Chap 5

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Restricted to Shell Personnel Only
5. 5.1.
SPECIALIST TOPICS Complications During Well Control Operations
The number of possible complications that can occur during a well control incident plus the number of possible permutations of rig type and well conditions is huge. This section does not attempt to address each situation in detail but suggests possible actions, which may be employed in some circumstances. The objective of this section is to raise awareness of possible problems in order that a course of action can be agreed before commencing kill operations (contingency). The right-hand column is left blank for this purpose. Note: The Actions described in this table are possible cures for potential complications and do not apply in all circumstances. During well planning (kick control operations), complete Well Specific Actions according to actual or anticipated well conditions and the drilling/well control equipment in use need to be agreed.
Problem Halt in Operations Symptoms Anything that halts the kill process Possible Actions Shut-in at the choke Maintain standpipe pressure Minimise shut-down period as much as possible Remarks If shut-down is for a long time, Volumetric Method may be required to accommodate gas expansion. Consider shutting an upstream valve in addition to the choke. If hole packs-off completely, the string must be perforated above the stuck point Well Specific Action
Hole Packing Off
Erratic rise in standpipe pressure
Reciprocation might be considered in some cases. This situation compels the team to make a judgement call, not a decision tree approach LCM may control partial losses A gunk squeeze may offer a better cure Cement as a last resort
Lost Circulation
Total or partial loss of returns
When losses occur, nothing is certain and the well is not technically under control.
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Note: The Actions described in this table are possible cures for potential complications and do not apply in all circumstances. During well planning (kick control operations), complete Well Specific Actions according to actual or anticipated well conditions and the drilling/well control equipment in use need to be agreed.
Problem Washout in Drillstring Symptoms Gradual drop in standpipe pressure Loss of flow through MWD Possible Actions Circulation may proceed at reduced pump rate. Periodically stop and restart at true drill pipe pressure. Minimise string movements Consider a Volumetric Kill. In extreme circumstances the well kill could be completed with a CT unit. If circulation is possible, continue with kill. Remarks Judgement call required. A Volumetric Kill to remove the influx may be time consuming but effective A follow-up with CT may be necessary to get the kill mud in place. Well Specific Action
Stuck Pipe
Unable to move drill string
Leave freeing string until after well is dead Stuck Pipe usually happens because of (a) differential sticking (b) shale breakout (c) cuttings build-up. The above problems all require a different approach, both pro-actively as well as remedial. If failure relates to the power end of the pump the standpipe pressure may drop suddenly. If pump wear, then it will be difficult to detect by pressure alone, because pump rate is low and there are many other
Pump Failure or Pump Wear
Erratic stand pipe pressure Irregular movement of the mud hose
Shut-in Line-up alternative pump (or cement pump if necessary) and continue with kill. If in doubt about a pump, shut in the well, restore BHP and then establish the new pump pressure while making attempts to detect & rectify the
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Problem Symptoms Possible Actions problem. Alternatively, the other pump(s) can be used immediately and the suspect pump checked separately. Repair pump #1 as soon as possible in case it is required again later in the kill. Shut in the well Change out for spare ASAP and ensure redundancy gauges when following pressures during kill If spare fails or troubleshooting is required, always shut in the well. Stop pump and shut in. Restart the kill Adjust circulation rate / choke setting to maintain constant bottom hole pressure under new conditions Stop pump and shut in. Restart the kill Adjust circulation rate / choke setting to maintain constant bottom hole pressure under Remarks circumstances (surface and subsurface) why a pump pressure could be lower than expected. Well Specific Action
Pressure Gauge Failure
No response on gauge
Ensure there is always an adequate supply of gauges covering a workable range of pressures (not a 20,000 psi gauge to follow 200 psi annular pressure)
Jet Washout
Sudden fall in drill pipe pressure Casing pressure constant
If large nozzles are in use, it will be impossible to detect but should have no major consequences to the successful killing of the well. If all jets become blocked, the string should be perforated above the bit or mud motor. Be prepared for unexpected un-plugging
Plugged Jets
Increase in standpipe pressure at constant pump rate
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Problem Plugged Choke Symptoms Sudden rise in annulus pressure followed by rise in drill pipe pressure If partially blocked, the choke pressure is erratic. Possible Actions new conditions Shut-in and switch to alternate choke Isolate plugged choke and clean-out Remarks If partially blocked, consider continuing the kill at a lower pump rate The simplest cure may be to quickly open the choke wide and then back to original choke setting in an attempt to release the blockage If the choke washout occurs at the last stage of Phase 2, it may be difficult, if not impossible to relate to the levels in the pits Well Specific Action
Washout at Choke
Choke has to be gradually closed to maintain pressure
Adjust choke to maintain constant BHP Monitor pit levels to confirm no losses to formation Shut-in and switch to alternate choke Repair washed-out choke as soon as possible in case it is required again later in the kill. Immediately close backup preventer. Shut in the well Let the BHP restore itself and concentrate on regaining full control first (i.e. stop pumping and close the well fully)
Preventer Failure
Loss of casing pressure Flow from bell nipple
Assess damage before restarting Monitor well and apply volumetric method if necessary. A volumetric kill may take a very long time and require subsequent pumping with alternative means (e.g. CT unit).
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Problem Symptoms Possible Actions Remarks It may be practical to line up a redundant annulus exit, such as the wellhead outlet(s) A back-up power supply for critical equipment should be addressed prior to load-out / mobilisation. Well Specific Action
Complete Power Failure
Loss of all power
Have an independent power system or emergency system linked to the accumulators Connect a small diesel driven compressor to the accumulator air pumps Remove the influx by fastest, safe method (Drillers). Consider bullheading influx back to formation
Bad Weather
Any extreme weather which will complicate or hinder well control activities
Location specific contingency procedures should be produced at the well planning stage.
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5.2.
