) are all current conventional bunkering fuels. Ship based fuel is a large part oil consumption and all these fuels are high on emission rates. If carbon neutral options are out of the question how will the shipping industry meet future emission regulations dictated by international authorities? In 2015, the allowed SOx emissions from ships sailing within the Emission Control Area (ECA) will be reduced. These standards of emissions are already adopted on a case-by-case basis in European inland waterways and ports, by certification from the relevant Classification Societies. Further, in 2016, the International Maritime 30 Organization (IMO) will put the new Tier III levels of NOx emissions into force. These regulations will impose taxes on emission, which will increase the cost of using conventional fuels.

Figure 4: ECA zones

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3.1.3 Emissions Requirements ECA requirements: Maximum level of sulphur in fuel, all ships: o 1,0% by July 1, 2010 o 0,1% by January 1, 2015 Nitrogen emission for new buildings: o 20% reduction in NOx emission by 2011 (Tier II) o 80% reduction in NOx emission from 2016 (Tier III) EU fuel requirements now: 0,1% sulphur in ports and inland waterways Global requirements: 32 2020/2025: sulphur levels less than 0.5% (date TBD pending 2018 review) 3.1.4 Natural Gas - The Solution Based on a review of existing marine engine technology and expected technology development, ship 33 owners currently have three choices if they wish to continue sailing in ECAs from 2015. Switch to low sulphur fuel minor modifications to present MGO and MDO systems, but availability is already limited Install an exhaust gas scrubber expensive option Switch to LNG fuel will comply with upcoming regulations and to contribute to global emission reductions, natural gas is a viable option. Reductions in emissions form using LNG as a fuel CO2 and GHG 20-25% SOx and particulates approximately 100% NOx 85-90%

Figure 5: Fuel Emissions, for a typical existing ship

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3.2 Economical Advantages

The marine fuel oil market is a large global market supplying about 300 million tons of fuel oil 35 annually, and the price developments are generally following that of crude oil. Marine fuels on long-term contracts have trading prices of 14-15USD/mmbtu (million British thermal units) for LNG 36 and 107-116USD/barrel for crude oil. (Ref: International Energy Agency (IEA)) The prices are measured in different units as the substance is different, but if a conversion is made directly 1 barrel is approximately equal to 5.55mmbtu. This means that crude oil prices lie in the range from 19- 21USD/mmbtu. The LNG price is based on large-scale sales, not distribution in the small-scale. The global natural gas market is today not set up to supply LNG in small quantities to consumers such as ferries. There are currently no functioning markets for this, and no reference prices consequently exist. There are many small-scale LNG developments across the world, but contract structures and prices for LNG as a 37 marine fuel is uncertain as of today. 3.2.1 Investment Costs A switch to LNG marine fuel necessitates expenses on several levels: equipment adaptation, establishing bonds with new suppliers, possibly planning new shipment routes as LNG will only be provided in certain areas and training of personnel. The investment cost will vary significantly between ship types and must be assessed from case to case. Nevertheless, the added investment cost of choosing LNG fuel for new ships is expected to decrease in the future. The rate and extent of this increment will largely depend on the number of LNG fuelled ships being contracted (economies of 38 scale). Higher volume of ships running on LNG will create the motive for building the infrastructure needed to support small-scale supply, which in turn will reduce the present day costs. Ships operating in the Baltic Sea have a fairly even age distribution from new to 40 years old. The replacement of old vessels is continuous, and it takes about 10 years to replace 25% of the sailing 39 fleet. 3.2.2 Infrastructure If distribution and process costs could be brought down to similar levels as for oil by economics of scale, the current fuel prices indicates a great economic potential for LNG. The infrastructure for LNG bunkering today, however, does not allow for the LNG prices to remain at this level. As soon as LNG is broken into smaller volumes and distributed further through the small-scale chain prices increase drastically. Small-scale liquefaction and distribution expenses are the main contributors to this price increase. The potential savings for the ship-owner would then be eliminated. In order to bring down the price of LNG for bunkering, it must be bought from full-scale liquefaction plants and efficient 40 distribution chain must be established. The industry is already well aware of these issues and is searching for effective solutions. Trough the EU initiative to establish 139 ports (as mentioned in chapter 1), LNG will be accessible and a ship will not have to limit its routes to specific bunkering areas. Similar initiatives are taken all over the world. To remove the cost of establishing small-scale liquefaction terminals, bunkering from vessel barge is a maintainable alternative. Ship-to-ship transfer is the scenario with the best projections, both with respect to flexibility in bunkering location and range in volume supply. The various bunkering scenarios will be discussed in the next chapter 4 Bunkering.

3.2.3 Marine Fuel Costs Every ship requires individual calculations with respect to travelling time and distance, fuel consumption and production costs. Overall it is estimated that ships with an economical life of 15 years or more will economically benefit from using LNG as a fuel. The advantage is greater with increasing fuel consumption. The example calculation represents a typical Baltic Sea cargo ship of 41 approximately 2,700 gross tons, 3,300 kW main engine and 5,250 yearly sailing hours.

Figure 6: Lifecycle economics for a typical ship

The engine size and consumption levels in this example are modest. Still, it is clear that MDO is the most expensive option and LNG is found to be a superior alternative. The results are favorable to such an extent that it is even reasoned to be profitable without ECA requirements.

4 Bunkering
This chapter will define LNG bunkering, present the various bunkering scenarios, provide a detailed technical description of the bunkering procedure, and present approved equipment.

4.1 LNG Bunkering Definition

The definition of LNG bunkering is the small-scale transfer of LNG to vessels requiring LNG as a fuel for use within gas or dual fuelled engines. LNG bunkering takes place within ports or other sheltered 42 locations at the base case. Bunkering should not be considered in the same context as large scale, commercial transfer of cargo between ocean-going LNG carriers. This larger operation, where 3 volumes are typically above 100,000m is covered separately under preceding technical releases and 43 standards. 4.1.1 Engines The ship owners have two options with regards to engine design: dual fuel engines or LNG lean burn mono fuel engines. Dual fuel engines run on both LNG and conventional fuels from separate tanks. It is a flexible solution for varying availability in LNG. In LNG mode these engines only consume a minor 44 fraction of conventional fuel. Bunkering procedure for dual fuel engines is a process that can take place simultaneously for both fuels. The procedure described below is however limited to the LNG transfer system.

