DFM 3 Final

Design Process, Design for Manufacture and DFX 64
DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURE

3
Objectives: Upon completion of this chapter the reader will

be able to:
1. Establish the factors that affect the design of a
product.
2. Establish the general aspects of manufacturing factors
that affect the design of the product.
3. Establish the manufacturing factors that affect Design
with particular reference to manufacturing processes.
4. Design products considering the above factors.
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
The great multiplicity of design possibilities that may be drawn up
in a specific situation-either by such methods which were
described in the previous chapter or simply by intuition may
frighten the unprepared. The question quickly arises of how to
reject the unsuitable solutions. It was seen earlier how the
products synthesis might be characterized by a continuous
alternation between searching for and selecting ideas, and it was
mentioned that one ought to select only if suitable criteria for
selection are present.
The designer on the basis of requirements from the outside world
formulates the criteria used. As all the stages in the life of the
product can give rise to demands and requirements in respect of
the product we can get a general idea of where these originate.
The situation may be described as a force field where a number of
forces try to pull the product in different directions. The final
product will then represent equilibrium- a compromise where the
forces balance each other. Figure 3.1 illustrates the various factors
that affect the Design of a Product.
On the outside are number of requirements, product factors,
stemming from the life of the product, which influence it through
the criteria that are formulated. In the middle are the five basic
properties-structure, form, material, dimension and surface-which
specify the product. These properties are specified in the product
synthesis in such a way that the criteria are fulfilled as far as
Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

possible. From the basic properties, all other properties of the

product are derived, particularly the function, which is the central
property in the process of use.
If we consider the basic property of design in particular, we find
that the influences arise, on the one hand, from the product factors
mentioned above, and, on the other hand, from the other basic
properties, as these are not independent variables. The
dependence of design on other factors will be discussed in the
following section. The remainder of the chapter deals with the
dependence of design on the manufacturing factors.

Chapter 3 Design for Manufacture 66
Figure 3.1 Factors affecting the design of a product
The fact that the basic properties are not independent can be seen
in practice by the impossibility of deciding on them separately.
The structure cannot be finally chosen until the consequences to
the design have been estimated, and the design cannot be
determined until material, dimensions and surface have been
considered. It is therefore very important to recognize the
interplay between the basic properties and the design.
The influence of the structure on the design is direct, as already
mentioned in the previous chapter and as mentioned in Fig 3.2.
The dependence of the design on the material, dimension and
surface is a little more difficult to identify, because it takes place
indirectly.
The interaction of the material and design occurs in two ways.
Firstly, the design depends on the production/manufacturing
processes by which the material can be shaped, and so the design
depends indirectly on the material. Secondly, the properties of the
material play a major role in determining the form e.g. the
strength, elasticity and weight of the material (Fig.3.3).
Figure 3.2 Two Drawing Equipments with Different

Structures (Dependence of design on structure)

Figure 3.3 Springs made of two different materials- rubber

and steel. The different properties of materials result in very
different form designs.
The influence of the dimensions on the design is illustrated in
Figure 3.4. What counts here is the fact that, with the change of
size of the object, the practicable production processes alter. The
criteria, e.g. the material and the weight, also change. The
influence of the surface on the form takes place indirectly through
the choice of production process.
Figure 3.4 Cog-wheels showing the influence of the dimensions

(Size) on the design
3.2 GENERAL ASPECTS OF DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURE:
One of the most important questions to be faced when designing a
product is how the production will be carried out. Production can
be divided into the manufacture of the parts, the assembly, the
testing and quality control. The manufacturing and the assembly
processes are very closely linked to the design/form of the parts.
In the earlier chapter on form variation, the different examples did
not end with detailed design suggestions, but with a series of form
concepts. There is a natural reason for this, namely that a product
or a part cannot be designed in detail until one has chosen the
material, manufacturing process and assembly process.
The stages in the design of an element are shown in Figure 3.5
starting from considerations of functional surfaces over to form
concept levels to the choice of processes and a final design of

details, the loop round the choice of processes means that, at any
point, it is possible to split the element into several part elements
which are later assembled. Correspondingly, it is sometimes
possible to integrate several elements into one. The stage of form
division/form integration must thus be thought of as a last level of
ideas, which may be used if one cannot easily produce and
assemble one's elements. Figure 3.6 shows different detailed
designs for a pulley. From these diagrams it can be seen that there
is a close relationship between elements, the manufacturing and
the assembly processes.
Figure 3.5 The form design stages in a design project

Figure 3.6 Different detailed designs for a pulley.

In Figure 3.7 we have taken as a starting point the earlier
mentioned fork joint. The form concept on which the detailed
design proposals are built is shown top left, and it is assumed that
the joint is approx. 100mm long and that the material is steel. We
first examine by which processes or combinations of processes the
fork joint can be manufactured as one element. Next, we suggest
four new form concepts by form division, and finally each of
these is examined for possibilities for manufacturing the elements
and for the assembly process.
Altogether the example gives fourteen practical ways in which the
joint can be produced. Obviously not all are equally suitable in a
specific situation. The choice depends on such factors as the
number to be produced, the tolerance required, surface
requirements and many other factors. These requirements will be
dealt with more thoroughly in the following section.

Figure 3.7 Examples of interplay between form concept, form
division and choice of manufacturing and assembly processes
A condition for being able to choose an optimum manufacturing
process is that the best possible agreement can be achieved
between the design and the process requirements. This means that
the order shown in Figure 3.5 form concept, choice of
manufacturing and assembly processes, design of details-must be
understood, bearing in mind that first the form concepts are drawn
up, then the process possibilities are examined, and finally the
form concept and the processes are chosen as far as possible
simultaneously. It is thus usually not enough to adjust the detailed
form to the process, if an optimum product is to emerge.
The problem of choosing the manufacturing process before the
design of the details has been taken too far often occurs in
discussions between the designer and the process technician. The
former often tends to forget the manufacturing process so that the
latter has no possibility of optimizing his contribution. The ideal
would be if the process technician could come into the picture
early so that he could take part in assessing the form concepts at
the first stage.
In a possible discussion of proposals for alterations based on the
manufacturing process, the idea of functional surfaces is valuable.
A functional surface can only be altered if other alterations are
made simultaneously elsewhere in the system, while an alteration
of the areas between the functional surfaces can be made with
much greater freedom.
As a rule the designer must have an intimate knowledge of the
manufacturing processes available. The fact that (in the bigger
firms) there may be process technicians who can assist in the
detailed design does not excuse the designer from knowing
intimately the existing processes. The designer must know about
the form geometries that can be created with a given process,
including the tools and fixings.
He must also know what materials can be used in the process and
the tolerances, which can be achieved, and the surface finish.
Using this information as a background the designer must be able
to design his object so that it is cheap to manufacture.
How in practice is it possible to choose the best possible form
concept and manufacturing process? Obviously this can only be
done from a number of criteria which may be divided into the