Hydrogen Sulphide Considerations
This section looks at the practical considerations of well control when there is Hydrogen Sulphide in the influx. 5.2.1. General
It should be well appreciated that H2S is a very dangerous gas and even in small concentrations poses risks to personnel and equipment. For these reasons there are a number of requirements which must be met for all well operations in sour gas areas and in exploratory/appraisal operations with potential to encounter H2S.
Personnel safety and air breathing systems; Well control equipment specifications; Down-hole equipment and tubulars specifications; Drilling fluid specifications; Procedures.
These are all covered by manuals, government regulation, API, or other Shell documentation which should be used for reference. 5.2.2. Practical Considerations for H2S kicks
Simplicity Dealing with H2S at surface, circulating out a kick or other work, is complicated by the fact that all personnel will be restricted in their movements and their ability to communicate whilst wearing air breathing masks. Even tasks that are normally relatively simple can become quite difficult, and all operations are much slower as a result. For this reason alone, it is wise to consider the simplest course of action when dealing with an H2S kick.
Bullheading is the most satisfactory manner to dispose of an H2S kick if conditions are appropriate. In principle and on paper, bullheading is the simplest method, but when used in some situations could lead to more complications or will be extremely cumbersome. This is true for situations where the influx is dispersed (bubbles or slugs), has moved a considerable distance from the reservoir or across tight formation, making it hard or impossible to attain adequate injection rates or even in situations (exploratory) where it is uncertain or unknown that the influx contains H2S. (See Section 3.5) The Driller's method is the simplest of the circulating methods and provides the quickest way to circulate the H2S from the hole. If there is the opportunity to circulate under H2S surface controlled conditions, this method should be pursued. Stripping should be avoided if possible.
Preparation If bottom-hole temperature exceeds 60C, H2S will not damage the bottom hole tools, and while it is on bottom it is no threat to personnel. Therefore, there is no reason to undertake any operation without taking the time for complete and thorough preparation.
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Pre-treat the mud system with scavenger and maintain high pH. The plan must be communicated to all concerned in an H2S free zone before commencing the kill. Communication will be restricted mostly to hand signals and scribbled notes once the operation starts. Well pressures must be monitored and adjusted during the preparation time. If use of the Wait & Weight method has been indicated as the preferred kill method by risk analysis, then it should be used. In favourable conditions, Volumetric followed by Driller's method should be considered for off-bottom swab gas kicks, rather than attempting to strip to bottom. However, the Volumetric method can take days (e.g. in deep and/or deviated wells) and does not guarantee an infl Shallow Gas
5.3.
Shallow gas can be defined as a gas accumulation encountered early in the well which cannot be controlled by conventional techniques, due for example to riser-less drilling or to low fracture pressures below surface casing. 5.3.1. Origin
The gas may originate in situ from the microbial decomposition of organic matter in sediments, and / or as gas derived from underlying reservoir rocks. In most cases the dominant gas (>90%) is methane. Direct evidence of gas migration is provided on seismic profiles by gas chimneys, and seabed features such as pockmarks and seabed gas seeps. Hydrocarbon reservoirs are charged with fluid and gas expulsed from an adjacent source rock. Any oil or gas not trapped in the charging process will tend to rise through the sediment column, as it is less dense than the formation water. This migration is either along structural pathways (faults, joints etc.), laterally and up-dip through permeable sediments (where it travels along the top of these carrier beds, beneath the overlying impermeable beds) or vertically (and very slowly) through impermeable sediments. Hence the common occurrence of shallow gas at drilling locations. Some areas are notorious for the presence of hydrostatically pressured gas pockets at relatively shallow depths. Shallow gas is normally associated with offshore locations, due to the sealing effect of sediment with a high water content, however it can also occur onshore in areas as diverse as Brunei and Baku. Shallow gas accumulations are potentially hazardous to drilling operations. More blow-outs are caused by shallow gas than by any other single factor. As a consequence, pre-drilling hazard surveys are required by certain national authorities. - including. the DTI in the UK and NPD in Norway. Shallow gas can also result from the charging of shallow sands via the casing annulus of old production wells with poor cement isolation.
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5.3.2.
Detection / Prediction of Shallow Gas
The location of gas pockets is difficult to predict. Existing seismic data (2D and 3D) and wells should be carefully interpreted for indications of regional gas accumulations. Dedicated high resolution seismic data acquisition, processing and interpretation techniques increase the reliability of the shallow gas prognosis at the proposed location. Timely completion of such surveys prior to well spud is recommended. Accumulations of gas within the sediments can be seen as anomalies on seismic profiles. However seismic interpretation is subjective and not normally unambiguous. The existence of a seismic anomaly may represent <5% gas within the sediment - or much more. Reliability of the interpretation can be significantly improved by calibration to existing well data if available in the general area. Seismic interpretation is a complex subject. However, the following summarises typical observations
High amplitude reflections ('bright spots') which are normally phase reversed. These reflections often represent accumulations in coarser, more permeable horizons. Masking and 'pull down' of underlying reflections. Phase change along reflections at the gas/water interface Acoustic turbidity - seismic reflections masked by a cloud-like amorphous signal. This is likely to represent disseminated gas in argillaceous sediments.
