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Dr. PHAN TI HUN Faculty of Food Science and Technology Nong Lam University
Course Introduction
Recommended texts: William L. Masterton and Cecile N. Hurley. 2009. Chemistry: Principles and Reactions, 6th edition. Brooks/Cole Cengage Lerning. John A. Olmsted and Gregory M. Williams, 2005. Chemistry, 4th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Steven S. Zumdahl, 2005. Chemical Principles, 5th edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. Kenneth W. Whitten, Raymond E. Davis, Larry Peck, George G. Stanley, 2003. General Chemistry, 7th edition. Brooks Cole Publisher. Steven L. Hoenig, 2002. Basic Training in Chemistry. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
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Course Introduction
Attendance requirements Class attendance: 45 hrs. Assessment Method Weighting Mid-term examination Final examination
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Course Introduction
Why should we care about chemistry? Chemistry is everywhere! Chemistry helps us to understand and be better informed about the world in which we live!
Course Introduction
Module 1: Atomic structure and Periodic Table. Module 2: Chemical bonds and molecular configurations. Module 3: The Three States of Matter. Module 4: Chemical Thermodynamics. Module 5: Chemical kinetics. Module 6: Solutions. Module 7: Oxidation-reduction reactions and transformation of chemical energy.
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Classification of Matter
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Schematic drawing of a gas discharge tube in operation. When a high voltage is applied to the two perforated plates, an electrical discharge occurs between them. The positively charged and negatively charged particles that form in the gas move to collectors at the ends of the tube. 12
Schematic drawing of a cathode-ray tube. A beam of electrons is deflected by a pair of charged plates (bent line), but magnetic force can be adjusted to exactly counterbalance 13 the effect of the electrical force (straight line).
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Exercise
What is the net charge on an atom that contains 8 protons, 8 neutrons, and 10 electrons? Ans:
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The atomic number (Z) denotes the number of protons in an atom's nucleus. The mass number (A) denotes the total number of protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are often called nucleons. Some atoms have the same atomic number, but different mass numbers. This means different number of neutrons. Such atoms are called isotopes.
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Isotopes
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Exercise
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Atomic mass
The atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the masses of the individual isotopes of the element. Example: Naturally occurring copper consists of 69.17% 63Cu and 30.83% 65Cu. The mass of 63Cu is 62.939 598 amu, and the mass of 65Cu is 64.927 793 amu. What is the atomic mass of copper?
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Exercise
Naturally occurring carbon consists of two isotopes, 12C and 13C. What are the percentage abundances of the two isotopes in a sample of carbon whose atomic mass is 12.01112? Ans:
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Atomic structure
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Electromagnetic radiation
In 1864, James Clerk Maxwell developed a mathematical theory to describe radiation as wave-like, or oscillating, electric and magnetic fields in space. The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other.
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Electromagnetic spectrum
Visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, radio waves, ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma rays are all types of electromagnetic radiation.
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The product of the wavelength and the frequency is equal to the velocity of light, usually designated by c:
c =
(The value of c can be rounded to c=2.998 108 m/s for most calculations.) 30
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Exercise
When a metal bar is heated, it emits electromagnetic radiation observable as the red to white glow of the metal. What is the energy of one photon of red light with a wavelength of 700 nm? What is the energy of a mole of photons with this wavelength? Calculate the energy of one photon and a mole of photons of blue light with a wavelength of 400 nm.
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Exercise
What is the wavelength in meters of the radiation from (a) a low-range TV station broadcasting at a frequency of 55 MHz, (b) anAM radio station at 610 kHz, and (c) a microwave oven operating at 14.6 GHz? Ans:
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Atomic spectra
In the late 19th century, Johann Balmer (18251898) and Johannes Rydberg (18541919) showed that the wavelengths of the various lines in the hydrogen spectrum can be related by a mathematical equation:
Here R is 1.097 x 107 m-1 and is known as the Rydberg constant. The ns are positive integers, and n1 is smaller than n2
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Each line in the emission spectrum represents the difference in energies between two allowed energy levels for the electron.
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= h/ mv
where m and v are the mass and velocity of the particle. Plancks constant, h, is so small that the wavelengths are in an observable range only for particles of atomic or subatomic mass.