following categories: feasibility, economics and operator

situation.
3.2.1 The Manufacturing Process: How Feasibility affects?
The factors concerning feasibility in connection with the choice of
process are as follows:
• Form geometry
• Material
• Size/Dimensions
• Surface requirements
• Tolerance requirements
• Form (availability) of input materials.
The first three factors decide whether a given process is possible.
Each process has its own characteristics and limitations, as shown
in Figure 3.8. When initially considering various processes one
should not choose those at the extremes, so that the size is
theoretically possible but in practice difficult to achieve.
Figure 3.8 Possibilities concerning form geometry and

dimensions that can be realized by turning

Figure 3.9 Bearings bracket where the forces acting on it

during manufacture have been taken into consideration, so
that the tolerances can be maintained.
The factors of surface and tolerance requirements must also be
included when choosing the process. It is not enough that these
requirements can theoretically be met, but they must also apply to
the specific object. The example in figure 3.9 shows a bearing
bracket, the design of which is suited to the forces that act on it
during production. The only purpose the stiffening rib serves, in
this case, is to restrict the flexibility during the production
sufficiently for the desired tolerances to be achieved.
The last factor mentioned in the list is the form of the materials
used. It is necessary that the required materials exist or can be
obtained in the desired form.
3.2.2 The Manufacturing Process; How the Economics
involved in the choice of process affects?
Economic factors in connection with the choice of process are:
• The number of processes required
• Materials: supply, price, quantity or own manufacture
• Quantities to be produced
• Machinery
• Investment in new machinery
• Special tools
An object may be produced directly in one process, or in several
successive processes. The economics of the manufacture depend
on which and how many processes must be gone through before
the object is finished. One must also consider the necessary
transport, handling and 'fixings' between the separate processes.
The availability of the desired materials must be examined. It
should be decided whether they can be bought in the required
form, and under what conditions, or whether the company itself
must produce them.
The quantity in which the object is to be produced is decisive
when deciding which manufacturing processes will be economic.
Processes that require big investments in tools and machinery
(e.g. turning, milling and welding) are well suited to the

production of multiple objects or series of objects. Figure 4.15

shows an example of this. As already mentioned, the last three
factors machinery, investment in new machinery and special tools
are closely connected with the quantities to be produced.
3.2.3 The Manufacturing Process: How the operator situation

affects?
At the same time as an object is designed and a process decided
on, a job for an operator is laid down. This must be done as a
conscious effort, where the operator's situation is used to
influence the form design and the choice of process. One must
ensure that the operator can carry out the process appropriately
without unnecessary workload and risk and, for instance, without
unnecessary demands for precision or speed.
But even if in principle the operator's conditions may be allowed
for, there is still a decisive factor remaining. Does the company
has the necessary know-how, can others be trained, or must new
workers be employed?
3.2.4 The Manufacturing Process: How Economics of the
detailed design affects?
After the form concept and the manufacturing process are chosen
according to the criteria of feasibility, economics and operator
situation, there is still the detailed design to be decided (see
Figure 3.5). The last task is to design the details in such a way that
the object can be manufactured in the most suitable way by the
chosen process, and that the desired function may be sufficiently
well realized.
Form design guidelines for all the usual processes can be found in
the specialist literature, and therefore the characteristics of the
various processes will not be discussed here. A few general
guidelines can, however, be laid down for making an economic
form design. They are:
• Number and nature of fixings

• Number and nature of tools
• Number and extent of processes
• Accessibility for tools
• Consumption of materials

These guidelines are illustrated in Figure 3.10 to 3.12. Figure 3.13
shows a complete example in which many of the economically
important factors are mentioned.
Number and Nature of Fixing
Consumption of
Material
Accessibility for
Tools

Figure 3.10 Form designs that take into account the economics
of production.
Number and extent of Process

Figure 3.11 Form designs that take into account the

economics of production
Number and Nature of Tools

Figure 3.12 Form designs that take into account the

economics of production

Figure 3.13 Three versions of a threaded spindle

corresponding to different product quantities. The most
important economic factors are listed.
3.2.5 The Manufacturing Process: How Assembly affects?
The close connection between the assembly process and the
manufacturing processes is illustrated in the following examples.
The assessments that must be made before choosing an assembly
process are (as in the case of the manufacturing process)
feasibility, economics and situation of the operator, and the factors
are completely parallel to the factors in choosing the
manufacturing process.
Figure 3.14 shows examples from a photocopier where the
prototype and the final machine are compared. The illustration
shown in the top, explains the way in which the number of
operations in fitting a mirror can be reduced if one goes to the
expense of a die cast tool. The lower illustration shows an
example of how a traditional way of fitting a pin can be simplified
if the assembly process is carefully thought out.
After the assembly process has been chosen (and the
manufacturing process as well) the product details must be
designed in such a way that an optimum assembly can be
achieved. As a check the following list of general sub-operations
in assembly may be used:
Recognize Line up
Grasp Fit in
Move to contact area Move along contact area
Orientate Secure

Figure 3.14 Comparison between form design details

in a prototype and the final version. Above, fixing a mirror to
a frame; below, fixing a cog wheel on an axle
Figure 3.15 Form design details that illustrate how

the assembly is taken into account.
Figure 3.15 shows examples of the way in which some sub-
operations can be made easier by the form designs. These
considerations apply whether the assembly is manual or
automatic.

Figure 3.16 Form design details that ensure a stop button is
fitted in the correct position
Figure 3.16 shows the assembly of a stop button in an electric
switch. On the button is printed the word STOP, and in order to
ensure that it is put on the right way up, the bottom is designed
with a groove that corresponds to a knob on the edge of the hole.
3.3 DESIGN FOR CASTINGS:

The material of paramount importance for general engineering
purpose is cast iron. It is also one of the shortest routes from raw
material to finished product.
Figure 3.17 Conventional Sand Casting Process

Basically the molding and casting operation consists of packing
sand around a pattern (which resembles the unmachined casting),
removing the pattern from the mold and assembling the sections
of the mold, pouring metal and removing & cleaning the casting.
The mold is usually in two parts and the pattern or part-pattern is
seated on board or is mounted on a plate when each part of the
mold is produced. (Fig 3.17). Heat is extracted through mold (in
this case sand mold), and the molten metal solidifies into the final
solid shape. This seemingly simple process can be quite complex
metallurgically, since the metal undergoes a complete excursion
from the superheated molten state to the solid state.
The problems associated with sand-casting can be identified as
(a) Manufacture of the mold
(b) The behaviour of the metal during pouring, solidification
and cooling in the solid state.
(c) The fettling of casting