Identification of gas anomalies are normally aided by seismic attribute analysis, including including amplitude analysis and inversion. In some areas, amplitude versus offset (AVO) processing should also be considered. NOTE: Recent North Sea studies have indicated that shallow gas may migrate in real time and that even drilling close to old wells may result in unexpected problems. Well proposals should always include a statement on the probability of encountering shallow gas, even if no shallow gas is present. This statement should not only use the "shallow gas survey", but include an assessment drawn from the exploration seismic data, historical well data, the geological probability of a shallow cap rock, coal formations, and any surface indication/seepage. See also Guidelines to Offshore Drilling Hazard Assessment EP 2000-7009 5.3.3. Shallow Gas Procedures
Based on the shallow gas statement in the well proposal, practical shallow gas procedures should be prepared for that particular well. The comprehensiveness of these shallow gas procedures depends on the chance of encountering shallow gas and may vary from well to well. Procedures can be prepared using EP 88-1000 "Shallow Gas Procedures Guidance Manual", which addresses the following shallow gas philosophy:
avoid shallow gas where possible; optimise the preliminary shallow gas investigation; the concept of drilling small pilot holes for shallow gas investigation with a dedicated unit is considered an acceptable and reliable method of shallow gas detection and major problem prevention;
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surface diverter equipment will not withstand an erosive shallow gas flow for a prolonged period of time. Surface diverters are still seen as a means of "buying time" in order to evacuate the drilling site; diverting shallow gas subsea or drilling riserless when water depth exceeds 200m, is considered to be safer as compared to diverting at surface; a dynamic kill attempt with existing rig equipment may only be successful if a small pilot hole (9-7/8" or smaller) is drilled and immediate pumping at maximum rate is applied in the early stage of a kick; Identification of Shallow Gas Pockets Whilst Drilling
5.3.4.
Whilst drilling at shallow depth in a normally pressured formation, no indication of a gas pocket other than higher gas readings in the mud returns can be expected. Since the overbalance of the drilling fluid at shallow depths is usually minimal, pressure surges may cause an under-balanced situation, which could result in a kick. Therefore, every attempt should be made to avoid swabbing. If drilling pilot hole with MWD, consideration may be given to running PWD. 5.3.5. General Recommended Drilling Practices in Shallow Gas Areas
Common drilling practices which are applicable for top hole drilling in general and diverter drilling in particular are summarised below. Recommendations are made with a view to simplify operations, thereby minimising possible hole problems. 1. 2. A pilot hole should be drilled in areas with possible shallow gas, because the small hole size will facilitate a dynamic well killing operation. Restrict the penetration rate. Particular care should be taken to avoid an excessive build-up of solids in the hole, which could cause formation breakdown and losses. Drilling with heavier mud returns could also obscure indications of drilling through higher pressured formations. The well may kick while circulating the hole clean. Restricted drilling rates also minimise the penetration into the gas bearing formation, which in turn minimises the influx rate. An excessive drilling rate through a formation containing gas may reduce the hydrostatic head of the drilling fluid if drilled gas is entrained in the mud. This may eventually result in a flowing well. Every effort shall be made to minimise the possibility of swabbing. Pumping out of the hole at optimum circulating rates is recommended for all upward pipe movements (e.g. making connections and tripping). Especially in larger hole sizes (i.e. larger than 12") it is important to check that the circulation rate is sufficiently high and the pulling speed sufficiently low to ensure that no swabbing will take place. A Top Drive System will facilitate efficient pumping out of hole operations. When drilling with returns, accurate measurement and control of drilling fluid is most important in order to detect gas as early as possible. Properly calibrated and functioning gas detection equipment is essential in top hole drilling. Flow checks are to be made before tripping, at any time a sharp penetration rate increase or tank level anomaly is observed, when any anomaly appears on the MWD log (if an MWD data transmission system is used), and at any specific depths referred to in the drilling programme (taken from the shallow seismic survey). It is recommended to flow check each connection while drilling the pilot hole in potential shallow gas areas.
3.
4.
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Measuring mud weight in and out, and checking for seepage losses are all important practices which shall be applied continuously. 5. A float valve (NRV) must be installed in all bottom hole assemblies (BHAs) which are used in top hole drilling in order to prevent uncontrollable flow up the drillstring. The float valve is the only down-hole mechanical barrier available. The use of two float valves in the BHA may be considered in potential shallow gas areas. A drop in dart sub by itself is not sufficient. Large bit nozzles or no nozzles and large mud pump liners should be used. Large nozzles are advantageous during dynamic killing operations, since a higher pump rate can be achieved. As an example, a pump rate of approximately 2700 ltr/min at 20,000 kPa pump pressure can be obtained using a 1300-1600 HP pump with 3 x 14/32" nozzles installed in the bit. By using 3 x 18/32" nozzles, the pump rate can be increased to around 3800 ltr/min at 20,000 kPa. (Values will vary slightly depending on mud weight, hole size, BHA configuration, etc.). The use of centre nozzle bits will increase the maximum circulation rate even further and also reduces the chance of bit balling. Large bit nozzles or no nozzles should be used to allow lost circulation material (LCM) to be pumped through the bit in case of losses. In general, shallow kick-offs should be avoided in areas with probable shallow gas. Top hole drilling operations in these areas should be simple and quick to minimise possible hole problems. BHAs used for kick-off operations also have flow restrictions which will reduce the maximum possible flow through the drillstring considerably. A successful dynamic well killing operation will then become very unlikely. It is recommended to have kill mud of at least the pilot hole content pre-mixed and available ready to be pumped immediately at maximum rate at the Driller's discretion.
6.
7.
8.
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SUBSEA DIVERTER BOP
Figure 5.3.1: Subsea Diverter BOP 5.4. Gas Hydrates
Gas hydrates are a major concern when drilling in deep water environments. High pressure and low temperature are typical conditions that are encountered in the BOP stack at the mudline of a deep water drilling operation. This section reviews techniques to avoid hydrate formation. 5.4.1. Overview
Gas hydrates are an ice-like material that can form when kick gas mixes with water-based drilling fluids at high pressure and low temperature. They are a natural form of clathrates unique chemical substances in which molecules of one material (in this case, water) form an open solid lattice that encloses, without chemical bonding, appropriately-sized molecules of another material (in this case, natural gas). Formation of gas hydrates in the BOP can result in a very costly drilling shutdown lasting weeks. Once formed, gas hydrates are difficult to remove because of the inability to circulate. There should be a means of injecting hydrate inhibitor such as glycol at the subsea BOP. It is critical in deep water drilling operations that water-based drilling fluids be specially tailored to suppress gas hydrate formation. Westport Hydrate Prediction (WHyP) software can be used to model the hydrate suppression achieved using various chemical additives.