4.2 LNG Bunkering Scenarios

Truck-to-Ship (TTS): micro bunkering, discharging unit is a LNG road tanker size 3 approximately 50-100m . Ship-to-Ship transfer (STS): discharging unit is a bunker vessel or barge with size 200- 3 10,000m . Terminal (Pipeline)-to-Ship (PTS): satellite terminal bunkering serves as the discharging unit 3 and supply sizes are approximately 100-10,000m . PTS and TTS are the most established bunkering scenarios per today and they are both classified as onshore supply. STS will also take place while the receiving unit is at dock or in a port environment, but both units involved in the transfer are seaborne and the transfer is therefore classified as offshore. Use of STS makes the bunkering location more flexible than PTS and it can supply higher volumes than TTS. Developments within this scenario are the most feasible and are therefore 45 essential in making LNG competitive against other marine fuels, especially for larger ships.

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4.3 LNG Bunkering Procedure

Time efficiency and safety are elements of paramount importance when it comes to the bunkering procedure. Developing a suitable procedure is fundamental in obtaining these facets. The industry is currently developing solutions to achieve similar duration of bunkering operations for LNG as for conventional fuels. As LNG bunkering is evolving, technology improvements and innovations are added continually. The process, being relatively new, is not yet regulated or standardized (will be discussed further under section 5 Regulations) and therefore there are several elements that could vary for each individual bunkering case. Nevertheless, this section aims to provide a description suited for various needs and different bunkering scenarios. Variations in bunkering procedure depending on scenario will be mentioned. In this section of the report there will be no elaborations on general principles, conditions, requirements, safety aspects and communication related to the process. The same applies to details exclusively relating to bunkering of fuels other than LNG, in the case of dual fuel engines. The focus will be on the technical aspects of the procedure and the equipment used. The main source for this part of the report is the short film Step by step Bunkering by DNV. Additional details have been acquired from discussions with individuals from the industry (se preface for names) and the report LNG ship to ship bunkering procedure by the Swedish Marine Technology Forum et al.

Figure 7: Overall Bunkering Layout

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The diagram is schematic not to scale, especially when it comes to pipe length. Initially all valves are closed as shown in the diagram. The transfer hose is not connected until step three but included in this diagram. The first step takes place during ship mooring, or in the case of ship-to-ship transfer during the bunker vessels mooring up against the receiving ship. Discharging unit can be either: terminal, truck or bunker vessel/barge. Variations in design and layout can take place, but overall this is a representative example of a layout and it gives a good basis for explaining the bunkering procedure.

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4.3.1 Step 1 Initial Precooling 1 Filling lines are precooled during mooring. Valves V2, V5, V8 and V9 are opened. The system needs to be cooled down slowly, otherwise one part will contract and another not. Improper cooling could also lead to pipe cracking. The precooling sequence depends on cargo pump, design of the discharging 47 unit and size of installation. The cold LNG (blue) exits tank 1 form the bottom, and slowly pushes the warmer NG (red) in the pipes into the top of tank 1.

Figure 8: Bunkering Procedure Step 1

During this stage both units must check temperature and pressure of their respective LNG tanks. Within the tank, temperature is directly correlated with pressure. If the temperature of the receiving tank is significantly higher than the discharging (classified as a warm tank), there will be an initial vaporization when starting to transfer LNG. As the pressure of the tank might be too high for the LNG transfer to be initiated. This will increase the tank pressure and can trigger the pressure relief valve to open if the pressure exceeds the set limit. The pressure of both tanks must be reduced prior to the 48 bunkering in case of a high receiving tank temperature. When the levels in the receiving tank are low, the rate of evaporation and heat ingress to the tank increases, causing a higher-pressure build- up. The transfer of LNG requires a certain pressure difference, which generally is determined by the cargo pump capacity and the pressure in the receiving tank. The larger the pressure difference, the more 3 efficient the transfer. For TTS bunkering with capacities of 50 m /h, a typical cargo pump can deliver at around 4 barg. In a warm tank, the pressure may be as high as 5 barg. To be able to conduct the transfer you need a lower pressure in the receiving tank than what is delivered by the pump.

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4.3.2 Step 2- Initial Precooling 2 The fixed speed cargo pump at the discharging unit also requires precooling. Valves in step 1 remain opened and additionally valves V3, V4 and V6 are opened. For transfers where the pressure difference between the discharging and receiving unit is greater than 2barg, tank 1 pressure will be 49 utilized as a driving force. This makes the cargo pump redundant.

Figure 9: Bunkering Procedure Step 2

4.3.3 Step 3 Connection of Bunker Hose All previously opened valves are now closed. Dedicated discharging units may be fitted with specialized hose handling equipment (i.e. hose crane) or loading arms, to deliver the bunker hose to the receiving ship. The hose is connected to the manifold. Each manifold are to be earthed and the receiving ship shall be equipped with an insulating flange near the coupling to prevent a possible 50 ignition source due to electrostatic build-up. One or two flexible hoses will be connected between the units one liquid filling hose and one vapor return hose if needed. For smaller transfers with 3 capacities range of around 50-200m /h, and where the receiving tank is an IMO type C tank with the possibility of sequential filling, a vapor-return hose will generally not be needed. For larger transfer rates a vapor return line may be used in order to decrease the time of the bunkering. Still, it is the pressure regulating capability of the receiving tank that determines whether a vapor return line is required or not. This step will visually look like the initial drawing of the entire system (Figure 7).

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4.3.4 Step 4 - Inerting the Connected System Inert gas, nitrogen (green), is used to remove moisture and oxygen (below 4%) from tank 2 and associated piping. Inerting is accomplished by sequential pressurization and depressurization of the system with nitrogen. Presence of moisture in the tanks or pipes will create hydrates, which is a form 51 of ice lumps that will be difficult to remove from the system. Oxygen in the system is a risk as explained in section 2 LNG. Valves opened: V10, V11, V12 and V16.

Figure 10: Bunkering Procedure Step 4

4.3.5 Step 5 Purging the Connected System The remaining system is purged with NG (until it reaches 97-98% ratio), to remove remaining nitrogen according to engine specifications. Valve V16 is closed prior to purging. Valve V15 is opened, natural gas is now moving out from the receiving tank. Venting trace amount of methane through the mast (vent 2) is current practice. Valve V10 should be closed quickly after the pipes have been cleaned so as not to let too much methane escape to the surroundings through the vent. The industry is now 52 looking for zero emission solutions.

Figure 11: Bunkering Procedure Step 5

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4.3.6 Step 6 Filling Sequence For the filling sequence both bottom filling and top filling (the shower/spray) can be used. For top filling valve V15 remains open, for bottom filling it is closed and valve V13 is opened. To start the transfer from tank 1 to tank 2 valves V3, V4, V7, V8, V11 and V12 also have to be opened. Common practice is to start with top filling as this will reduce the pressure in the fuel tank (tank 2), and then move over to bottom filling when a satisfying pressure is achieved. A high pressure in the receiving tank will make it harder for the LNG transfer to take place and the pump would have to work harder. An example of a tank filling sequence and associated acceptable levels is given in section 6.4.