In addition to these problems, the cost of producing and

machining the casting must be considered. Features that increase
the cost of molding and fettling and those demand additional
machining should be avoided. Hollow castings can be produced
by including a sand core to restrict the shape into which the metal
can flow(Fig 3.17), but if the core is a separate piece the cost of
molding will increase. Therefore although a characteristic of sand
casting is its ability to produce hollow, box like shapes, a less
complicated shape should used if possible.
Design considerations in Casting:
3.3.1 Design to simplify molding:
(i) Location and Shape of Joint Surface:
Fig 3.18 Casting that Fig 3.19 Casting that

requires cranked joint line requires a straight joint line
The joint surface between sections of the mold must be such that
the pattern can be removed after the moulding has been done. As
this form the surface upon which the pattern, or part-pattern will
sit at the start of the molding it should, if possible be a plane
surface.
Fig 3.18 shows a casting that can only be produced by splitting
the mould in the direction shown but which, because of the
position of the circular flange, require a cranked joint line. When
the flange is repositioned, as shown in Fig 3.19, the joint line is
straight and the pattern can be seated on a plane surface
simplifying the molding operation and enabling higher degree of
accuracy to be obtained.
(ii) Draw Angles & Reentrant Shapes:

Fig 3.20 Function of the Fig 3.21 Casting that requires

draw angle a three part mold
Surfaces that would lie exactly in the direction of pattern

withdrawal are inclined slightly by a small angle known as the
draw angle as shown in Fig. 3.20 to prevent the impression being
scuffled by the pattern as it is withdrawn from the mold. The
designer should specify both the angle and the location.
Re-entrant shapes should, if possible be avoided because they
require special arrangements to enable the pattern to be removed.
This increases the cost of molding and the accuracy of casting.
For example, if the casting under consideration included the
flange as shown in Fig 3.21, the pattern and the mould would
need to be split in two places, requiring three part mould, so that
the pattern could be removed.
(iii) Location of Bosses:
Fig 3.22 Casting with large Fig 3.23 Casting with single
number of bosses facing
Bosses are often included to cut down the amount of machining
that is required, by reducing the machined surface area, as an
alternative to localizing by spot facing. Every boss that lies on an
upper, horizontal face will require a riser to allow air to escape
and so ensure that a complete casting is produced.
These additional risers will increase the molding time and also the
fettling time because the metal in them will have to be removed.
Therefore introduction of more bosses will become uneconomical.
Fig.3.23 illustrates a casting that includes a single facing instead
such a large number of bosses.

3.3.2 Design to control the behavior of the metal during the

sand casting process:
In order to appreciate the relationship between casting design and
the behaviour of the metal, the pouring and solidification of metal
will be briefly discussed here. To ensure continuity and
completeness the molten metal should reach all parts of the mold
before the solidification starts. The molten metal in the runners
and risers will act as feeders for this purpose. Upon cooling metal,
non-metal consists of grains and grain boundaries as shown in Fig
3.24. Figure illustrates three main types of grain (in thick casting).
The structure that consists of small
grains (fine structure) is stronger than
one that consists of large grains (coarse
structure). A fine structure is produced
by rapid solidification and a coarse
structure by slow solidification. The
solidification is controlled by; (a) the
mould material, (b) the mould
Fig.3.24 Types of grain in thickness, (c) the mould temperature
a thick casting and the (d) thickness of the casting
being produced
(i) Section thickness:
Fig 3.25 Casting design that Fig 3.26 Casting design that
produces shrinkage defects prevents shrinkage defects
It has already been stated that the contraction of molten metal
during solidification will be allowed for supply from
runners/risers, and it will be appreciated that a thicker section
requires more molten metal to allow for contraction than does a
thin section.
This causes problem when it is necessary to feed a thick section
through a thin section. The metal in the thin section will solidify
before that in the thick section, cutting of supply of molten metal
and producing shrinkage defect as shown in Fig.3.25. Fig. 3.26

shows how the casting can be redesigned to prevent the defect
from occurring.
Fig 3.27 Casting with Heavy Fig 3.28 Casting supporting

section Riband rigidity,
Instead of making a casting thicker to obtain strength
it may often be made of larger ‘outside’ shape and hollow to
reduce the section thickness. Similarly the thick section shown in
Fig. 3.27 can be replaced by rib as in Fig. 3.28 to obtain local
support.
Fig 3.29 Tall Bosses Causing Fig 3.30 Modified Design to

Heavy Section avoid Heavy Section
The tall bosses on the flange in Fig. 3.29 can be modified as

shown in Fig.3.30 to combine height with uniform section.
(ii) The junction of wall sections and of ribs with wall sections:
Fig 3.31 Design causing plane Fig 3.32 Design to eliminate

of weakness and hot spot plane of weakness and hot spot
s
The effect of section thickness, and also the variation of grain
shape shown in Fig. 3.24, must be considered when the casting
includes junctions. Fig. 3.31 illustrates how plane of weakness is
produced when two sections join at right angles, and Fig 3.32

illustrates how this can be eliminated by making the surface

curved at the intersection.
Fig 3.33 Design to further Fig 3.34 Design to blend

In addition to the weakness associated with the thickness
reduce and hot spot different sections
grain shape, the
sharp angle at the inside of the casting (Fig. 3.31) causes the part
of the casting to solidify more slowly because the heat cannot
escape so easily in to the core producing a hot spot.
This is reduced considerably in the design shown in Fig 3.32, but
is further reduced by making the section locally thinner, as shown
in Fig. 3.33. When it is necessary to design a casting having
different wall thickness, there should be gradual changes as
shown in Fig. 3.34.
Fig 3.35 Design that causes hot Fig 3.36 Design to minimize
spot hotspot
s
The hotspot effect is made worse when sections and ribs join at
acute angle as in Fig. 3.35. The acute angle junction can be
retained if the shape is opened out as shown in Fig. 3.36.
Fig 3.37 The inscribed circle system

Fig 3.38 Cored Boss Fig 3.39 Junction with

local depression
The extent of the variation of
metal mass produced at junctions
can be indicated by the inscribed
circle system. (Fig 3.37) in which
the mass at the junction
(represented by ‘D’) is compare
with that of the sections that join
(represented by ‘d’). It will be
seen that the variation increases as
Fig 3.40 Local depressions and the number of sections that meet
staggered joints increases and as the angle of the
junction becomes more acute.
The mass at the junction can be reduced by using cored boss, as
shown in Fig. 3.38. But introduction of core increases the cost of
moulding operation. An alternative is to reduce the thickness by a
local depression as shown in Fig. 3.39, and to combine this with
staggering when sever ribs are involved as shown in Fig 3.40.
(iii) Bosses and section thickness:
Fig 3.41 Boss causing hot spot Fig 3.42 Modified Boss
The section thickness will be increased where boss is present. The

effect is unnecessarily great if the boss is considered as a short
cylinder projecting from the main body of the casting, to which it
is blended by a fillet (Fig. 3.41). The hotspot effect and

unnecessary local thickness can be eliminated by reducing the

height of the boss and making the fillet form such that a more
gradual change in thickness is produced (Fig. 3.42).
(iv) Separate Cores:
Fig 3.43 Badly designed core Fig 3.44 Correctly designed core
When separate cores have to be used, gas from the molten metal
should be allowed to escape through them in the same way as it is
allowed to escape through the mould. This can only occur if the
cores extend into or beyond the mold. Fig. 3.43 shows a design in
which the core is badly vented and the core sand awkward to
remove. Fig. 3.44 shows a variation in the design eliminating
these problems.
(iv) Prevention of stresses and possible fracture during cooling
in the solid state:
Fig 3.45 Ribs that may crack Fig 3.46 Rib arrangement that
during cooling will absorb contraction
Contraction of solid metal as it cools to room temperature cannot
be avoided and so the casting must be deigned with this in mind.
For example, when a casting is ribbed to combine stiffness with
minimum weight there is a tendency for the ribs to crack as a
result of contraction when they are arranged as in Fig. 3.45. This
cracking can be avoided by arranging them as shown in Fig. 3.46.