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Various salts and glycols can be used to lower the hydrate-forming potential of water-based muds. The WHyP model determines the concentration of selected hydrate inhibitors needed to suppress hydrate formation at a given mudline temperature and pressure. 5.4.2. Practical Considerations The pressure is low; OR The temperature is high.
It should be noted that hydrates cannot form if:
Therefore, when conditions are critical, every opportunity should be taken to lower the pressure and to increase the temperature. Lowering Pressure The are few, if any techniques that can be adopted to significantly lower the pressure at the subsea BOP during a well kill without risking other, potentially more hazardous, problems. Raising Temperature The temperature inside the subsea BOP is controlled by the temperature of the mud circulating through it internally and the surrounding seawater temperature externally. While drilling and circulating, the BOP is heated by virtue of the mud continuously carrying heat from bottom hole to counteract the heat loss to the seawater. Once circulation ceases, the BOP looses heat and the temperature falls. Given enough static time the BOP will come to thermal equilibrium with the very cold seawater. The key then is to conserve heat by minimising any non circulation time. Initially, the gas influx will be hotter than the mud. As it is circulated up the hole it will lose heat and will cool somewhat by virtue of its expansion. The loss of heat can be minimised by:

5.4.3.
Commencing circulation immediately; i.e. Use Driller's method. Using a high kill circulation rate. Avoid shutdowns or delays. Consider insulating kill and choke lines. Hydrates Formation in SOBM
Hydrate formation is normally avoided when using SOBM Hydrates can form in SOBM if water is introduced into the system. However, gas does not generally migrate in SOBM (it goes into solution). The net result is that the hydrate forming components (hydrocarbon gas in particular) do not migrate into the area of the BOP stack and cool. It is therefore unlikely that hydrates will form when SOBM is in use. 5.4.4. Monitoring Potential Hydrate Formation At The Rigsite
All of the elements required to effectively monitor potential hydrate formation are available. These elements are:
Assessment of hydrate formation temperature
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Temperature and pressure measurement
The results of these measurements can be combined into a real time hydrate potential graph see Figure 5.4.1
Hydrate Warning System (6000 ft Water Depth)
Drilling - 12 hr Shutdown - Kill Circulation - Prolonged Shutdown
5000
23% NaCl
4500 BOP Pressure (psi)
32 hrs
15% NaCl
31.5 hrs
20.5 hrs
4000
3500
48 hrs
3000 30 40 50
35 & 40 hrs
60
70
0-20 hrs
Temperature (deg F)
Figure 5.4.1: Hydrate Potential
5.4.5.
Operational Practices That Can Be Used To Prevent Hydrates From Forming Specify appropriate thermodynamic and/or kinetic mud inhibition Use SOBM if appropriate - however, there are other safety issues in using this type of mud in deepwater. In particular, use of a Riser Gas Handler should be considered to deal with any gas that is in solution and in the riser above the BOP. Use the Drillers method this allows circulation to start as soon as possible and therefore minimizes cooling of any mud/gas mixture If any operational shutdown occurs, flush the choke and kill lines and across the BOP using fresh inhibited mud or highly inhibited fluid. Use a kill rate that avoids lost circulation. Specify choke and kill lines that are large enough such that friction pressure loses are low and lost circulation is avoided. Monitor the potential for hydrate formation using a plot of BOP pressure and temperature superimposed upon the hydrate formation condition for the mud in use. Make everyone at the rigsite aware of the potential.
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5.4.6.
Novel Approaches Worth Considering
Insulation would seem to buy a significant amount of time. For example, mud in a choke line can cool from the steady-state temperature to the seabed temperature in 30 minutes or less. If the same choke line is insulated, this cool down time can be increased to 55 hours. 5.4.7. 1. 2. 3. 4. Removal of Hydrates Mechanical Depressurization Chemical Thermal
In general, hydrate melting can be achieved by using four basic schemes. These are:
In the first scheme, (mechanical), the hydrate blockage is removed by applying direct mechanical force such as drilling or differential pressure. In (2) the depressurization scheme, the pressure over the hydrate plug is reduced below the hydrate equilibrium pressure at the prevailing temperature. Consequently, the hydrate blockage starts to dissociate at the boundary subjected to the pressure reduction. The third scheme, (chemical), involves bringing inhibitors like methanol, salts or glycol into direct contact with the hydrate blockage to destabilize the hydrate. In the fourth, (thermal) scheme, an external source of energy is utilized to raise the hydrate plug temperature above the hydrate equilibrium temperature. The difficulties arise in transporting the chemicals or the energy to the place the of hydrate plug. A thermal bomb (chemicals to generate large quantities of heat) may consist of sodium nitrite plus ammonium chloride. These chemicals must be kept separate until they are combined at the location where the heating is required. NOTE: Hydrates are also covered in Section 7.5 Deep Water Well Control 5.4.8. Removal of Hydrates (Producing Wells)
The formation of hydrates in producing wells (eg, during well tests) is especially hazardous. When surface strings become hydrated on floating rigs, it is not possible to deploy the disconnect at the subsea test tree to leave the well safe. Therefore, the practicality of hydrate prevention is designed into well test subsea equipment and techniques. Subsea trees are equipped with chemical injection facilities so that methanol and glycol can be injected into the hydrocarbon stream at the seabed during flow periods and more importantly, when the well is closed in. It should always be noted that hydrates do not require flowing conditions to form, in fact, it is unlikely that a hydrate will form during flow periods. Similarly, neat glycol or water glycol mixtures are used as test fluids when pressure testing the surface string and subsea valves. It is critical that the right mix of water and glycol be used to prevent the formation of hydrates and that attention be paid to the thorough flushing of lines with the mix. It is recommended that a hydrometer be used to measure the specific gravity of the mix and that tables be referenced for the most appropriate mix. Whilst glycol is an accepted method of hydrate prevention, methanol is the only proven