Figure 12: Bunkering Procedure Step 6 - Bottom Filling

Figure 13: Bunkering Procedure Step 6 - Top Filling (Spray)

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Transfer speed range from 100-1000m /h depending on scenario, tanks and equipment, and whether bottom or top filling is used. Bottom filling can take much higher volumes than top filling. Bottom filling is therefore preferred with respect to time, but it is important that the tank pressure allows for this to take place. Sequential filling i.e. alterations between top and bottom filling during the transfer is also standard practice, to control the pressure in the receiving tank. This rate can be withheld during the transfer until agreed amount is reached. The transfer is to be monitored on both ships with regards to system pressure, tank volume and equipment behavior. This 53 procedure is to be performed for each tank regardless of fuel type. Maximum level for filling the LNG tanks is 98% of total volume according to class rules, but is normally lower for system design reasons. 15

4.3.7 Step 7 Liquid Line Stripping The liquid that remains in the bunker hoses, after the pump has stopped, must be drained before disconnection. Valves V3, V4 and V11 on discharging unit is closed, while valve V6 is opened. This valve links to the top of the fuel tank (tank 2). This process creates a pressure build-up due to a rise in temperature in the remaining liquid left in the pipes and hose. LNG residuals in these areas are forced into both tanks. Subsequent opening and closing of the shipside valve V12, pushes the remaining LNG 54 into the receiving ships tanks.

Figure 14: Bunkering Procedure Step 7

4.3.8 Step 8 Liquid Line Inerting Remaining natural gas in liquid line is removed by inerting gas (nitrogen) for safety reasons. Valves V6, V7, V8 and V15 are closed, while V10, V11, V12 and V16 are opened. Venting trace amount of methane through the mast is current practice. The industry is now looking for zero emission 55 solutions.

4.3.9 Step 9 Disconnection Upon confirmation of transferred amount and quality, the vessel may commence disconnection of 56 the transfer hose, unmooring and departure. Bunkering time will vary depending on bunkering scenario, transfer rates, system and equipment 57 design, capacities, and the use of vapor return. For an example of time spent see Appendix B. 16

4.4 Equipment
This section will cover some of the essential equipment used in the transferring process. Information from this part is obtained from the following sources: M. Esdaile and D. Melton, Shell Shipping, LNG Bunkering Installation Guidelines SST02167, 2012 and LNG ship to ship bunkering procedure, Swedish Marine Technology Forum and DNV Class rules. 4.4.1 Tanks

Figure 15: IMO Type-C Tank, CRYO AB

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4.4.1.1 Storage Tank Discharging Unit All tank types - A, B, C and membrane tanks are approved for LNG cargo. There are major differences in usage and regulations between tanks A and B vs. C. If tanks A and B are to be used it is seen as an exception and several risk analysis would have to be completed for each individual case, to document its safety. The tanks are categorized correspondingly: Atmospheric tanks: Typically atmospheric tanks would be IMO type A and B tanks or membrane tanks and have a design pressure below 0.7 barg. The atmospheric tanks cannot be pressurized and it is therefore necessary with additional equipment for pressure control and deep-well pumps to ensure sufficient LNG flow to the engines. In order to operate and empty the tank in case of pump breakdown, redundancy of the deep-well pumps is necessary. The main advantage with an atmospheric tanks is its high volume utilization, due 59 to the prismatic shape. Pressure tanks: Tanks with pressure above 0.7 barg are normally type C tanks. These tanks are made after recognized pressure vessel standards given in the IGC Code. There are several designs available; cylindrical tanks with or without vacuum insulation, or bi-lobe tanks. All 60 LNG fuelled ships today have vacuum insulated IMO type C tanks. 4.4.1.2 Fuel Tank Receiving Ship For the LNG fuel tank, several containment systems are feasible, with many new tank designs under development. These tanks are made after recognized pressure vessel standards given in the IGC Code. The tanks are cylindrical, pressurized, double skinned tank systems including a venting system for discharging excess vapor. These features are crucial in vapor management and maintaining low 61 temperatures. Type C tanks have a maximum operating pressure of about 10 barg and are approved by several class 3 62 societies as fuel tanks. The size of the tank will vary but the size range today is 40-250m . The tanks are equipped with both bottom filling and top spray features. Through spraying sub cooled LNG into the vapor space (gas pillow) of the tank the cold liquid will condense the vapor and reduce the tanks pressure. This process eliminates the need for a vent return in the tank. This function of the tank 63 could create a 100% fill situation. To comply with the issue of overfilling, the tank has a high-level switch, which will activate an alarm. This will automatically shut down the transfer system as it is directly linked to the vessels ESD system. As previously stated, tanks for liquid gas should not be filled to more than 98% full at the reference temperature, where the reference temperature is as defined in the IGC Code, paragraph 15.1.4. Means of measuring the liquid level, both volume and height, 17