Fig 3.47 Spokes that may Fig 3.48 Spoke arrangement

crack during cooling that will absorb contraction
The above design consideration may be extended to include the
spokes of a ring (for example a cast spoked flywheel). When there
is even number of spokes, as shown in Fig. 3.47, distortion during
the cooling will cause cracking; but when there is an odd number
of curved spokes as in Fig. 3.48, each one can take up a greater or
smaller curvature, depending upon the distortion, without itself
cracking or causing crack elsewhere.
3.3.3 Design considerations in Die-Casting:
(i) Tapers: Surfaces that would lie
exactly in the direction in which the
dies move to release the casting
should be inclined at an angle known
as taper (Similar to draw angle in
sand casting) so that the casting can
Fig 3.49 Location of Taper be rapidly removed from the die
without scuffing. (Fig 3.49)
(ii) Re-entrant Shapes:
Fig 3.50 Design that Fig 3.51 Design that does not
requires a collapsible core requires a collapsible core
Castings should be designed without reentrant shapes. For
example, the casting shown in Fig 3.50 has an internal flange
which requires a collapsible core. The version shown in Fig 3.51
can be easily produced.
iii) Bosses and Reentrant Effects:

Fig 3.52 Internal Bosses Fig 3.53 External Bosses

Fig 3.52 shows a box-like casting with bosses that are placed on
the inside to produce clean external shape. This shape requires
reentrant shapes which demand collapsible core. By placing
bosses on outside as shown in Fig 3.53 there will be no core
problems.
iv) Design to avoid retracting cores:
Fig 3.54 Incorrectly Fig 3.55 Correctly designed

designed elbow piece elbow piece
Fig 3.54 shows an elbow piece that could be produced by a sand
core but could not be produced by the metal cores that are
necessary when pressure die casting because of the shape at ‘A’.
Fig 3.55 shows how the inside shape can be modified to enable
the cores to be withdrawn from the finished casting.
v) Core Support:

Fig 3.56 Design that Fig 3.57 Design that allows

requires unsupported core core to be supported
When a long slender core is used to produce holes (as shown in
Fig 3.56) it should, if possible, be supported by the mating die so
that it does not deflect during the injection of the metal, causing in
accuracy or making it difficult to remove the finished casting.
This can be only done by making the hole through hole as shown
in Fig 3.57 which will enable the core to be supported at both
ends.
3.4 DESIGN FOR HOT METAL WORKING - FORGING:
Forging involves hitting material using hammer (manually or by
machine) or squeezing it using a press. Simple tools are used
when small quantities are required and dies are used for large
quantities. (Closed die forging, drop forging or stamping). Forging
is a bulk deformation process in which a solid billet is forced
under high pressure to undergo extensive plastic deformation in to
a final near to finished shape.
Because of extensive plastic deformation that occurs in forging,
the metal undergoes metallurgical changes and develops a fibre
structure as shown in Fig 3.59. This mechanical fibering
introduces directionality to the structure sensitive properties such
as ductility, fatigue strength, and fracture toughness.
(ST)
(LT)
(L)
Fig 3.58 Schematic of Closed Die forging – Block Die
The principal direction of (long axis of bar) working is known as

longitudinal direction (L). The short transverse direction (ST) is
the minimum dimension of the forging such as thickness of a plate
like shape. The long transverse (LT) direction is perpendicular
both to longitudinal and short-transverse direction. (Refer Fig
3.58)

Fig 3.59 Closed Die forging – Formation of Flash
Design Considerations in forging:

3.4.1 Grain Fibre Direction:
The development of grain fibre direction should coincide with
that of the major stress when the product is in service. The
direction of grain fibre depends on the shape of the die cavity. In
order to obtain the required grain fibre direction, the shape of the
forging may differ quite considerably from that of a finished
product. Manufacturing involving a forging involves removal of
metal to obtain the required shape and accuracy. The change of
grain fibre direction should not be abrupt; otherwise regions of
weakness and stress concentration will be produced.
3.4.2 Separation of forging from Dies:
The location of the parting line between the two sections of the
die must be such that the forging will not be trapped. Also there
must be no reentrant features and surfaces that would lie exactly
in the direction of the die and forging movement must be inclined
at an angle called draft angle. (Fig 3.60). The normal draft angle
on external surfaces is 5° to 7° and for internal surfaces it is 7° to
10°.
Fig 3.60 Closed Die forging – Schematic of Finishing Die

3.4.3 Location of Parting Line:
The location of parting line produces more problems than casting.
This is because of unpredictable flow of metal due to greater
volume of metal is placed between the upper and lower die than is
required in the finished forging. (Refer Fig 3.58 and 3.59). The
excess metal is allowed to flow out through the flash lane and into
the gutter to form a flash that is later removed. The forging design
should be such that the location of parting line ensures that the
product is of a shape to suit its manufacture and has the required
directional strength.
Fig 3.61 Example of desirable and undesirable location of

parting line – Case 1
Fig 3.62 Example of undesirable and desirable location of




The depth of recessesparting line
in the die – Case
into which4 the material must flow
will affect the orientation of the forging with respect to the parting
line as shown in Fig 3.61 (Case 1) the aim being to minimize the
depth to which the material must flow. The deep impression also
requires high forging pressure for complete filling and might lead
to breakage.
For optimum economy the parting line should be kept in a single
plane, since that will make the forging less costly. Because the
forging fiber is unavoidably cut through when the flash is
trimmed, the parting line is best placed where minimum stresses
arise in the service performance of the forging. Fig 3.62 to Fig
3.64 illustrates variety of simple shapes and the correct and
incorrect parting line locations.
Case 2 and 3 represent unsymmetrical parts in which the parting
line and the forging plane are no longer coincident. The forging
plane must be perpendicular to the direction of ram travel. When
the parting line is not in one plane as in Case 2 or 3, die
construction is more costly. Some time the most economical
solution is to produce non-symmetrical part is to build a die with
two cavities in mirror imaging positions. A good rule in forging
die design is to locate the parting line near the central height of
the part. That avoids deep impression in either top or bottom die.
When parts are dished or hollow as shown in Fig 3.64 (Case 4)
they may not produce the best strength because a centrally located
parting line interrupts the grain flow. In this case, the satisfactory
location of parting line provides the least expensive design
because only top half of the die requires the impression. However
the most desirable grain flow pattern is produced when the parting
lone is at the top of the dish.
3.4.4 Corner and Fillet Radii:

Fig 3.65 Example of fillet formation in closed die forging

Corner and fillet radii should be as generous as possible as the
service of the product permits. As Fig 3.65 (Type A) illustrates
fillet can be sharper when the metal flows away from them is
more than the metal that flows toward them. In the same figure in
Type B situation, the metal is in danger of folding back on itself to
produce a defect known as a Lap. In general 6.4 mm fillet radius
is the absolute minimum for high strength materials.
To produce sharper radius the forging will have to be done in
several steps. As a general rule one additional die impression is
required to reduce the fillet radius by 50 %. Generally corner radii
are not as critical as that of fillets. The minimum corner radius is
about one half of the minimum fillet radius.
3.4.5 General Design Considerations:
• The thickness of flash must be large enough to ensure that

the die cavities are filled before metal escapes.
• The flash thickness is related to the weight of the forging
(it increases with forging weight) and to the thickness of
webs in forging. (no webs that are thinner than flash can be
produced).
• Whenever possible in the design of forgings, it is desirable

to maintain all adjacent sections as uniform as possible.
Rapid changes in section thickness should be avoided.
• Laps and cracks are most likely where metal flow changes
because of large differences in the bulk of sections.
• The machining envelope is the excess metal that must be
removed to bring the forging to the finished size.
• The ultimate in precision forging is the net shape forging in
which the machining allowance is zero.

• Generally, however allowance must be made for removing

surface scales (oxides), and correcting warpage.
• Allowance must be also given to remove mismatch (where

upper and lower dies shit parallel to the parting plane), and
for dimensional mistakes due to thermal contraction or die
wear.
3.5 DESIGN FOR COLD METAL WORKING - SHEET

METAL FORMING:
The cold working improves the dimensional and surface accuracy
o the material and also causes work-hardening. Components are
often produced from cold rolled sheet metal using presswork.
Presswork can be broadly classified into (i) Cutting Operations
and (ii) Non-cutting operations. Piercing is a cutting operation
that produces holes in the work piece and blanking is a cutting
operation that cuts the work piece from the sheet – these
operations are generally combined.
The principal non-cutting operations can be classified into two
groups. One group consists of forming and bending; the other
group consists of operations in which the sheet metal is pushed to
form a Cylinder or Can like part (the operation that produces
shallow cylinders are called cupping and the operation that
produces cylinders that are deep in depth are called deep
drawing).
Components produced by presswork are basically of simple shape
compared to those produced by operations such as forging,
casting and machining. Presswork is ideal for manufacturing of
tab-washers, clips, cup-like containers etc.
Design Considerations in sheet metal forming:
3.5.1 Stiffening of Sheet Metal Parts:

Fig 3.66 Bracket stiffened Fig 3.67 Ribs formed to stiffen

The lack of stiffness
by forming associated with sheet ametal
a rib can be overcome
flat sheet
by the shape of the product. For example, a reasonably stiff shelf
bracket can be obtained by forming it to produce a rib as shown in
Fig 3.66. A flat sheet can be stiffened by introducing number of
ribs as shown in Fig 3.67 or by corrugating it. This increases the
stiffness in one direction only. To increase the stiffness in the
second direction additional ribs may be introduced. .
3.5.2 The manufacture of Die-set:
The cost of manufacturing die-set depends upon the complexity of
the product, which should therefore be as simple as possible.
Apparently minor changes can considerably reduce the cost of
Die-set. For example, the rounded end shown in Fig 3.68 requires
Fig 3.68 Unsuitable Fig 3.69 Suitable

Profile Profile
Fig 3.70 Compromise Fig 3.71 Compromise

Profile Profile with radii
more costly die set than does the square end shown in Fig 3.69;
the 45° chamfers shown in Fig 3.70 is a compromise. When
rounded ends are essential it must be remembered that the
tangential radii shown in Fig 3.70 cost more than the one shown
in Fig 3.71.

Fig 3.72 Pressing with Fig 3.73 Pressing with

Thetwo
diedirectional
cost can be reduced by designing
forming the product
single directional so that it
forming
can be produced using the minimum number of forming
operations as illustrated in Fig 3.72 and 3.73.
3.5.3 The behaviour of metal during its manipulation:
The cold rolling done to prepare the
sheet metal for presswork increases the
directional effect by deforming the
grains. The directional properties of
these grains should be taken into
account when designing parts that are
Fig 3.74 Sheet Metal produced by bending. Consider the
Component component shown in Fig 3.74.
Fig 3.75 Piercing and Blanking Layout
If the material is blanked prior to bending using the layout shown

by ‘A’ in Fig 3.75 there will be no trouble. But if blanked using
the layout shown by ‘B’ in Fig 3.75 it will probably split when
bent because the line of the bend lies in the same direction s the
grain fibre. In this example the problem is overcome by using a
suitable blanking layout.

Fig 3.76 Pressing that Fig 3.77 Re-designed

would be troublesome Pressing
A component such as the one shown in Fig 3.76 causes problems

because it has two tabs, one of which must be in an unfavorable
position; but by changing the design to that shown in Fig 3.77 the
problem is eliminated.
Fig 3.78 Pressing that Fig 3.79 Re-designed Fig 3.80 Re-designed
would tear Pressing Pressing
Abrupt bends should be avoided because they tend to produce

stress concentration. Similarly the metal will tear when bent to for
the tab shown in Fig 3.78. The tearing will not occur if relief
notches shown in Fig 3.79 are introduced or if the form is
modified to that shown in Fig 3.80.
3.5.4 The separation of pressed part from the die-set:
Fig 3.81 Pressing that would be Fig 3.82 Redesigned

difficult to remove from the die Pressing

Fig 3.83 Awkward Fig 3.84 Redesigned

Pressing Pressing
The pressing should be designed in such a way that it can be
easily removed from the die-set. For example the pressing shown
in Fig 3.81 is more difficult to remove from the die-set than that
shown in Fig 3.82. Similarly the pressing shown in Fig 3.83 can
be produced by forming the two flanges with two slide tools, but
it must be slid from the punch by the operator. The modified
version shown in Fig 3.84 has two external flanges that can be
formed by bending before the U-bend is done. (a double acting
press is used) and the completed pressing is removed from the
punch during its upward movement by a stripper plate.
3.5.5 General Design Considerations:
• It may be les expensive to construct a component from

several simple parts than to make an intricate blanked part.
Blanking with sharp corners are expensive to produce.
• The layout of the blanks on the sheet should be such as to
minimize scrap loss. As Fig 3.85 illustrates, a simple change
in design can often greatly improve the material utilization
Component
Scrap Area
Fig 3.85 Design to minimize scrap loss
• The usual tolerances for blanked parts are ± 0.076 mm.