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chemical means of hydrate dispersion. When well tests are planned, thought must be given to the provision of appropriate volumes of glycol and methanol. For practical purposes, hydrates may be assumed to be supported on three legs. These legs are; hydrocarbon gas, the presence of water and pressure. Strictly speaking, low temperature is another leg. However, since low temperature is always present in surface strings, other than in really hot locations there is no practical means of raising the string temperature. This leg can therefore be discounted for hydrate dissipation purposes. The most prevalent conditions for hydrate formation are in high pressure, tight gas wells with a high water cut. The hydrate will most likely form in the surface string, somewhere between the drill floor and the seabed, however, the possibility of hydrates being found deeper in the well must not be discounted. The hydrate can be dissipated by the removal of any one of the three aforementioned legs. For treatment purposes, it is not possible to remove hydrocarbon gas from a well, nor to take the water out. Therefore the only effective method of dispersing the hydrate is to treat it with methanol or to remove the pressure by bleeding off (or flowing the well). Please note that glycol will not disperse a hydrate. For methanol to be effective as the means of dispersion, it is necessary to spot the chemical directly on the hydrate. The presence of hydrocarbons and test fluids immediately above the hydrate would normally preclude this since the methanol, being lighter, will generally sit on top of the well effluent rather than on the hydrate. Additionally, within the surface string, there are no circulation devices for accurately spotting chemicals. The only practical means of removing hydrates is therefore to bleed off the pressure, (i.e. flow the well). However, before attempting to do so, it is important that the following points are considered;
That a check be made to ascertain the presence of gas above the hydrate. In the event that gas is established to be above the hydrate, fluid (neat glycol or methanol) should be lubricated into the well above the hydrate. This must be carried out carefully so that as far as possible, the surface pressure is maintained during the lubrication process. The lubrication above the hydrate may be a lengthy process. No attempt should be made to bleed off the pressure with only a gas cap above the hydrate, this can result in the hydrate being dislodged up the well with considerable force. The presence of fluid will act as a cushion when bleeding off pressure. Once bleeding off pressure has commenced, it is important to keep the well flowing. On subsea welltest systems, methanol may additionally be injected at the subsea test tree. The choke must be manned at all times during the process and the operator prepared to keep opening the choke should the well appear to die and to be prepared to control the wells flow rate when the hydrate has dissipated. The subsequent flowing of the well will enable the temperature to be lifted above the hydrate formation point. It is recommended that the well be flowed until clean if possible, (i.e., so that stable flow occurs). Subsequent shut-in periods should be minimised if possible.
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5.5.
Tapered Drill Strings
In every drill string there are variations in diameter between the different components. The variations are both internal and external. This section considers the effects that these variations have on well killing operations. 5.5.1. External
Variations in the outside diameter of components of the drill string have an effect on choke manifold pressure and all pressures in the annulus. Static Pressures (in other than horizontal hole sections) These differ because fluids in different annular spaces occupy different lengths. In the case of smaller annular clearance, a given volume of fluid will occupy a greater length of hole. The vertical component of this length will have a greater effect on hydrostatic pressure than the same volume of fluid in an annular space with greater clearance and the same vertical height. If the fluid in question is a gas kick it will have a far greater effect (for the same volume) on choke manifold pressure whilst it is in a small clearance drill collar annulus than when it is in a large clearance drill pipe annulus. Because of this, maximum shoe pressure in vertical holes often occurs when a gas influx is in the drill collar annulus, immediately on shutting in. Note that the same effect occurs when hole diameter changes. A gas influx has less effect on choke manifold pressure in a larger diameter hole. This can be taken to the point that kick tolerance may be greater if there is a section of larger diameter hole below the casing shoe. Dynamic Pressures These differ in the annulus because of the increased flowing friction pressure in reduced annular spaces. Long, large diameter BHA's can have a marked effect on dynamic annulus friction pressure. See Section 8 for more details.
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Standpipe pressure
Gauge hole
Choke manifold pressure
Shoe pressure
Drillcollar effect
Figure 5.5.1: Pressure plots for Driller's method kill in gauge hole. (Shoe pressure on different scale to other pressures)
Standpipe pressure Overgauge hole
Choke manifold pressure
Shoe pressure
Figure 5.5.2: Pressure plots for Driller's method kill in a hole that has an overgauge section immediately below the shoe. Note the effect on choke manifold pressure and shoe pressure as the gas bubble passes through the overgauge section.
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5.5.2.
Internal
Variation in internal diameter of the drill string can have a marked effect on standpipe pressure when circulating dense mud to the bit to kill a kick with constant bottom hole pressure. The effect of varying inside diameter is only significant whilst there is more than one density mud in the drill string. Once the drill string is completely full of the new mud there is no variation in standpipe pressure. The pressure variance is due to:
the difference in length of a given volume of mud in different diameters. The vertical height of these lengths contribute differently to hydrostatic pressure; the dynamic pressure loss difference. At a given circulating rate the pressure loss in smaller diameters is greater than in large diameters.
When using the Wait & Weight method a pressure reduction plot is drawn to show how the standpipe pressure must be controlled, by choke manipulation, to maintain constant bottom hole pressure. This is normally drawn as a straight line average from the Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP) at zero strokes, to, the Final Circulating Pressure (FCP) at strokes to bit. This is only an approximation, as (among others) it takes no account of differences in internal diameter between the drill pipe and the drill collars or of the jet effect. The approximation is acceptable in many conventional drill string / BHA drilling situations since the effect is relatively small and can be neglected.