within the tank are to be provided and installed in such a way as to be compliant. The preferred means of level measurement is a radar type tank measurement system, or similar technology, which 64 is also able to measure corresponding pressures and temperatures within the tank. The benefits of using Type-C tanks are standard tanks with long experience, high bunkering rates, easy installation, and the ability the handle pressure build-up in cases of zero consumption. The 65 disadvantages are space requirements due to its cylindrical shape. 4.4.2 Valves The valves used are manifold trip valves that can handle both liquid and vapor transfers, and need to comply with regulations set in EN1474. A manually operated stop valve and a remote operated shut down valve in-series, or a combined valve, should be fitted in every bunkering line on both units 66 (discharging and receiving). The valves should be controlled from the control room of both units. 4.4.3 Hose The flexible cryogenic hose(s) with a single wall construction are used. Insulation should be applied to the hose for safety reasons but should not limit the flexibility of the hose. The hoses are connected 67 via electrical insulated flanges made of steel, an emergency quick release connector (ERC). 68 Maximum velocities: vapor 30m/s and liquid 7-10m/s. Minimum requirements for hoses are defined by the international standards: EN 1472-2 and IGC chapter 5.7/IMO document MSC.285(86). Approved bunker hoses: EN 12434, BS 4089, EN 1474 part 1 LNG Transfer arms (being revised as an ISO), EN 1474 part 2 LNG Hoses. 4.4.4 Loading arms Loading arms will be subjected to the requirements of the new ISO LNG bunkering standard. They shall be designed in accordance with ISO / DIS 28460 and EN 1474-1, Section 4, Design of the arms. Weight, size and handling of the equipment classified as cryogenic will affect the safety assessment of the given operation. The equipment used during TTS today does not include loading arms. Hose dimension will for such operations be around 4 inches. For STS operations the dimensions would be considerably higher, 10 inches or more. In addition to that you have torque by relative movement of the ship in relation to each other, making the need for loading arms necessary to ensure that the hose does not come into 69 contact with water or the steel deck. PTS will also use hoses larger than TTS. Additionally the installation is fixed which makes the option to use loading arms even more favorable as it secures equipment and strengthens safety elements. 4.4.5 Pipes Main piping systems in both units are: liquid bunker line, gas return line and nitrogen supply system. The pipelines are equipped with several flow meters to measure: volume delivered, pressure and temperature for monitoring of the operation. Pipes containing LNG or associated vapor shall be double walled pipe configurations in stainless steel with perlite filling under a permanent vacuum. Pipe work should be fully compliant with IGC Code, Section 6.2. 4.4.6 Pump The pump is designed for handling cryogenic material. It is theoretically possible to transfer between tanks in the presence of a delta pressure of 2 barg or more. Seeing as the pressure difference could be hard to control and maintain, it may be difficult to transmit without a pump. A frequency controlled drive for the pump, which will allow pump speed to be regulated and the transmission rate 70 accordingly with respect to pressure and temperature is recommended. The time it takes to refuel is 18

critical for the receiving ship. In other words, if you want to optimize the transmission rate to optimize the time of bunkering a variable speed pump will make it easier to achieve. 4.4.7 Emergency Shutdown Systems (ESD) The primary function of the ESD system is to stop liquid and vapor transfer in the event of an unsafe 71 condition and bring the LNG transfer system to a safe, static condition. LNG vessels commonly refer to the emergency shutdown system (ESD) as ESD1 and the emergency release system (ERS) as ESD2. 4.4.8 Emergency Release Systems (ERS) To comply with the necessary release requirements, an ERS is usually substituted by a break away coupling known as an emergency release coupler (ERC). 4.4.9 Emergency Release Couplers (ERC) The ERC unit is to be fitted at the receiving units manifold between the flexible hose and the flange connection of the receiver. The ERC is to incorporate integral automatic valves that will close when separated, either by nature of its design or by remote motorized operation. Its function is to prevent release of liquid or vapor to the surroundings through rapid closure. Under excessive tension it serves as a weak link providing automated release to avoid the hose from breaking. It allows for quick connection and disconnection. The system design must take into account possible ice build-up and its 72 effects on operation. This would generally be a requirement for all types of equipment in contact with cryogenic material.

Figure 16: Dry Break Coupling (Mann Teknik AB)

4.4.10 Control and Monitoring Systems Control and Monitoring Systems need to comply with the IMO document MSC 285(86). All installations need to be equipped with control monitoring and safety systems. The most essential monitoring system is gas detection. The areas that are critical for supervision are areas where unintended release of gas can occur such as manifold areas, double walled pipes and enclosed areas 73 containing pipe work associated with the bunkering operation. The control and monitoring system should be directly linked to the ESD. The individual shutdown initiators will vary for each installation. Minimum control and monitoring requirements, on both distributing and receiving units, are: 1. Position (open/closed) and high-pressure detector in all bunker manifold valves. 2. Operation of any manual emergency stop push button, 3. Out of range sensing on the fixed loading arm, 4. Gas detection (above 40% LEL), 5. Fire detection, 6. High-pressure and high-level detectors in receiving LNG tank, 7. High/low-pressure and high-level detectors in distributing LNG storage tank. 19

5 Regulations
In the case of LNG bunkering, rule development concerning safety, technical, operational and training requirements are all relevant subjects to standardization. The cause of standardization has many purposes. The most important usually being: certifying safety. In general it is seen as a sign of quality. There are several organizations and establishments that cover various aspects of the LNG supply chain for bunkering of gas-fuelled ships. This chapter of the report will cover the most relevant standardization bodies, the most essential standards set within this field to date and foreseen governance of LNG bunkering operation. This report is based on the development of the upcoming ISO standard on LNG bunkering (ISO/TC 67/WG 10/PT1). This standard will be discussed in greater detail, as this is one of the possible documents that could have answers to some of the questions the industry is facing today. Sources used for this part are mainly from Germanischer Lloyd, Final report, European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA), Study on Standards and Rules for Bunkering of Gas-Fuelled Ships, Report No. 2012.005, and Version 1.1/2013-02-15

5.1 Standardization Bodies

5.1.1 International Maritime Organization (IMO) The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is a specialized agency within the United Nations. Its area of responsibility includes the safety and security of shipping, and the prevention of marine pollution by ships. To accomplish these objectives the IMO is adopting its own standards, and revision and implementation of international conventions related to shipping. The Maritime Safety Committee (MSC), part of IMO organization, is responsible for the consideration and submission of recommendations and guidelines on safety. 5.1.2 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) develops standards on an international level, for all kinds for industries. The ISO is a non-governmental organization and a network for national standard bodies. Regarding shipping related matters it works closely with IMO. The Technical Committees (TC) develops the ISO standards. Under every TC there can be several working groups (WG) with experts involved in developing the ISO standards. TCs involved in the development of standards related to the gas industry are: TC 28 Petroleum products and lubricants TC 67 Materials, equipment and offshore structures for petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas industries TC 193 Natural Gas 5.1.3 Society of International Gas Tanker & Terminal Operators (SIGTTO) The Society of International Gas Tanker & Terminal Operators (SIGTTO) represents the liquefied gas carrier operators and terminal industries. Their purpose is to specify and promote standards and best practice for the liquefied gas industries. 5.1.4 Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) The Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) is a voluntary association with an interest in the shipment and terminal operation of marine fuel. Trough promoting continuous improvement in standards of design and operation, the OCIMF aims to encourage the safe and environmentally responsible operation of tankers, terminals and offshore support vessels. 20

5.1.5 European Committee for Standardization (CEN) The European Committee for Standardization (CEN) is an international association providing a platform for the development of European standards and technical specifications. CEN is the only recognized European organization dealing with the planning, drafting and adoption of European standards.

