1

Post-Fault Analysis of Operation of Distance Protective Relays of Power Transmission Lines

Jan Izykowski, Senior Member, IEEE, Eugeniusz Rosolowski, Senior Member, IEEE and Murari Saha, Senior Member, IEEE

AbstractThis paper deals with the post-fault analysis of operation of distance protective relays from the line terminals. The signals of the digital distance relays are processed in the offline regime with the aim of evaluating the particular relay operation case. First, the program enables the emulation of the fault loop impedance measurements of the distance relays. Second, the two-end unsynchronized measurements of the relays are considered. The unknown synchronization angle is determined with using the developed non-iterative procedure. Then, the distance to fault is calculated. It is applied for calculating the actual values of impedance for the line sections. Performance of such two steps allows investigating the operation of the relays under resistive fault cases. The described post-fault analysis algorithm has been tested with the fault data obtained from versatile ATP-EMTP simulations. The sample examples are reported and discussed. Index Termsalgorithms, distance protection, fault analysis, two-end measurement, power transmission line, simulation.

measurements, which are based on the two-end fault location principle. Prior to calculating the fault location results the processed two-end signals are analytically synchronized. The final part of the program is related with versatile options for comparison and visualization of the obtained results. Fault location algorithms utilizing unsynchronized measurements of distance relays from the line terminals have been presented in [3], [4]. The unknown synchronization angle in [3], [4] is eliminated by using the quantities such as: apparent impedances, amplitudes of currents, i.e. the quantities which do not involve this angle. This paper, in turn, proposes determination of the synchronization angle with the special non-iterative procedure. After providing the synchronization of the measurements from two different ends of the line [5], the distance to fault calculation is performed directly. II. FAULT-LOOP IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE RELAYS Fig. 2 presents models of different types of faults utilized in further considerations. Detection of a fault starts impedance measurement by a distance protective relay. The tripping (or blocking) signal is issued on the basis of comparing the determined fault loop impedance with the specially shaped impedance characteristic.

NALYSIS of operation of distance relays from the ends of a power transmission line is dealt with in this paper. It is well-known that the reactance effect [1][4], which is relevant for resistive faults and presence of pre-fault power flow, influences very much the operation of classic distance relays. Therefore, a compensation for the reactance effect is applied in the one-end fault locators and also in adaptive distance relays [1], [2]. However, very often in practice the relays do not use such compensation and therefore the analysis of the reactance effect is very important. Fig. 1 presents the idea for the post-fault analysis of protective distance relays (RelayA, RelayB) installed at the terminals (A, B) of the line. The voltage and current signals measured by the relays are sent to the computer performing the analysis. Versatile methods for processing the input signals have been included in the developed post-fault analysis program. Then, the fault loop impedance measurement performed in the distance relays is reflected. The other part of the program utilizes the fault loop impedance
This work was supported in part by the Ministry of Science and Information Society Technologies of Poland under Grant 3 T10B 030 27. J. Izykowski is with Wroclaw University of Technology, POLAND (e-mail: jan.izykowski@pwr.wroc.pl), E. Rosolowski is with Wroclaw University of Technology, POLAND (e-mail: eugeniusz.rosolowski@pwr.wroc.pl), M. Saha is with ABB, SWEDEN (e-mail: murari.saha@se.abb.com).

I. INTRODUCTION

A
~

B
~

RelayA Processing of Input Data

RelayB

Impedance Measurements of Relays

Analytical Synchronisation Two-End Fault Location Based Results

Comparison, Visualization

POST-FAULT ANALYSIS PROGRAM

Fig. 1. Basic idea of analysis of distance relays operation.

1-4244-0493-2/06/$20.00 2006 IEEE.