Actual pressure reduction for the tapered drill string
Normal straight line pressure reduction plot
Tapered drill string
See footnote
Figure 5.5.3: Shows the difference between the normally calculated straight line pressure reduction plot, and actual standpipe pressure required to maintain constant bottom hole pressure. At the point of maximum deviation the normal plot would be 75psi underbalanced in this example.
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However, when drill strings are composed of significant lengths of different inside diameter tubulars and/or comprise of tools which significantly contribute to the cumulative pressure drop, the effect is larger and must be taken into account. Failure to do so could result in allowing the well to flow because of insufficient standpipe pressure. If the well is highly deviated or horizontal, the dynamic pressure loss difference may be the most critical contributing factor, despite the fact that the drill string is tapered. Under those circumstances, the opposite effect will show by having a significant overbalance. If the fracture gradient is relatively high and/or the casing shoe is set close to the highly deviated/horizontal section, this overbalance will not have any adverse effect on the killing process. Note that this problem only occurs for Wait & Weight method kills. When using the Driller's method, in the second circulation the choke manifold pressure is held constant until the kill density mud reaches the bit. The standpipe pressure will automatically follow the correct pressure reduction provided there is no gas in the hole. Deviation from the pressure reduction plot should be investigated. In practice, the trick to handling tapered strings and deviated wells using the Wait & Weight method is to realize that the standard kill sheet plot is not designed to compensate for these effects. A standard kill sheet graph tricks the operator into holding a pressure profile which is incorrect. The heavy mud going down the string will always act correctly, getting rid of a certain amount of shut-in pressure for each increment of TVD which is pumped. If faced with a deviated well or tapered string, the secret is to get the choke sized correctly whilst holding the correct surface casing pressure at the start of the kill. Thereafter just take your hands off the choke and observe the drill pipe pressure. On a deviated well the pressure profile will initially decline faster that the standard sheet predicts, and slower than predicted on a tapered string situation. The impact is all over with when the heavy mud reaches the bit. The pressure reduction plot can be constructed by using the approximate formula below, the derivation of which is covered in the Shell Distance Learning Training Manual. P'x' = Pst + {(Pc2 - Pc1) x V'x'/Vtotal} - {D'x'TVD x (2 1} Where: 'x' is the crossover point P'x' Pst Pc2 Pc1 V'x' Vtotal D'x'TVD 2 1 = standpipe pressure when the kill mud reaches point 'x' (kPa, psi) = initial circulating pressure (kPa, psi) = final circulating pressure (kPa, psi) = slow circulating rate pressure (kPa, psi) = string volume to point 'x' (m3, bbls) = total string volume (m3, bbls) = TVD of point 'x' (m, ft) = kill mud density (kPa/m, psi/ft) = original mud density (kPa/m, psi/ft)
To construct the kill pressure reduction plot, four elements are calculated:
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Pst at the start of the kill; Volumes Vtotal and V'x' (the latter for each section of the drill string with a different inside diameter); P'x' at the various crossover points using the above equation; Pc2 at the end of the pressure reduction phase, when the kill density mud reaches the bit.
When the plot is to be calculated for more than one change of diameter, the cumulative depths and volumes must be used. Footnote: In Figure 5.5.3 above, there is a discrepancy between the FCP value determined by calculation that would be applied in a Wait & Weight kill, and the actual correct FCP that will result using the Driller's method. This discrepancy is due to these facts: The standard technique of calculating FCP from the ratio of the new and old mud densities is only an approximation and takes no account of changes in other mud flow properties. The calculated FCP includes circulating overbalance (annulus friction pressure) of the kill density mud whereas the FCP that will result from using the Driller's method includes circulating overbalance (annulus friction pressure) of the original mud. These discrepancies are not unique to tapered drill strings. 5.6. Well Control Whilst Drilling with Oil Based Mud
In many areas of the world, Oil Based Mud (OBM) is the drilling fluid of choice, due to the excellent shale inhibition and lubricity properties. However, because gas can dissolve in OBM, its use introduces some well control considerations that are not encountered with Water Based Mud (WBM). The following discussion relates to influxes that are normally gaseous at surface conditions. Down hole temperature and pressure determine the phase (liquid or gas) of all light hydrocarbons. They also determine the solubility of gas in OBM and the solvent properties of the oil phase. As an influx is circulated out of a well it is subjected to a gradual pressure and temperature decrease. This can affect both the phase and solubility of the influx. These changes can be interactive. 5.6.1. Kick on Bottom Drilling There will be no solubility effect initially. The kick will appear the same as if WBM was in use. Pit gain will accurately reflect the true (liquid) volume of the influx. Shut in pressures in combination with pit gain will accurately reflect the density of the influx. If light oil (high API gravity) is indicated by calculation, it should be treated as a gas kick. As the influx is circulated out of the hole during the kill procedure, the liquid influx may change phase to free gas as its bubble point is reached. If conditions are suitable, some of this free gas may go into solution in the OBM.
If The Influx Is Liquid In Situ
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As circulation continues, the dissolved gas may breakout again to free gas. Choke manifold pressure at the start of the kill circulation will show little change. Choke manifold pressure in the final stages of the kill circulation will increase in line with the amount of free gas in the hole. This increased pressure has a regulating effect on breakout and it is probable that much of the breakout will occur through the choke. Gas is highly soluble in OBM. The amount of gas that can go into solution is dependent on the mud and gas properties and the wellbore temperature and pressure. When gas goes into solution, the resultant volume of the gas/OBM mixture will be less than the sum of the components. For a very small gas influx at a relatively low pressure, the resultant volume will be only slightly greater than the original volume of the mud (with which the gas mixes). For a large gas influx at a high pressure, the resultant volume will be very close to the sum of the mud volume (with which the gas mixes) and the in-situ gas volume.
If The Influx Is Gas In Situ
In all cases there will be a positive pit gain.