5.2 International Rules and Guidelines

The following outline covers current rules and guidelines most relevant to the bunkering industry. A broader list of standards could be found in Appendix D. 5.2.1 IMO International Gas Code (IGC) The IMO IGC Code, are international regulations for gas carrying ships. It is therefore valid and mandatory for the bunker vessel/barge (small LNG carrier). 5.2.2 IMO International Gas Fuel Interim Guidelines (MSC.285(86)) The IMO IGF Interim Guidelines are regulations for the installation of natural gas fuelled engines in ships. It applies the receiving ship, using gas as ship fuel. These interim guidelines are limited to natural gas (methane) as fuel and internal combustion engines as energy converters. The Interim IGF Guidelines will be the international safety standard for the coming years until a general Code has been developed and set into force as part of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 74 (SOLAS) convention. The guidelines are called interim, as they are not yet finalized. Once ratified in 2014, it will become mandatory for all gaseous fuel use on all vessel types. 5.2.3 SIGGTO: Guidelines for LNG transfer and Port Operation The SIGTTO guidelines are focused on large scale LNG transfer from LNG carriers, both for transfer to terminal and for STS LNG transfer. Though these guidelines are for large scale LNG, many of the 75 aspects could be used within the STS LNG bunkering projects. 5.2.4 OCIMF: Guidelines for Oil transfers, Ship-to-Ship oil bunkering procedures The OCIMF guidelines refers to transfer of oil, but many of the elements will be the same and it can therefore be applied to LNG bunkering. In fact, several of the LNG bunkering procedures taking place today, are based on the structure of the OCIMF guidelines. Another point is that some vessels today are supplied with dual fuel engines, which makes these guidelines applicable. 5.2.5 CEN European Standard Covers regulations set on installation and equipment applicable to the LNG chain. EN 1473 Installation and Equipment for Liquefied Natural Gas Design of Onshore Installations including guidelines for the design, construction and operation of all onshore liquefied natural gas installations including those for liquefaction, storage, vaporization, transfer and handling of LNG; EN 1474 Installations and equipment for liquefied natural gas - Design and testing of marine transfer systems o Part 1: Design and testing of transfer arms including specifications of the design, safety requirements and inspection and testing procedures for liquefied natural gas transfer arms intended for use on conventional onshore LNG terminals; o Part 2: Design and testing of transfer hoses including guidance for the design, material selection, qualification, certification and testing details for LNG transfer hoses; 21

Part 3: Offshore transfer systems including qualification and design criteria for offshore LNG transfer systems;

5.2.6 Local regulations and authorities This category of guidelines and regulations will depend on bunkering location. Port and Sea Regulations: e.g. Norwegian Maritime Directorate (NMD) Onshore regulations: e.g. European Union (EU), National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Training requirements for crews: The International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping for Seafarers (STCW) convention

5.3 The ISO Standard ISO/TC 67/WG 10/PT1

The ISO standard ISO/TC 67/WG 10/PT1 Guidelines for Systems and Installations for Supply of LNG as Fuel to Ships for LNG Bunkering Procedures is under development by the IMO. Prior to establishing a standard an ISO Technical Specification (ISO/TS) has to be created. This document will go through several reviews before it is published as a standard. The aim of the document is to provide guidelines for how LNG bunkering can be completed safely and efficiently. Outlining the main principles and functional requirements, including requirements for safety, components and system training. Simultaneously, it expects the standard to affect the bunkering industry in such a way that a ship can refuel in any port across the world. As it will cover: Defining the procedures to design, install, operate and maintain the bunkering loading facility with regard to safety aspects and environmental conditions Promotion of standardization of the interface between the LNG supplier and the ship both with regard to operations and hardware as an effective safety measurement 76 Provide guidance for the use of risk assessment as part of the design and planning process The document is aimed at assisting: Suppliers of LNG (bunkering operators) Authorities and ports that will authorize the bunkering Ship owners and operators of vessels (to adapt to refueling from a supplier) Equipment suppliers

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5.4 Foreseen Governance of LNG Bunkering Operations

There are several standardization bodies that will have a word in the subject of LNG bunkering. Who has the final say and sets the defining standard with regards to a certain element of the procedure in a given port? Below is a figure representing foreseen governance over LNG bunkering operations.

Figure 17: Foreseen governance of LNG bunkering operations

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The ports and states have the final word in any operation that takes place within their geographical boundaries. The individual ports and states establish their standards and regulations with reference and basis in the ISO standards and other published regulations. On site the ship has to comply with port and state legislation, but issues on site can often go beyond the set rules. Best practice approaches acquired through experience on site could be used to manage the operational procedures.

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6 On Site
To gain knowledge of the practice of bunkering today, the course Gas course category A, B and C for crew of gas fuelled ships was attended. The course of two days included both theoretical and practical approaches to bunkering, as well as taking part in the TTS bunkering of Fjord1 in Trondheim. The course is based on the guidelines of MSC 285(86). During the course, several scenarios and situations in need of standardization or regulation was highlight by the operators. They also commented on areas where the technology needs to advance. Relevant topics to the bunkering sequence will be discussed in this chapter.

6.1 Best Practice

Overall the process today is based on a current best practice approach. Acquiring the right information is in many cases placed on the operators, which could lead to unsafe situations. The operators felt prepared to take on the responsibility after the course, but there were certain questions that were left open to interpretation. The questions were especially directed towards the tank filling sequence and the safety zone area (discussed in sections 6.4 and 7.4). If the LNG bunkering market expands rapidly, a problem in training sufficient numbers of operators could arise. Until fully regulated, key information could be neglected through the best practice approach

6.2 Bunkering Area

The coupling between bunker hose and pipe is a Links threaded unit that opens and close in opposite directions of normal couplings. If a leak is to occur it needs to be tightened quickly. In this event the operator might react intuitively, a situation that might lead to a further opening of the coupling rather than tighten it. The wrench used to tighten the couplings therefore needs to be on at all times during transfers and indicate the right direction of closing. In addition, the hose couplings area on the receiving ships side where faced with space constraints. Forcing the operator to crawl over or under the bunker hose to reach valves and coupling during the procedure, further provided stress to the operation. In both cases he would come in direct contact with the bunker hose, a situation that could lead to cryogenic injuries. The equipment used and layout will depend on the producers, and proper directions for usage would have to be provided on a case-by-case basis. Nevertheless there is clearly need for standards on what is appropriate layout to ensure safe and reliable operation. Other parts of the machinery e.g. tank location in the ship is clearly defined and regulated in previous publications.