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In case of identifying a fault as within the specified protective zone the associated circuit breaker is tripped. Distance relays measure the apparent impedance of the appropriate fault loop using the relaying voltage and current signals. These signals are composed according to the identified fault type, as shown for the side A in TABLE I. Impedance measurement of distance relays from the transmission line terminals can be explained by using the models shown in Fig. 3. In case of the side A relay the considered fault loop can be described with the following formula for the phasor notation: V A relay d Z 1L I A relay RF I F = 0 (1) where: d distance to fault (p.u.), counted from the bus A up to fault point F, RF fault path resistance, IF total fault current. The other symbols from (1) are explained in Table I. b) a a) a b b c c
IFa RF

TABLE I. COMPOSITION OF RELAYING SIGNALS AT SIDE A FAULT TYPE RELAYING VOLTAGE, CURRENT ph-g ph1-ph2, ph1-ph2-g, ph1-ph2-ph3, ph1-ph2-ph3-g

V A relay = V A ph , I A relay = I A ph + k 0 I A0 + k 0 m I A paral 0 V A relay = V A ph1 V A ph2 , I A relay = I A ph1 I A ph2

ph, ph1, ph2, (g) subscripts for indicating faulted phases, (ground) I A0 , ( I A 0 ) zero sequence current of faulted (healthy parallel) line
paral

k 0 = ( Z 0 L Z 1L ) Z 1L k 0 m = Z 0 m Z 1L (in case of single line: k 0 m = 0 ) Z 1L , Z 0 L , Z 0m line impedance for positive, zero, mutual zero sequences

Classic distance relays determine an apparent impedance directly from the relaying voltage and current: V A relay Z A relay = (2) I A relay Such simplification is utilized since the fault path is supplied from both sides of the transmission line and the total fault current is not measured by the relay utilizing only oneend measurement data. In consequence of that, the measured apparent impedance is equal to the faulted line section impedance only in case of solid faults: Z A relay = d Z 1L if: R F = 0 (3) Otherwise (resistive faults), due to the reactance effect the determined apparent impedance (2) is not a strict measure of the distance to fault. Under unfavorable fault conditions, i.e. for high resistance faults appearing close to the reach of the first protective zone, but inside it, such a fault can be identified as occurring outside the zone. This leads to delaying of the relay operation since such a fault will be cleared by the next zone impedance element (with set longer time delay). Explanation of particular operations of distance relays can be performed with use of the post-fault analysis program presented below. In this program besides the method applied in the classic distance relays (2), the two-end fault location based method is incorporated. The latter method is not affected by the reactance effect and therefore allows verification of the former one. III. TWO-END FAULT LOCATION APPROACH A. General model of two-end measurements of distance relays The measurements of distance relays from both sides (A and B) are considered as performed asynchronously. Assuming the measurements of the relay B as the reference, the signals of the relay A are considered with including the unknown synchronization angle (), i.e. multiplied by the shift operator: e j = cos() + jsin() (4) In the models from Fig. 3a (for relay A) and in Fig. 3b (for relay B) there are longitudinal branches represented by impedances of the line sections AF and BF for the positive

IFa RF
a b c

IFb

c)

a b c

IFa IFb RF Rg RF

d)

IFa IFb IFc RF RF Rg RF

Fig. 2. Models of faults: a) phase-to-ground (a-g), b) phase-to-phase (a-b), c) phase-to-phase-to-ground (a-b-g), d) three phase (a-b-c or a-b-c-g).

a)

I A relay

dZ1L

F
IF

Relay A

V A relay

RF

VF

b)

F
IF
VF

(1d)Z1L

I Brelay

RF

V Brelay

Relay B

Fig. 3. Models of measurements for: a) distance relay A, b) distance relay B.

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sequence, respectively. This is due to application of the composition of the relay signals as gathered in Table I. The transverse branch in these models represents the fault path through which the total fault current flows. Merging the models of relays from Fig. 3a and Fig. 3b one obtains the general model with the fictitious transverse branch (Fig. 4). Through this fictitious branch the sum of relaying currents flows: (5) I AB = I Arelay e j + I Brelay It has been proposed in [4] that the impedance of this fictitious branch is assumed as a function of the real fault path resistance RF (see fault models in Fig. 2) and the fault type coefficient PFLT: RF (6) Z FLT = P FLT The fault type coefficient PFLT has to be set to such value that the voltage drop (VF) across the fault path in the models from Fig. 3a and Fig. 3b is identical with the drop across the impedance ZFLT (6) in the model from Fig. 4. This condition results in the following formula: R (7) RF I F = F ( I Arelay e j + I Brelay ) P FLT Satisfying (7) is assured if: I Arelay e j + I Brelay P FLT = IF

I F2 = I A2e j + I B2 I F0 = I A0e j + I B0

(16) (17)

the fault type coefficient equals:

P FLT = I F1 + I F2 + Z 0L I Z 1L F0 I F1 + I F2 + I F0

(18)

Consideration of the boundary conditions for a-g fault: (19) I Fb = I Fc = 0 results in the following relation between the symmetrical components of the total fault current: (20) I F1 = I F2 = I F0 Taking into account (20), the fault type coefficient for a-g fault is equal to: 2Z 1L + Z 0L (21) P FLT = 3Z 1L The same value of PFLT as in (21) one also obtains for the other single phase-to-ground faults (Table II). Since impedance of transmission lines for the positive and zero sequences are not identical with respect to both magnitude and phase thus the fault type coefficient (21) is a complex number. In case of parallel (double-circuit) transmission lines the fault type coefficient PFLT for single phase-to-ground faults also is as in (21). This is obtained after taking into account that under neglecting shunt capacitances of the line the sum of zero sequence currents from both ends of parallel healthy line equals zero: Z 0m Z (22) I A paral 0 e j + 0 m I Bparal 0 = 0 Z 1L Z 1L The coefficient PFLT for the other fault types can be determined analogously (Table II) and also one obtains identical values for both single and parallel lines cases.
j A I A relay e

(8)

B. Determination of PFLT case of a-g fault According to Table I the relay currents for the single transmission line and a-g fault: Z Z 1L (9) I A relay e j = ( I A a + 0L I A0 )e j Z 1L
I Brelay = I Ba + Z 0L Z 1L I B0 Z 1L

(10)

dZ1L

(1d)Z1L

I Brelay

Resolving the currents from the faulted phase at both sides ( I Aa , I Ba in (9) and (10)) into their symmetrical components (indexes stand for: 1 positive, 2 negative, 0 zero sequences): (11) I A relay e j = ( I A1 + I A2 + ( Z 0L Z 1L ) I A0 )e j
I Brelay = I B1 + I B2 + ( Z 0L Z 1L ) I B0
V A relay e j

I AB = I A relay e j + I Brelay

VF

Z FLT =

RF P FLT

V Brelay

(12)
Fig. 4. General model obtained by merging models of both distance relays with assuming the time reference of measurements of relay B as the basis. TABLE II. COEFFICIENT P FLT FOR DIFFERENT FAULT TYPES FAULT TYPE a-g, b-g, c-g a-b, b-c, c-a a-b-g, b-c-g, c-a-g, a-b-c, a-b-c-g

The total fault current for a-g fault is the following sum of its symmetrical components: (13) I F = I F1 + I F2 + I F0 Substitution of (11)(13) into (8) yields: Z Z ( I A1 + I A2 + 0L I A0 )e j + I B1 + I B2 + 0L I B0 Z 1L Z 1L (14) P FLT = I F1 + I F2 + I F0 Taking into account that the symmetrical components of the total fault current can be expressed as the respective sums of components of currents from both ends (under neglecting shunt capacitances): (15) I F1 = I A1e j + I B1

P FLT (2 Z 1L + Z 0 L ) (3Z 1L )

2 1

C. Two-end fault location with relaying signals According to the model from Fig. 4 the voltage at the fault point F can be determined from the both (A and B) sides as:

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V F = V A relay e j d Z 1L I A relay e j

(23) (24)

V F = V Brelay (1 d ) Z 1L I Brelay

= sin 1 A3

2 A12 + A2

(30)

Comparing (23) and (24) gives the formula in two unknowns (d distance to fault (p.u.), synchronization angle):
V Arelay e j (V Brelay Z 1L I Brelay ) = d Z 1L ( I Arelay e j + I Brelay ) (25)

The sought distance to fault (d) can be determined from (25) as: V A e j (V B Z 1L I B relay ) relay relay (26) d = abs j Z 1L ( I A relay e + I B relay ) Usage of the formula (26) requires prior determination of the synchronization operator ( e j ) since in the presented approach it does not get canceled, as it was in [3], [4]. The unknown synchronization angle can be calculated with using the pre-fault [6] or fault quantities [7]. This paper proposes to determine the synchronization angle also from the fault quantities, however in a substantially different way. Determination of the synchronization angle directly from (25) is not so accurate since the relaying signals are composed of all the sequence components, in particular of the positive sequence components of fault quantities. Therefore, it is advantageous, from the accuracy point of view, to apply for that purpose the remaining sequence components, say the i-th sequence components, instead of the relaying signals: (27) V Ai e j (V Bi Z iL I Bi ) = d Z iL ( I Ai e j + I Bi )
Z iL line impedance for the i-th symmetrical component.