Shut in pressures in combination with pit gain may not accurately reflect the true density of the influx. A gas kick may appear to be light oil. All (apparent) light oil kicks should be treated as gas kicks. As the influx is circulated out of the hole during the kill procedure, the dissolved gas may breakout again to free gas. Choke manifold pressure at the start of the kill circulation may show little change, depending on the amount of free gas. Choke manifold pressure in the final stages of the kill circulation will increase in line with the amount of free gas in the hole. This increased pressure has a regulating effect on breakout and it is probable that much of the breakout will occur through the choke.
In each case, any kick on bottom while drilling with OBM should be detected by diligent monitoring of increased flow and pit gain, and the well should be shut in immediately. Subsequent events during the kill procedure may not be the same as could be expected while using WBM. Nevertheless, there are no special procedures that must be followed.
Whereas there will always be a positive pit gain when a gas influx initially enters the well bore and goes into solution, there may be no additional pit gain as the gas is circulated to surface. It is essential that any influx is detected upon initial entry. If no positive kick signs are noted and yet well indications suggest that there may be the possibility of a very small influx then bottoms up must be circulated through the choke. 5.6.2. Swab Influx Whilst Tripping
(Hole not taking/returning correct amount of fluid but not flowing.)
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If The Influx Is Liquid In Situ
Trip tank volume discrepancy will accurately reflect the swab influx volume. The influx will not migrate at any significant rate. The influx must be removed by running carefully back to bottom and circulating out through the choke with the well shut in (Drillers method) over the final stages. Trip tank volume discrepancy may not accurately reflect the swab influx volume due to solubility effects. However, there will be a trip tank discrepancy. The influx may or may not migrate at a significant rate. In any event only the free gas portion is likely to migrate. The influx must be removed by running carefully back to bottom and circulating out through the choke with the well shut in (Drillers method) over the final stages.
If The Influx Is Gas In Situ
In each case it is imperative that the well is shut in and that returns are taken through the choke (and MGS) whilst the influx is circulated from the hole. The choke must be manipulated to maintain constant standpipe pressure as for Drillers method first circulation. 5.6.3. Swab Kick while Tripping
(Well starts flowing during a trip) If The Influx Is Either Liquid Or Gas In Situ
If there is any sign of flow whilst tripping, the well must be shut in. The annulus above the bit should be circulated clean through the choke, (as above). If the well is not dead, the drill string should be stripped to bottom for final circulation (as above). A Volumetric method kill is not feasible due to the lack of significant migration. General Conclusion
5.6.4.
When drilling with OBM, it is most important to be aware of the unpredictable behavior of unrestrained gas expansion near surface, especially when circulating bottoms up after a round trip or any circulation after long static periods. High solubility OBM is of particular concern. Most of the expansion of a gas bubble coming out of solution occurs in the top of the hole. The depth at which this occurs will depend on the composition and initial pressure of the influx, and the mud composition, pressure and temperature gradient. Although gas solubility makes drilling with OBM more hazardous due to the possible sudden gas breakout near surface during normal (open) circulation, well control is not compromised as the basic principles of kick detection (increased flow, pit gain) are the same, though indicators may be muted in high solubility mud systems. 5.6.5. Post Kick
Standard well killing procedures apply for OBM. However, gas present in gas-cut OBM may be difficult to remove completely due to the solubility of gas. This may result in many
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hours circulating to reduce the gas content. This retention of dissolved gas is particularly troublesome in diesel (or near diesel) base oil mud, but appears to be less of a problem with synthetic OBMs. 5.6.6. Bottoms Up
If the presence of dissolved gas in OBM is suspected and it is expected to cause splash problems at surface, the well should be shut in prior to reaching bottoms up. Circulation can be completed via the choke manifold maintaining constant standpipe pressure by choke manipulation if necessary. Wells drilled with a subsea BOP stack that do not have a Riser Gas Handler need to be shut in and circulated across the choke before the suspected influx reaches the BOP's. 5.6.7.
Pressure X 1000psi 8 CH4 6 4 2 0 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 CO2 H2S
Solubility
Gas - Oil Ratio scf/bbl
Figure 5.6.1: Highlights the difference in solubility of H2S, CO2, and CH4 in diesel oil
Depth X 1000ft 8 Pressure X 1000psi
Dissolved Gas 6
4 Free Gas 2
0 0 100 200 300 400 500
Gas - Oil Ratio, scf/bbl
Figure 5.6.2: Shows the bubble point pressures of mixtures of methane and (dieselbased) OBM (s.g. = 1.0985). The diagonal line represents the pressures at which part of the dissolved gas comes out of solution.
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Reiteration: The use of OBM is no excuse for a missed kick. There will always be a surface indicator of a kick in OBM although the effect may be muted. 5.7. Deviated Wells
Hydrostatic pressure is proportional to True Vertical Depth, and circulating pressure is approximately proportional to Measured Depth. Therefore, the pressure response of standpipe and choke manifold in deviated holes will not be the same as for vertical holes when applying a kill schedule for a method using an increase in mud weight. Of particular note is the fact that the pressure reduction plot accounting for deviation, while pumping kill mud from surface to the bit, is not a straight line. It is necessary to calculate a pressure reduction plot that accounts for deviation, otherwise there is danger that:
In a simple deviated well (vertical, build up and tangent sections) there will be a continuous overbalance. (See also the effect of tapered strings on kill schedules, Section 5.5) This overbalance can act as an additional Safety Factor, and depending on its magnitude can induce losses. The complications of losses during well control are generally not desired. (see Figure 5.7.1) Lower than necessary pressure may be applied in drop sections, with the risk of underbalance and another influx entering the well. This is particularly important with a tapered drill string. See Section 5.5
During the Well Control Planning stage it will normally be necessary to calculate a pressure reduction plot that accounts for deviation, and compare it with the traditional straight line kill schedule. If the overbalance is likely to induce losses, or if the indications are that formations will be underbalanced, the deviated kill schedule must be used where an increase in mud weight is planned.