6.3 Purging
6.3.1 Zero Emission Solutions Nitrogen is used for purging both prior and post filling sequence (explained in section 4.2 Procedure). In both stages methane left in the pipes will currently be vented through the mast. If not vented nitrogen will enter the receiving tank and here it will mix with the gas pillow in the top of the tank. The gas pillow is vaporized LNG in the tank. Some suppliers of the bunkering systems used, have proposed to leave some nitrogen in the pipes, to comply with zero emission practice. The nitrogen 24

will then later, when the filling sequence starts, be transported to the receiving tanks. However this solution is not encouraged, as too much nitrogen in the fuel tank could lead to later operation 78 problems when the ships engine will run on the tanks gas phase. Overall it is argued by researchers that the purging process is too long, allowing for unnecessary amount of methane to be released to the surroundings. 6.3.2 Pressure Testing Nitrogen is also used for testing possible leakages through pressure testing prior to filling sequence. There are however several issues in making this test valid. o Nitrogen leakages are harder to detect than other gases. The gas detectors are set to detect a decrease in oxygen content, but as nitrogen has a 78% concentration in air already, it is hard to distinguish. o Even though nitrogen has not leaked through the system natural gas can leak through. This could be rooted in three possible reasons: couplings loosen over time, LNG/natural gas vapor is colder or the fact that the methane molecules (16g/mol) are smaller than nitrogen molecules (28g/mol). During construction, a normal and established way is to use soap solution to detect leaks or alternatively helium. Helium is used because it has the smallest molecules and is easier to detect on gas detectors, but it is expensive. Nitrogen is therefore used on site. Improving technology to detect leakages will therefore be advisable.

6.4 Filling Sequence - Tank Pressure and Temperature

The top spray within the tank is used to regulate the pressure and to cool the gas pillow which is created at the top of the fuel tank. The gas pillow is cooled when it comes into contact with the colder LNG added to the tank. This will reduce the temperature and consequently reduce the pressure of the tank. A transfer supplied from truck will experience that the quality of the LNG has decreased during the course of the transportation. The decrease in quality is synonymous with the rise in temperature. Usually the temperature will rise to approximately -140C by the time it is being transferred. To comply with this reduction in quality the pressure in the tank, which also has increased, will be reduced prior to filling. The truck will decrease its pressure prior to any transfer to approximately 2barg. It is then able to deliver against a pressure of up to 8barg in the receiving (ship) tank. Normally the tank pressure onboard the ship will be 4-6barg. Any transfer usually starts with top filling (the shower) to decrease the pressure of the tank. If the tank pressure is reduced to an acceptable level the process will be changed to bottom filling. Bottom filling has a higher velocity and is essential in making LNG bunkering time efficient. The acceptable tank pressure for bottom filling in this scenario is 3.5barg or lower. In the operation it was observed that this pressure was never obtained and the ship therefore used top filling for the entire process, making the transfer slow. If this is a recurring incident when it comes to LNG bunkering it will have problems competing on bunkering time with conventional fuels. 6.4 1 Standard Quality Explanation of the Term Standard quality is obtained straight after liquefaction when LNG has a temperature of -162C at atmospheric pressure. During transportation the temperature of the LNG will rise, which subsequently increases pressure in any tank system. These changes will be referred to as a reduction in quality of LNG. LNG quality is not the same as gas quality, which refers to the methane content in natural gas. The gas quality can also vary substantially and will depend on origin and producer. 25

7 Discussion
In this chapter LNG and its associated bunkering will be discussed with reference to the current framework of rules. Some of the gaps in present standards will be covered and connected to specific experiences from small-scale bunkering operations. Specifically with a focus on the gaps that relate to LNG quality control (temperature and pressure) and how LNG quality affects the safety if a leakage is to take place (hazards related to this explained in section 2.3). As well as trying to point out some areas where the industry will benefit from standardization to achieve the necessary economies of scale that will make LNG a more commercially attractive fuel.

7.1 Standards - Current Situation

Regulations for ships storing and transporting LNG and for ships using LNG as fuel exist today, and also for the transfer process from one ship to another, as long as both ships are LNG carriers and approved according to the IMO IGC code. Regulations for transfer of LNG from an LNG carrier to another ship using LNG as fuel, does however not exist at present. Regulatory framework is also limited when it comes to the small-scale LNG supply chain for transport on inland waterways. If LNG is to become a viable alternative, regulation and practices for transfer of LNG from LNG carriers to non- IGC ships, normally referred to, as LNG bunkering, needs to be developed. 7.1.1 Bunkering vs. Large-Scale Transfers The existing guidelines from SIGTTO and OCIMF describe the handling and transporting of LNG as cargo and many of the safety requirements could be adapted to LNG bunkering. Still, these standards cannot directly be used for regulating the bunkering of LNG as ship fuel due to the fact that these documents are dealing with the transport and transfer of large quantities of LNG cargo and handled 79 by an experienced crew at both ends. The issues are different when it comes to bunkering and using LNG as marine fuel and the principles need to be downscaled and defined accordingly. 7.1.2 LNG vs. Conventional Fuels LNG bunkering should not be compared with bunkering of conventional fuels, because the relevant issues are different. With diesel or other marine fuels the regulatory framework generally address environmental emission and the hydrocarbon fire hazard. For LNG bunkering this is less of an issue in terms of spill and acceptable levels of emission are intrinsically achieved. The issue with LNG is rather safety, related to cold and unwanted release and hazards related to this, and the explosive nature of gasified LNG mixed with air. Establishing the correct safety zones and clearly stated crew training demands will be a vital part of this process. The objective being to make the process safe for both equipment and all personnel managing the bunkering process. These are all elements that need to be in place for LNG bunkering to compete with the level of safety guaranteed when bunkering with conventional fuels. 7.1.3 Port rules International port rules regarding LNG bunkering is currently lacking, forcing each port that wish to provide LNG as marine fuel, to develop their own standards. In this type of environment it is very likely that one will have significant difference in the standards as a result. Today practice and competence are withheld within the companies involved in bunkering as trade secrets. There is little exchange of information as general knowledge is low and knowledge of the successful procedure is considered an asset. Additionally, the industry and standardization bodies believe that several areas that will be relevant in the future are in many cases lacking specific experience today. This will be a critical point in creating guidelines and standards for the future.