• When holes are punched in sheet, only part of the metal
thickness is sheared cleanly; a hole with tapered side is
created. If a punched hole is to be used as a bearing surface,
then subsequent operation will be required to obtain parallel
walls.

• Diameter of punched holes should not be less than thickness

of the sheet or a minimum of 0.635mm. Smaller holes results
in excessive punch breakage and should be produced by
drilling.
• The minimum distance between the holes or between a hole
and the edge of the sheet should be at least equal to the
thickness of the sheet.
≥t
≥t
• Figare
If holes 3.86 Minimum
to be threadedDistance
the sheetof Holes must be at least
thickness
one-half of the thread diameter.
• The greatest formability in bending is obtained when then
bend is made across (perpendicular) the metal grain.(Refer
Fig 3.75)
• The largest bend radius should be used and the bend radius
should not be less than the sheet thickness‘t’.
• The total length of the sheet required for bending is the sum
of two legs plus bend allowance. The bend allowance
depends upon how much the metal stretches on bending,
which is function of the angles of bend (A) and bend radius
(r).
Bent Bent
Bending Die material material
r
A
Leg
Length
Bend
Allowance

Fig 3.87 Bend Allowance, Bend Angle and Bend Radius
• After bending and upon release of the load, the bent materials
springs back and both the angle of bend and bend radius
increases. Therefore to compensate for the springback, the
metal must bend to a smaller angel and sharer radius so that
when the metal springs back it is at desired values.
Springback becomes more severe with increasing yield
Punch load
strength and section thickness. Spring back after
removed removal of load
Fig 3.88 Springback after removal of load

3.6 DESIGN FOR JOINING - WELDING:
Fig 3.89 Classification of Welding Processes

Welding is the most prominent process for joining complex parts.
Fabrication by welding, as an alternative to production by casting
or by working and by machining has become important during
recent years. The different types of welding processes can be
classified as shown in the Fig 3.89.
Design Considerations in welding:
3.6.1 Selection of material and electrode:
When selecting the parent material of a weld joint the following
points should be considered. Material selection for welding
involves choosing a material with high weldability. Weldability is
a complex technological property that combines many basic
properties such as melting point, specific heat and latent heat of
fusion, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion etc.
The melting point of the material, together with the specific heat
and latent heat of fusion will determine the heat input necessary to
produce fusion. A high thermal conductivity allows heat to
dissipate and therefore required high rate of heat input. Also
metals with high thermal conductivity result in more rapid cooling
and hence result in problems with weld cracking. Greater
distortion result from high thermal expansion, with residual
stresses and greater danger of welding.
The electrodes that are used in electric arc welding are specified
with a code such as E60XX. The last two digits indicate the type
of welding application, and the two digits immediately following
E indicate the tensile strength of the weld metal in kips per square
inch. (ksi).
According to the tensile strength required and how the welding is
going to be applied an appropriate electrode can be selected. For
example, E 7024 electrode has a 70 ksi tensile strength and is
intended for ac or dc electric arc welding for steel fillet welds in
the horizontal or flat position.
3.6.2 The Design of Weld Joint:
The basic types of weld joints and the variations of the basic types
are shown below. (Fig. 3.90 to Fig 3.93)

Corner Joint
Edge Joint
Fig 3.90 Basic types of welded joints
Fig 3.91 Variations of Butt Joints
Fig 3.92 Variations of Tee joints

Fig 3.93 Variations of Corner joints
The types of weld joints that can be used for particular type of
applications are shown below. (Fig. 3.94 to Fig 3.98)
Fig 3.94 Welds used when plate thickness are unequal
Fig 3.95 Flank Fillet Weld Fig 3.96 Ring Fillet Weld to
to join plates join a shaft and plate

Fig 3.97 Slot welds and plug welds to join plates (flank fillet weld is
preferred over this type. To be avoided unless required)
Fig 3.98 Types of Box Section welding
Fig 3.99 Types of ribs to be provided when welding large walls
Vulnerable
point
a b
Fig 3.100 Dish End Welding (Weld should not be placed at
vulnerable points, ‘a’ – wrong, ‘b’ - right)
3.6.3 General Design Considerations of welding:
• A square edged butt joint (Fig 3.101) requires minimum edge

preparation. However an important parameter in controlling
weld cracking is the ratio of the width (w) of the weld bead to
the depth (d) of the weld bead. It should be close to unity.
Since narrow weld joints with deep weld pools are susceptible
to cracking, the most economical solution is to spend
machining money to shape the edges of the plate to produce a
joint with more acceptable width to depth ratio.
w

Fig 3.101 Square Edged Butt Joint

• Ideally a butt weld should be full penetration weld that fills
the joints completely throughout its depth. When the gap in a
butt weld is wide, a backing strip (Fig 3.102) is used at the
bottom of the joint.
Backing Strip
Fig 3.102 Backing Strip
• Welds are made with weld metal ‘reinforcement’ (Fig 3.103)

that extends above or below the surface of the base metal
plate. Some Designers believe that this increases the strength
of the joint and compensate for any weld imperfection.
However these reinforcements serve as a stress concentration
under fatigue loading. Therefore reinforcements on welds
should not be used when the welds are subjected to fatigue
loading.
Weld
Reinforcement
Fig 3.103 Full penetration Butt Weld with Reinforcement
• Fillet welds are the welds most commonly used in structural

design. They are inherently weaker than full penetration butt
welds. A fillet weld fails in shear at the weld throat, (as shown
Fig 3.104) given by 0.707h and American Welding Society
code allows a shearing yield strength of 30% of the tensile
strength designation of an electrode. Thus for an E60XX
electrode the load carrying capacity of a fillet weld is = 0.30
(60) (0.707h) kips/sq.inch.

Fig 3.104 Fillet Weld in a Lap Joint

• Since welding involves rapid application of heat in a
localized area and rapid removal of heat/cooling, distortion is
ever present. One of the best ways to eliminate the welding
distortion is to design the welding sequence. An example
sequence or a step-by-step welding principle is shown below.
(Fig 3.105)
Fig 3.105 Welding Sequence
• If because of the Geometry of the part to be welded, the

welding distortion cannot be avoided, then the forces that
produce the distortion should be balanced with other forces
provided by clamps and fixtures.
3.6.4 General rules of Welding:
1. Do not attempt copy blindly from cast, riveted and forged

designs.
2. Provide a straight line force pattern as far as possible.
3. Avoid laps, straps, and stiffening angles.
4. Use Butt Welds as far as possible.
5. Limit the number of welds used.
6. Make sure that ends to be welded are equal thickness.
7. Avoid placing welds in vulnerable sections.
8. Avoid using welding fixtures as far as possible.
9. Provide easy access to welds.
10. Carefully consider the sequence with which the oarts to be
welded together and include the information in the drawing.