2 2 where: = sin 1 A1 A1 + A2 . In [7] there was obtained the formula analogous to (29) and it was proposed there to solve it by using iterative calculations of the Newton-Raphson method. However, one has to notice for such calculations that there is no control on which the solution (out of two possible solutions relevant for trigonometric functions, when considering the range for the angle of the width equal to 2) is reached. The achieved result depends on the assumed initial guess. In [7] the guess =0 has been recommended. Usually one solution for the angle () is close to zero, while the other lying quite far from zero can be rejected as unrealistic. However, in certain cases can happen that both the solutions are close to each other and as of the realistic values have to be considered further. Substitution of two solutions for the angle (1, 2) into (26) results in getting two solutions for the distance to fault (d1, d2). In order to select the valid solution for the distance to fault it is proposed to consider the loop seen for example from the end A and containing the fault path: R V A relay e j d Z 1L I A relay e j F I A relay e j + I Brelay = 0 (31) P FLT

Generally, the applied type of signals in (27) is one of: symmetrical components: i= 1 (positive), i=1 (superimposed positive), i=2 (negative), i=0 (zero) sequence components, relaying signals: i= relay (composed as in Table I). Resolving (27) into the real and imaginary parts with eliminating the unknown distance to fault (d) after tedious long derivation results in:
A1 cos() + A2 sin() = A3

Solution of (31) after eliminating ( RF | P FLT | ) also gives two solutions for the distance (d3, d4). The solution (d3 or d4), which coincides (is the closest) with particular one from (26): (d1 or d2) indicates the solution valid for the analyzed case. From (31) one can calculate the fault resistance value ( RF ). The other way of coping with the problem of obtaining two solutions for the synchronization angle by solving (30) is to perform selection of the solution valid for the determined angle. Such selection can be done by repeating solution of (30) but with applying the other type of signals. IV. ATP-EMTP EVALUATION The presented method has been evaluated with using the fault data obtained from ATP-EMTP [8] simulations of the transmission network containing the 400 kV and 300 km line. Fig. 5 Fig. 9 present the results for the considered fault example: a-g fault distance to fault from A: d=0.8 p.u., fault resistance: 10 , full-cycle Fourier filtering. Pre-fault power flow direction was assumed as from the bus B towards the bus A (this was obtained by assuming the EMFs at the bus B as leading the EMFs of the side A by 30o). Operation of the bus A relay has been taken into consideration. First zone of this relay was assumed as made with the MHO characteristic of the reach set to 85% of the line ( Z1L=(8.28+j94.54) ). All signals obtained from ATP-EMTP simulations are naturally perfectly synchronized. In order to test the delivered algorithm the intentional unsynchronization has been introduced, namely: all signals from the bus A delayed by 18o, i.e. the real value of the synchronization angle: real = 18 o .

(28)

where:

* * A1 = imag Z * iL [(V Bi Z iL I Bi ) I Ai V Ai I Bi ]

* * A2 = real Z * iL [(V Bi Z iL I Bi ) I Ai + V Ai I Bi ]

* * A3 = imag Z * iL [(V Bi Z iL I Bi ) I Bi V Ai I Ai ]

)
(29)

X * conjugate of X .

Formula (28) can be rewritten to the following form:

sin( + ) = A3
2 A12 + A2

where:
sin( ) = A1
2 A12 + A2 , cos( ) = A2 2 A12 + A2 .