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Establishing common guidelines for port rules with associated risk assessment approach and risk acceptance criteria for LNG bunkering procedures will probably be vital for the small-scale industry to develop. This will probably also affect selection of equipment leading to standardisation. 7.1.4 Bunkering scenarios Bunkering TTS is relatively well known process, but it is still not placed in a regulated format. The country that currently has most practical bunkering experience is Norway. Practice in this region is 80 however limited to small volumes bunkered with hoses from stationary land tanks or trucks. The hope is to expand the use further through STS bunkering. Certain parts of the technology required for STS bunkering is present in STS of LNG by cargo ships operating offshore (at sea, not in a port environment). For most of these components it will only be a matter of downscaling. Other parts of the technology for LNG bunkering need a unique design and specifications, like the loading arms. As mentioned earlier, bunkering from small LNG vessels or barges (STS) is the most feasible and efficient solution. In that they can load at full-scale terminals and transport much higher volumes than trucks. This allows for lower frequency of filling at the large-scale terminals that needs to consider their logistics planning. Frequent bunkering directly from the large-scale terminals is not considered effective use of the terminal investment. For terminal bunkering to become efficient the terminal infrastructure and smaller terminals in various markets needs to be developed. Dispersed smaller terminals could be equipped to provide all the bunkering scenarios and is therefore an essential step in developing the future natural gas infrastructure.

7.2 ISO/TC 67/WG 10

The ISO Technical Report is near completion. After reviewing the draft report it is clear that it will cover several key elements important for an international initiation of LNG bunkering (listed under section 5.3). The report focuses on risk assessment approaches, to ensure safety and efficiency during LNG bunkering. Overall the guideline is a vital step in the right direction as it has opened for discussion between the industry and standardization bodies, and promoted critical thinking with regards to what is currently missing from the framework. 7.2.1 Lacking elements The report is not intended to cover every aspect of LNG bunkering and the industry will still be left with unanswered questions. Some important features not yet fully defined and formalized are; a clear definition of the bunkering process, division of responsibilities, the volume transfer size range it should be limited to and the distinctions between small and large-scale operations. Currently LNG bunkering experience is limited, and the industry does not feel equipped to define rules on such a detailed level. As experience increases, the standardization bodies and industry will probably increase its work to establish the relevant regulations. 7.2.2 Implementation When the ISO Technical Report is completed it will only be a guideline. To obtain the necessary influence on the international rule framework it will have to be cascaded into other standards and regulations. 27

Nevertheless, even if not implemented on an international basis, the ISO report will be an asset to state ports wishing to provide LNG as bunkering options. Individual port states can develop their own regulations with reference to the ISO standard. Establishing comprehensive standards is an extensive and demanding process and ports rarely have the competence to generate all the rules and requirements themselves. 7.2.3 Equipment One of the elements that the ISO Technical Report describes and establishes comprehensively is the appropriate equipment for LNG bunkering. With reference to past publications and qualification test, the report gives a full list over equipment for both onshore installations (TTS and PTS) and side-by- side installations (STS). The equipment described in chapter 4.4 is based on this list. Uniform equipment and solutions is important with respect to international growth. If providers in the industry are operating with distinct equipment only applicable to their solution, flexibility will be limited. It is therefore crucial to gather around a set of proven designs, set trough appropriate tests corresponding with safety demands.

7.3 Passengers
The regulatory framework is currently missing documentation and risk analysis when it comes to passengers on gas-fuelled ships. Due to the uncertainty this creates, several ferries have to unload their passengers before LNG bunkering is commenced. This creates difficulties in logistic for the ship owners and makes use of LNG as fuel more arduous for ferries, considering that some ferries have passengers onboard at all times. In most situations the maritime authorities or flag states enforce these restrictions, in some other cases it can be the ship-owners them self. The respective authorities can approve bunkering with passengers onboard on a case-by-case basis. A comprehensive risk analysis of the operation will in this case be performed. In Sweden, the Viking Grace is being bunkered with passengers onboard, but in Norway the practice is till under debate. Fjordline (Norway) has several ferries in operation that uses LNG fuel. They have done studies on the safety aspects of having people onboard during LNG bunkering. The studies have been carried out as Fjordline ferries in most cases have passenger on at all times. Overall the judgment was that bunkering with todays systems imposes negligible safety treats to the passengers. Other findings were that as long as passengers remain inside the ship (not outside on deck etc.) the environment on the ship is actually much safer than on the terminal. The most important safety measure was found to be getting people of deck where they could be exposed to any spills from the gas mast. Risk of creating fire and explosions are minor, as explained in part 2. The question comes down to, what are the boundaries of the safety zones? Is it realistic that LNG imposes such a large treat that passengers should not be allowed onboard during bunkering?

7.4 Safety Zones

At the heart of safety is definition of appropriate safety zones. Safety zones are classified based on level of explosion hazards. The zones are divided by the likelihood of presence of an explosion 81 atmosphere and the duration of such presence (Ref: IEC 60070-10). Zone 0: an area constantly subjected to risk of an explosive atmosphere, for long periods of time or frequently. 28

Zone 1: an area, which under normal operation is likely to be exposed to an explosive atmosphere. Zone 2: an area, which under normal operation is not exposed to an explosive atmosphere. If an explosive atmosphere is to be formed it will be for a short duration of time. If a leak is to take place the, LNG and LNG vapor will spread differently depending on gas quality at the point of leakage. All LNG spills will eventually evaporate, but the time and distance it travels before it is completely evaporated will vary. Parts of the LNG will be as a liquid pool on the ground (or any surrounding surface), the rest will be a gas cloud of LNG vapor as it evaporates when exposed to the warmer air. Poor quality LNG will create gas clouds that last longer and travel further. The reason for this is that the temperature difference between surrounding air and LNG is smaller (delta T), making the evaporation process slower. This increases the hazardous areas, making the relevant safety zone larger. The approved quality of LNG for bunkering will be hard to impose in any standards on an international level. Acceptable levels would have to be established on a ship-owner level, where suppliers and customers make individual demands and arrangements. Nevertheless, several measures can be taken to improve the safety element for this threat. Common procedures for definition of natural gas and LNG quality and sampling could be established. Forcing suppliers to report on LNG quality level so that correct measures could be met. Clear outline on the environmental and safety aspects of release of methane implemented as part of crew training to make workers more aware. Establishing standards concerning common safety distances depending on LNG quality this will force suppliers and customers to be more attentive to the level of quality they are dealing with.

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8 Conclusion
In the offshore industry standards are required to create solutions that works. For economies of scale to be achieved in the LNG bunkering industry and the positive driving force it contributes to take presence, the required level of standardization needs to be reached. Presently there is a great potential and an interesting technology supporting future expansion within this market. In some parts of the world there are already favorable environmental aspects that provide substantial economic benefits by making use of this technology. In areas where small-scale distribution is practiced the industry is facing high economical costs. All additional and restructuring costs must be streamlined and standardized so that consumers see the potential, and desire change. The industry is such that we choose the cheapest solutions, as long as it works and is safe. Changing to something new and unfamiliar needs to provide a real benefit if the current well know solution is safe and reliable. Economic potential therefore have to be proven over an extended time. Health, safety and environmental aspects are today controlled and maintained to a much greater extent than when conventional fuels were introduced decades ago. Injuries or fatalities are costly for the industry and customers must be able to guarantee their employees' safety. Classic bunkering has had many years to establish the necessary security measures. Bunkering of LNG must compete with this established level of security. Safety zones and other safety measures must be identified and documented for the solution to be competitive. To be adopted, standard methods and regulatory regimes must be implemented as widely as possible.