11. Use horizontal and fillet welding. Try to avoid overhead
welding.
12. Avoid subjecting welds to bending loads.
13.Distribute heavy loading over long welds in the longitudinal
direction.
14. Do not position the weld at the point of maximum deflection.
15.Make sure that the working drawing contains the relevant and
necessary information such as details of weld quality, weld
form, weld length etc.
3.7 DESIGN FOR MACHINING:

Machining operations represent the most versatile and most
common manufacturing processes. Practically every part is
subjected to some kind of machining operation in its final
finishing stages of manufacture. There is wide variety of
machining processes with which the designer should be familiar.
The classification of machining processes according to translation
and rotation of tool or work piece is shown below in Fig 3.106 &
Fig. 3.107

Fig 3.106 Classification according to work piece rotation
Fig 3.107 Classification according to tool translation/rotation

The operations and machines that can be used to generate flat

surfaces are shown below.
Table 3.1
The operations and machines that can be used to generate external

cylindrical surfaces are shown below.
Table 3.2
The operations and machines that can be used to generate internal

cylindrical surfaces are shown below.
Table 3.3

Design considerations for machining:

3.7.1 Design to suit the relative work piece:
The shape to be produced by machining must be such that it can
be obtained by the work piece and cutting tool movements of the
machines that are available. For example the basic movements of
a lathe are rotation of the work piece and linear movement of the
cutting tool. This movement may be parallel to axis of rotation or
right angle to it. Other cutting tool movements can be obtained by
setting the machine slides or by using a copying system. Shapes
that can be directly produced by the basic movements of the
machines are the most convenient and those requiring the copying
systems are least convenient. The order of preference regarding
shape to suit lathe work is as follows.
Fig 3.108 First Choice of Shape Fig 3.109 Second Choice of

(i) First for lathe The
Choice: workfirst choice (Fig 3.108)
Shapeisfor
a lathe
shapework
that
consists of concentric cylindrical surfaces. (D1, D2 and D3) that are
right angle to the axis ( R, S and T) with the recesses, chamfers
(W, X, Y and Z) etc. that can be produced using form tools and
basic movements. Screw Threads are a special case of cylindrical
surfaces.
(ii) Second Choice: The second choice includes concentric
conical surfaces (A and B of Fig 3.109) that are too long to be
produced by a form tool because of chatter problems. These
require setting of compound slide, the use of taper turning
attachment, or the setting over the tail stock, to obtain a cutting
tool movement that is inclined to axis.

Fig 3.110 Third Choice of Fig 3.111 Fourth Choice of

shape for lathe work shape for lathe work
(iii) Third Choice: Cylindrical Features that are eccentric with
respect to the main axis (Fig 3.110) require the setting over of the
workpiece so that the axis of the eccentric features coincides with
that of the machine (refer dimension E). this requires additional
machining operation, or operations, and either individual setting
or use of fixtures. The problem of the workpiece being out of
balance should also be considered.
(iv) Fourth Choice: Surfaces that involve a frequent or
continuous change of cutting tool direction usually cannot be
obtained by the basic machine movements or by changes in
setting. Form tools can be used if the surface is short, or if long
contour is broken by recesses to enable short contact form tools to
be used without inevitable step between each section of the
contour. A long contour shown in Fig 3.111 can only be produced
by one cutting tool with its movement controlled by a copying
system.
Function controls the shape but the problem can be minimized if
considered at the initial design stages.
3.7.2 Design to suit location, seating and clamping:
Fig 3.112 Double Fig 3.113 Design for Fig 3.114 Further
Cone Component location/clamping Improved design
The basic requirements that must be met before a workpiece is

machined are
• that it is located with respect to the path of the cutting tool (or
its own path with respect to the cutting tool)

• that it is seated so that it does not deflect under the cutting

forces and
• that it is clamped with sufficient force to prevent it from
moving during machining.
Ideally a location point or points should be established at the first
machining operation and be used at all subsequent operations. If a
suitable location feature is not part of the basic design of a part it
may be necessary to introduce one to assist in machining.
Similarly although a part may not have to be seated upon
assembly it may be necessary to introduce a suitable feature for
seating and clamping at the machining operations.
For example Fig 3.112 shows a double cone component with slot
S that is to be milled in a later operation. At the milling operation
it could be located from one cone (although variation of its
diameter will cause axial variation) and clamped from the other.
The design shown in Fig 3.113 includes a cylindrical feature that
can be used for location and clamping and that in Fig 3.114
includes a cylindrical hole that can be used for location and a
flange that can be used for seating and clamping.
3.7.3 Design to suit cutting tool approach:
Fig 3.115 shows a part of a component that includes a large
conical hole. The hole must be produced by a cutting tool
approach as shown, but the component also has a shallow
cylindrical recess that obstructs the tool approach. The version
shown in Fig 3.116 allows the tool to approach and that shown in
Fig 3.117 combine unobstructed tool approach with a shallow
recess.
Fig 3.115 Design Fig 3.116 Design that Fig 3.117 Further
that obstructs tool eliminate obstruction Improved design

Fig 3.118 Drilling Fig 3.119 Modification

into inclined wall to remove inclined effect
Approach requires special attention when a hole is to be drilled in

an inclined wall as shown in Fig 3.118. As indicated by ‘x’ and ‘y’
in the fig., the drill will tend to run upon entry and, if of small
diameter, be deflected at entry and exit because it will supported
at only one side. This problem can be overcome by use of Drilling
Jigs. If the hole is simply for the sake of oiling or ventilation, the
orientation of hole can be altered as shown in Fig 3.119.
Fig 3.120 Boss to Fig 3.121 Modified form

produce a flat surface to produce
A local flat surface can be produced a flat surface
by introducing a boss as
illustrated in Fig 3.120. But this will cause a structural variation
because of the local increase in thickness. The design shown in
Fig 3.121 eliminates the local area of thickness and the problem
of drill deflection at the exit.

Fig 3.122 Design that Fig 3.123 Design with Fig 3.124 Design for
obstructs drill path unobstructed approach alternative approach
The nature of drilling operation demands that the approach path of
the drill must not be obstructed. Fig 3.122 illustrates a design in
which the opening at the top of the casting is too small to allow
the drill to enter without drilling the surrounding material, and it
is impractical to approach from the other side because of the
sloping surface effect discussed earlier. The problem can be
solved by either enlarging the opening, as shown in Fig 3.123 or
by re-designing the wall as shown in Fig 3.124 to enable the drill
to drill from the opposite side.
Fig 3.125 Design with obstructed milling cutter path
Fig 3.125 shows an approach

problem often met when surfaces
are to be machined by milling. In
this example the top surface pf
flange A is to be milled, but flang
B and C prevent the use of a roller
cutter, which is more convenient
cutter to use. By raising the flange
Fig 3.126 Design with clear A or lowering the flange B a clear
path for milling cutter path for a roller cutter is obtained
as shown in Fig 3.126.