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The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, stated in 1927 by Werner Heisenberg (19011976): It is impossible to determine accurately both the momentum and the position of an electron (or any other very small particle) simultaneously.
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Orbitals
A solution to the Schrdinger equation for an electron must satisfy three quantum conditions corresponding to the three dimensions of space. Each quantum condition introduces an integer, called a quantum number, into the solution.
A separate solution, describing a probability distribution of finding the electron at various locations, exists for each allowed set of three quantum numbers. Such a solution is called an orbital.
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Quantum number
Principal quantum number (n). The principal quantum number denotes the energy level of electrons. The larger the principal quantum number is, the larger the energy. The orbital size depends on n. This means that the larger the n value, the larger the orbital. Orbitals with the same n belong to the same shell.
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Quantum number
Angular momentum quantum number (l). Angular momentum quantum number denotes the shape of the orbital. The values range from 0 to n 1. The angular momentum quantum numbers correspond to different subshells.
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Quantum number
Magnetic quantum number (ml). Magnetic quantum numbers define the different spatial orientations of the orbitals. The values range from l to +l. There are three p orbitals corresponding to ml = 1, 0, and 1. However, it is usually more convenient in chemistry to use a new set of three orbitals oriented along the x, y, and z axes to display the shapes and directions of these orbitals. Further, there are 5 d orbitals and 7 f orbitals having different shapes and orientations in space.
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Orbitals
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Orbitals
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Quantum number
Spin quantum number (mS) Spin quantum number has to do with the spin orientations of an electron. The two possible spins are denoted by the spin quantum numbers + and -1/2.
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Quantum number
The values of n, l, and ml describe a particular atomic orbital. Each atomic orbital can accommodate no more than two electrons, one with ms=+1/2 and another with ms=-1/2
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Electron configurations
Two general rules help us to predict electron configurations. Electrons are assigned to orbitals in order of increasing value of (n + l ). For subshells with the same value of (n+l ), electrons are assigned first to the subshell with lower n. 1s < 2s < 2p <3s < 3p<4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d...
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Exercise
Arrange the electrons in the following list in order of increasing energy, lowest first:
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Exercise
How many electrons are permitted in each of the following subshells? (a) 2s (b) 6p, and (c) 4d. Ans:
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Exercise
How many electrons are permitted in each of the following subshells?
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Exercise
Write the electronic configuration of sulfur and also show the filling of electrons with orbital notation. Ans:
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Exercise
Write detailed electronic configurations for (a) N (Z=7), (b) P (Z=15), (c) As (Z=33), and (d) Sb (Z=51). What makes their chemical properties similar? Ans:
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Period 1
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Period 2
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Period 3
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Period 4
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As principal quantum number n increases, atomic orbitals become larger and less stable. As atomic number Z increases, any given atomic orbital becomes smaller and more stable.
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Atomic size
Exercise: Arrange the following elements in terms of increasing atomic radius: Mg, Cl, K and Cs.
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Atomic size
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Ionization energy
Ionization energy (IE) is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom.
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Ionization energy
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Ionization energy
First IE < Second IE < Third IE < Fourth IE < ...
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Electron affinity
Electron affinity is the energy change associated with the addition of an electron to a gaseous atom.
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Electron affinity
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Electron affinity
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Electronegativity
The relative tendency of an atom to attract the bonding electrons to itself is called electronegativity. The popularly used electronegativity scale is based on a system called Pauling's scale, according to which fluorine (the most electronegative element) has an electronegativity value of 4.0. Nonmetals are the most electronegative elements.
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Summary
After you have studied this module, you should be able to Describe the evidence for the existence and properties of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Predict the arrangements of the particles in atoms. Describe isotopes and their composition. Calculate atomic weights from isotopic abundance. Descriptions of waves play an important role in our theories of light and of atomic structure.
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Summary
Describe the four quantum numbers, and give possible combinations of their values for specific atomic orbitals. Describe the shapes of orbitals and recall the usual order of their relative energies. Write the electron configurations of atoms. Relate the electron configuration of an atom to its position in the periodic table. Periodicity of atomic properties.
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