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Appendix A

(Source: naturalgas.org http://naturalgas.org/overview/background.asp accessed: 24.04.2013)

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Appendix B
Example of ship-to-ship timeline: total time 50 minutes for the whole transfer of 65 tons of LNG. Joint venture project LNG bunkering Ship to Ship carried out by Swedish Marine Technology Forum, FKAB Marine Design, Linde Cryo AB, Det Norske Veritas (DNV), LNG GOT and White Some AB.

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Appendix C
Standardization bodies
Extensive list, covering standardization bodies relevant to the bunkering industry. Sources: Germanischer Lloyd, Final report, European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) Study on Standards and Rules for Bunkering of Gas-Fuelled Ships, Report No. 2012.005, Version 1.1/2013-02-15 International Maritime Organisation (IMO) Most relevant IMO regulations related to the LNG supply chain are: The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) convention including requirements for maritime fuels; The International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping for Seafarers (STCW) convention including training requirements for crews; The International Code for Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk (IGC Code, referenced within SOLAS Chapter VII, Part C) including requirements for the construction and operation of LNG tanker; The Interim Guidelines on Safety for Natural Gas-Fuelled Engine Installations in Ships MSC.285(86); The International Code of Safety for Ships using Gases or other low Flashpoint Fuels (IGF Code, in development, will be referenced within SOLAS) including requirements for the construction and operation of gas-fuelled ships. International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) Most important standards related to the LNG supply chain are: The Standard for Installation and equipment for liquefied natural gas Ship to shore interface and port operations (ISO 28460:2010) including the requirements for ship, terminal and port service providers to ensure the safe transit of an LNG carrier through the port area and the safe and efficient transfer of its cargo; The Guidelines for systems and installations for supply of LNG as fuel to ships (currently under development in the ISO Technical Committee 67 Working Group 10) including requirements for safety, components and systems and training; ISO 10976:2012 Refrigerated light hydrocarbon fluids. Measurement of cargoes on board LNG carriers. The standard provides accepted methods for measuring quantities on LNG carriers for those involved in the LNG trade on ships and onshore. It includes recommended methods for measuring, reporting and documenting quantities on board of these vessels and is intended to establish uniform practices for the measurement of the quantity of cargo on board LNG carriers from which the energy is computed. International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Most important standards related to the LNG supply chain are: The International Standard IEC 60092-502 Electrical installations in ships Part 502: Tankers Special features including hazardous area classification; IEC 60079 Electrical Apparatus for Explosive Gas Atmospheres;

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IEC 61508 Functional Safety of Electrical/Electronic/Programmable Electronic Safety- Related Systems.

Society of International Gas Tanker & Terminal Operators (SIGTTO) Most important guidelines related to the LNG supply chain are: The LNG Ship to Ship Transfer Guidelines including guidance for safety, communication, maneuvering, mooring and equipment for vessels undertaking side-by-side ship to ship transfer; Liquefied Gas Fire Hazard Management including the principles of liquefied gas fire prevention and fire fighting; ESD Arrangements & linked ship / shore systems for liquefied gas carriers including guidance for functional requirements and associated safety systems for ESD arrangements; Liquefied Gas Handling Principles on Ships and in Terminals including guidance for the handling of LNG, LPG and chemical gases for serving ships officers and terminal operational staff; LNG Operations in Port Areas including an overview of risk related to LNG handling within port areas. Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) Most important guidelines related to the LNG supply chain are: The International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers & Terminals (ISGOTT) published by OCIMF together with the International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) and the International Association of Ports and Harbours (IAPH) including operational procedures and shared responsibilities for operations at the ship/shore interface; The Ship to Ship Transfer Guide (Liquefied Gases) published together with the ICS and SIGTTO including guidance for safety, communication, manoeuvring, Mooring and equipment for vessels undertaking ship to ship transfer of liquefied gases between ocean- going ships; The Ship Inspection Report Programme (SIRE) Vessel Inspection Questionnaires for Oil Tankers, Combination Carriers, Shuttle Tankers, Chemical Tankers and Gas Carriers which enabled OCIMF members to share their ship inspection reports with other OCIMF members. European Committee for Standardisation (CEN) The European standards are developed by Technical Committees (TC) ,which consists in of a panel of experts and is established by the Technical Board (Figure 7). The Technical Committees under which working groups (WG) may exist in which the experts develop the EU standards for the gas industry are CEN/TC 12 Materials, equipment and offshore structures for petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas industries CEN/TC 234 Gas infrastructure CEN/TC 235 Gas pressure regulators and associated safety devices for use in gas transmission and distribution CEN/TC 237 Gas meters CEN/TC 282 Installation and equipment for LNG Most important standards related to the LNG supply chain are: European Standard EN 1160 Installations and equipment for liquefied natural gas. General characteristics of liquefied natural gas and cryogenic materials including guidance on characteristics of liquefied natural gas and cryogenic materials; 34

European Standard EN 1473 Installation and Equipment for Liquefied Natural Gas Design of Onshore Installations including guidelines for the design, construction and operation of all onshore liquefied natural gas installations including those for liquefaction, storage, vaporization, transfer and handling of LNG; European Standard EN 1474 - 1 Installations and equipment for liquefied natural gas - Design and testing of marine transfer systems Part 1: Design and testing of transfer arms including specifications of the design, safety requirements and inspection and testing procedures for liquefied natural gas transfer arms intended for use on conventional onshore LNG terminals; European Standard EN 1474 - 2 Installations and equipment for liquefied natural gas - Design and testing of marine transfer systems Part 2: Design and testing of transfer hoses including guidance for the design, material selection, qualification, certification and testing details for LNG transfer hoses; European Standard EN 1474 - 3 Installations and equipment for liquefied natural gas - Design and testing of marine transfer systems Part 3: Offshore transfer systems including qualification and design criteria for offshore LNG transfer systems; European Standard EN 13645 Installations and equipment for liquefied natural gas Design of onshore installations with a storage capacity between 5 t and 200 t; European Standard EN 14620 Design and manufacture of site built, vertical, cylindrical, flat- bottomed steel tanks for the storage of refrigerated, liquefied gases with operating temperatures between 0C and -165C.

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