Fig 3.127 Design with a bore that Fig 3.128 Design with a bore
will not accept tool assembly that will accept tool assembly
When a recess is to be machined using a boring tool or boring bar

arrangement, the design must be such that the main bore is large
enough to allow the tool assembly to enter and be fed out to
produce the recess. Fig 3.127 shows an unsuitable design and Fig
3.128 shows a suitable design.
3.7.4 Design to allow cutting tool over-run:
Except in a few instances, it is necessary to allow the cutting tool
to over –run. Over-run may be necessary to severe the chip from
the workpiece, to provide body clearance for the cutting tool, to
obtain better cutting action or to eliminate the need to stop the
cutter at a precise point.
Fig 3.129 Over-run recess for slotting operations

Fig 3.129 illustrates a blind, slotted hole. The recess at the bottom
of the hole ensures that the chips will be severed from the
workpiece and also allow the operator some latitude when setting
the stroke of the slotting machine used to produced the slot.
Fig 3.130 Design with Fig 3.131 Design with

inadequate drill over-run adequate drill over-run
When a through hole is drilled, the drill must be allowed to over-
run so that it breaks through and complete the hole. The design in

Fig 3.130 does not allow adequate over-run. But by a slight

modification as shown in Fig 3.131 an adequate over-run is
obtained.
Fig 3.132 Design without Fig 3.133 Design with

grinding over-run groove grinding over-run groove
When a shouldered, or multi diameter, cylindrical component is

ground using a traverse, a groove should be introduced so that a
precise stopping point is not required and so that the best cutting
action is obtained. Fig 3.132 shows an unsuitable design and Fig
3.133 shows a design with a over-run groove. Fig 3.134 and 3.135
shows how over run can be introduced in a conical section.
Fig 3.134 Conical feature Fig 3.135 Conical

without over-run Feature with over-run
3.7.5 Design to minimize tool deflection:
Fig 3.136 Design to enable boring bar to be supported
A cutting tool of cantilever design will deflect during cutting if

the over hang is large compared with its depth and this deflection
will cause in accuracies. The situation illustrated by Fig 3.127 and
3.128 includes the problem caused by the main bore being too
small to permit the use of boring bar that will not deflect.

The boring of long workpieces causes problem because of the
necessity of long boring-bar overhang to reach far enough;
horizontal boring machines incorporate means of supporting the
boring bar at its far end so that it becomes a beam, thereby
reducing the deflection. The support cannot be used when a blind
hole is bored and so a cored hole should, if possible, be
introduced as shown in Fig 3.136. to permit the support of the
boring bar.
3.7.6 Design to cut cost of machining:
Fig 3.137 Hole drilled to a depth Fig 3.138 Through Hole
Fig 3.139 Facing in diff. planes Fig 3.140 Facing in same plane
Fig 3.141 Angular Facing Fig 3.142 Facing parallel to main

surface
Machining costs can be minimized by reducing the setting costs.
For example the drilled hole shown in Fig 3.137 almost breaks
through and the time taken to drill is the same as making a
through hole. Unless a blind hole is necessary it would be better
to alter the design as shown in Fig 3.138 eliminating the
equipment and time required to set the machine to give the
required depth of the hole ‘D’.
A change of setting during an operation increase the time taken
and may also lead to error. Fig 3.139 shows two facings whose
heights differ by a height ‘H’. A change of setting is eliminated by
making them same height as shown in Fig 3.140. The need to
reposition the workpiece or to split an operation can be eliminated
by making features lie in the same plane or at least parallel to
each other as illustrated by Fig 3.141 and 3.142.


extensive seating surface relieved seating surface
Fig 3.145 Design with large Fig 3.146 Design with relieved
machined surface machined surface

unrelieved bore bore relieved by coring
Costs can also be reduced by minimizing the surface area to be

machined and the amount of metal to be removed from them. Fig
3.143 to Fig 3.148 illustrate three examples of casting design to
minimize the surface areas to be machined. Minimizing the area
of location surfaces satisfies the principle of location because
large areas are more prone to geometric errors during machining
or when the part is in service.

Fig 3.149 Application of Fig 3.150 Application of

spot Facing Boss
It is often necessary to machine the workpiece adjacent to a
drilled hole to provide a seating surface for a bolt head or other
component. This can either be done by localizing the machining
(Fig 3.149 spot facing) or by localizing the metal that surround
the hole (Fig 3.150 use of Boss).
3.8 DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY:
The simple design considerations based on assembly are already
discussed vide section 3.2.5.

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Design Process, Design for Manufacture and DFX 64

DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURE

Objectives: Upon completion of this chapter the reader will

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

possible. From the basic properties, all other properties of the

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

Figure 3.2 Two Drawing Equipments with Different

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

Figure 3.3 Springs made of two different materials- rubber

Figure 3.4 Cog-wheels showing the influence of the dimensions

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

Figure 3.5 The form design stages in a design project

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

Figure 3.6 Different detailed designs for a pulley.

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

following categories: feasibility, economics and operator

Figure 3.8 Possibilities concerning form geometry and

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

Figure 3.9 Bearings bracket where the forces acting on it

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

production of multiple objects or series of objects. Figure 4.15

3.2.3 The Manufacturing Process: How the operator situation

• Number and nature of fixings

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

Number and Nature of Fixing

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

Number and extent of Process

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

Figure 3.11 Form designs that take into account the

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

Figure 3.12 Form designs that take into account the

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

Figure 3.13 Three versions of a threaded spindle

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

Figure 3.14 Comparison between form design details

Figure 3.15 Form design details that illustrate how

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

3.3 DESIGN FOR CASTINGS:

Figure 3.17 Conventional Sand Casting Process

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

In addition to these problems, the cost of producing and

Fig 3.18 Casting that Fig 3.19 Casting that

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

Fig 3.20 Function of the Fig 3.21 Casting that requires

Surfaces that would lie exactly in the direction of pattern

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

3.3.2 Design to control the behavior of the metal during the

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

Fig 3.27 Casting with Heavy Fig 3.28 Casting supporting

Fig 3.29 Tall Bosses Causing Fig 3.30 Modified Design to

The tall bosses on the flange in Fig. 3.29 can be modified as

Fig 3.31 Design causing plane Fig 3.32 Design to eliminate

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

illustrates how this can be eliminated by making the surface

Fig 3.33 Design to further Fig 3.34 Design to blend

Fig 3.37 The inscribed circle system

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

Fig 3.38 Cored Boss Fig 3.39 Junction with

The section thickness will be increased where boss is present. The

Prepared by Prof.R.Panneer, Assistant Professor.

unnecessary local thickness can be eliminated by reducing the