Equation (29) can be solved for the angle as follows:

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a)
SIDE A - Phase Voltages (105V)

4 a 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 0 20 40 60 Time (ms) 80 100 120 b c

b)

2000 a b c

SIDE A - Phase Currents (A)

1000

1000

2000 0 20 40 60 Time (ms) 80 100 120

Fig. 5. The example input signals of the relay at bus A: a) phase voltages, b) phase currents.

a)
SIDE A Resistance Measured by Relay A ()

50

b)
SIDE A Reactance Measured by Relay A ()

150

40

RA relay
30

130

110

X Arelay
90

20

X real = 75.63
70

10

Rreal = 6.62

Post-Fault Time (ms)

20

40

60

50

20

Post-Fault Time (ms)

40

60

Fig. 6. The example impedance measurement of the relay at bus A (impedance components versus post-fault time): a) resistance, b) reactance.
300
120

a)
SIDE A - Reactance Measured by Relay A ()

X(120)

b)
SIDE A - Reactance Measured by Relay A ()
100

X(2140)

(21)

250

(40) (25) 80

200

(10)

MHO

(30)

150 (5) 100

(15) (20)

60

40

MHO
50 (1)

20

0 -250

R(120)
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50

0 -40

R(2140)
-20 0 20 40

SIDE A - Resistance Measured by Relay A ()

SIDE A - Resistance Measured by Relay A ()

Fig. 7. The example impedance measurement of the relay at bus A (polar plots) for: a) post-fault samples: (120), b) post-fault samples: (2140).

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6
Synchroniz. Angle (o) Positive Sequence
40

Synchroniz. Angle (o) Negative Sequence

a)

20

2_positive_(30-50)=19.67o

b)

50

1_negative_(30-50)= 18.15o
0

-50

-20

-40

1_positive_(30-50)= 48.91o

-100

2_negative_(30-50)= 162.14o
-150 0 20 40 60

-60

Post-Fault Time (ms)

20

40

60

Post-Fault Time (ms)

40

c)

Synchroniz. Angle (o) Relaying Sigals

20 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 0 20

2relay_(30-50)= 18.47o

d)
Distance to Fault (pu)
0.85

Synchronization by using negative sequence components

d(30-50)= 0.8033 p.u.

0.80

dreal=0.8 pu

1relay_(30-50)=

85.00o

0.75

Post-Fault Time (ms)

40

60

0.7

20

40

60

Post-Fault Time (ms)

150

50

Resistance Relay & FL principles ()

40

Reactance Relay & FL Principles ()

e)

f)
RA relay
30

130

110

X Arelay
90

20

X FL = dX 1L
70

10

RFL = dR1L Rreal = 6.62

0

X real = 75.63

Post-Fault Time [ms]

20

40

60

50

20

Post-Fault Time (ms)

40

60

Fig. 8. The example: a) synchronization angle by using positive seq. quantities, b) synchronization angle by using negative seq. quantities, c) synchronization angle by using relaying signals, d) distance to fault, e) resistance according to relay & FL principles, f) reactance according to relay & FL principles

a)
SIDE A - Reactance by FL Principle ()

X(120)
200

(1)

b)
SIDE A - Reactance by FL Principle ()

90

X(2140)

160

86

120 (5) 80 MHO

82 (21) 78 (40) 74

MHO

(20)

40

70

SIDE A - Resistance by FL Principle ()

0 -80

R(120)
-40 0 40 80

SIDE A - Resistance by FL Principle ()

12

16

R(2140)

Fig. 9. The example polar plot of impedance determined from two-end fault location principle for; a) samples: (120), b) samples: (2140).

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Fig. 5 presents the input voltage and current signals (recalculated to the primary level) for the considered a-g fault example. Taking these signals and applying the full-cycle Fourier filtering (note: the other methods of processing the input signals have also been incorporated in the program) the resistance and reactance of the fault loop considered by the relay A are as shown in Fig. 6. As a result of the reactance effect these impedance components differ from the real values (Rreal, Xreal) for the faulted line section. Both calculated components exceed the real values. As a result of that there is no encroachment of the calculated fault loop impedance into the MHO characteristic (Fig. 7), which means that this fault will not be tripped by the 1st zone unit. Fig. 8a, b, c present the results for estimation of the synchronization angle, applying the positive-, negativesequence components and the relaying signals, respectively. These results are obtained by solving the trigonometric formula (29) and therefore there are two solutions in each case (1, 2). The averaged values (averaging within the interval: 3050 ms) of the angle are depicted. The averaged values: 19.67o, 18.15o, 18.47o have to be treated as the valid solutions since they do not differ very much. The other set of the averaged values: 48.91o, 162.14o, 85o present the invalid solutions. The most accurate result has been obtained by using the negative sequence components (the result: 18.15o differing very little from the real value 18o) and is less accurate for applying the positive sequence components. Performing the synchronization of the signals with use of the determined synchronization angle (calculated from the negative sequence components) the distance to fault has been obtained as shown in Fig. 8d. The averaged value of the calculated distance to fault (0.8033 p.u.) is very close to the real value (0.8 p.u.). Fig. 8 e, f present the plots of the resistance and reactance calculated according to the relaying (impedance components according to (2)) and fault location (resistance: RFL=dR1L and reactance: XFL=dX1L ) principles. Resistance and reactance calculated according to the two-end fault location (FL) principle match very well the real values Rreal, Xreal of the faulted line section (AF). Fig. 9a, b show the polar plots for the impedance determined according to the FL principle. After some transient period the impedance encroaches the MHO characteristic. This indicates that the considered case is for the fault occurring inside the 1st zone reach, however due to unfavorable impact of the reactance effect there is no fast tripping (by the 1st zone unit). V. CONCLUSIONS Post-fault analysis of the operation of distance protective relays from the line ends is considered. Besides the classic impedance measurements the two-end unsynchronized fault location based calculations have been incorporated too. Derivation of the general model for two-end unsynchronized measurements of the distance relays from the line terminals is provided. This model is utilized for determining the distance to fault and also the fault resistance. Prior to that the

synchronization of measurements is performed. A new non-iterative procedure for calculation of the synchronization angle has been developed. Special care for considering all the theoretically possible solutions and also selection of the valid result issue are concerned. The presented post-fault analysis algorithm has been tested with the fault data from versatile ATP-EMTP simulations. The described fault example confirms its validity. VI. REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] P.J. Moore, A.T. Johns, Performance of adaptive distance protection under high resistance earth faults, in CIGRE 1992, paper 34203. J. Izykowski, E. Rosolowski, M.M. Saha, Locating faults in parallel lines under availability of complete measurements at one end, IEE Gener., Transm. and Distrib., Vol.151, pp. 268-273, March 2004. M.S. Sachdev, R. Agarwal, A technique for estimating line fault locations from digital distance relay measurements, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. PWRD3, No. 1, pp. 121129, January 1988. M M. Saha, J. Izykowski and E. Rosolowski, A method of fault location based on measurements from impedance relays at the line ends, in Proc. 2004 Conference on DPSP, Amsterdam, pp. 176179. M. Kezunovic and B. Perunicic, Automated transmission line fault analysis using synchronized sampling at two ends, IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol. PS11 (1), pp. 441447, February 1996. R.K. Aggarwal, D.V. Coury, A.T. Johns, A. Kalam, Computer-aided design and testing of accurate fault location for EHV teed feeders, in Proc. 1993 International Conference on DPSP, York, pp. 6064. Novosel, D.G. Hart, E. Udren, J. Garitty, Unsynchronized two-terminal fault location estimation, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 130138, January 1996. H. W. Dommel, Electro-Magnetic Transients Program, BPA, Portland, Oregon, 1986.

VII. BIOGRAPHIES
Jan Izykowski (M1997, SM04) was born in Poland in 1949. He received his M.Sc., Ph.D. and D.Sc. degrees from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering of Wroclaw University of Technology (WUT) in 1973, 1976 and in 2001, respectively. Presently he is an Associate Professor in the Institute of Electrical Engineering of the WUT and Director of this Institute. His research interests are in power system simulation, protection and control, and fault location. Eugeniusz Rosolowski (M97, SM00) was born in Poland in 1947. He received M.Sc. degree in Electrical Eng. from the Wroclaw University of Technology (WUT) in 1972 and Ph.D. from Kiev Polytechnic Institute in 1978. In 1993 he received D.Sc. from the WUT. Presently he is a Professor in the Institute of Electrical Engineering of the WUT. His research interests are in power system analysis and microprocessor applications in power systems. Murari Mohan Saha (M76, SM87) was born in 1947 in Bangladesh. He received B.Sc.E.E. from Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka in 1968 and completed M.Sc.E.E. in 1970. In 1972 he completed M.S.E.E. and in 1975 he was awarded with Ph.D. from the Technical University of Warsaw, Poland. He joined ASEA, Sweden, in 1975. Currently he is a Senior Research and Development Engineer at ABB Automation Technologies, Vsters, Sweden. His areas of interest are instrument transformers, power system simulation, and digital protective relays.

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