SIDPP
P R E S S U R E
Traditional Kill Schedule

OVERBALANCE UNDERBALANCE
ICP
S-Well Kill Schedule

SCR
FCP
VERTICALSECTION TO KOP
BUILD
TANGENT SECTION
DROP
PUMP STROKES OR TIME
Figure 5.7.1: Typical standpipe kill schedule for an S-profile well. The procedure to construct the Wait & Weight standpipe pressure kill plot for a deviated well is as follows:
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Divide the well profile into its major sections. i.e. Vertical section to kick off, Build section, Tangent section, Drop section. Plot the Initial Circulating Pressure (Pst) at time, volume or strokes zero. Calculate and plot the Final Circulating Pressure (Pc2) when the new mud has reached the bit (end of phase I). Calculate and plot the standpipe circulating pressure (P'x') when the new mud has reached each of the transition points along the hole.
Connect the points obtained in 2, 3 and 4 with straight line sections. This line represents an approximation of the correct standpipe pressure to maintain by choke manipulation, whilst pumping the new mud from surface to the bit. The total standpipe pressure P'x' at any point 'x' is calculated by: P'x' = Pst + {(Pc2 - Pc1) x V'x'/Vtotal} - {D'x'TVD x (2 1} Where: 'x' is the crossover point P'x' Pst Pc2 Pc1 V'x' = standpipe pressure when the kill mud reaches point 'x' (kPa, psi) = initial circulating pressure (kPa, psi) = final circulating pressure (kPa, psi) = slow circulating rate pressure (kPa, psi) = string volume to point 'x' (m3, bbls) = TVD of point 'x' (m, ft)
Vtotal = total string volume (m3, bbls) D'x'TVD 2 1 = kill mud density (kPa/m, psi/ft) = original mud density (kPa/m, psi/ft)
Note that this problem only occurs for Wait & Weight method kills. When using the Driller's method, in the second circulation the choke manifold pressure is held constant until the kill density mud reaches the bit. The standpipe pressure will automatically follow the correct pressure reduction provided there is no gas in the hole. Deviation from the pressure reduction plot should be investigated. In practice, the trick to handling tapered strings and/or deviated wells using the Wait & Weight method is to realize that the standard kill sheet plot is not designed to compensate for these effects. A standard kill sheet graph tricks the operator into holding a pressure profile which is incorrect. The heavy mud going down the string will always act correctly, getting rid of a certain amount of shut-in pressure for each increment of TVD which is pumped. If faced with a deviated well or tapered string, the secret is to get the choke sized correctly whilst holding the correct surface casing pressure at the start of the kill. Thereafter just take your hands off the choke and observe the drill pipe pressure. On a deviated well the pressure profile will initially decline faster that the standard sheet predicts, and slower than predicted on a tapered string situation. The impact is all over with when the heavy mud reaches the bit.
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5.8.
Horizontal Wells
Well control situations in horizontal wells should be a very rare occurrence. In general, horizontal sections are confined to the reservoir. Therefore, if the well did not kick when the reservoir was first penetrated and no primary well control factor has changed, then the only kicks should be from swabbing. 5.8.1. Swabbing
Swabbing is more likely to occur in horizontal wells than in others because of the everpresent cuttings bed. Every precaution should be taken to avoid it. However, there is some degree of tolerance in that actual underbalance causing well flow as a result of swabbing should be rare as:
An influx cannot migrate in the horizontal section (90+) and thus cannot expand and unload mud from the vertical section; The presence of an influx in the horizontal section, no matter how large, does not affect bottom hole hydrostatic pressure.
Whenever swabbing is suspected, the bit should be run back to bottom and the influx circulated out, through the choke if necessary. Every precaution should be taken when running in, as the drillstring may displace the influx into the non-horizontal hole and create an underbalance. If however, a swabbed gas influx finds its way out of the horizontal section, it may migrate very rapidly and very quickly induce a kick. As with any other well, killing a swab kick does not require an increase of mud density and is therefore killed using the Driller's method assuming the bit is on bottom or at the deepest point. There is no need to construct complex graphs or to deal with the mathematics of 90 hole. If the string is off bottom the options are similar as for other holes. Either:
Apply the volumetric method and wait for the gas to migrate above the bit; kill the well using the Driller's method; run to bottom and circulate out (through the choke) the gas trapped in the horizontal section. It may be prudent to do this in stages if there is a long horizontal section. OR Strip back to the start of the horizontal section; kill the well by the Driller's method; Run to bottom as above.
The option of bullheading may be viable if the reservoir is naturally fractured carbonates. 5.8.2. On Bottom Drilling Kick
On rare occasions it may be possible to drill through a sealing fault into a higher pressured reservoir compartment. This can kick, and can be dealt with in the same manner as for any other well with a kick on bottom. The Driller's method will most likely be used as the Wait & Weight will not provide any benefit. Some Interesting Points 1. The initial shut-in drillpipe pressure and the initial shut-in choke manifold pressure will be equal if the influx is still within the horizontal section.
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2. 3. 4. 5.
It is not possible to calculate the influx gradient so the influx type cannot be estimated. The initial shut in pressures will both give a measure of formation pressure. Since free gas always migrates upwards, be aware of the well profile. When a kick or swabbing occurs, the influx takes place distributed over the entire exposed horizontal reservoir section at once. Distribution will be proportional to the relative permeability along the section. The reservoir overbalance at the "beginning" of the horizontal section is the same as the "end". Possible dispersion effect in the horizontal section will take place (depending on hole and flow conditions) which may result in long circulating times to get the mud in the well gas free and filled with the proper weight mud. Lower than expected annular pressures will occur due to the dispersion effect. High annular velocities may be required to flush gas from the horizontal section. If the Wait & Weight method is used, a standpipe kill graph for a deviated well should be used to ensure that the correct bottom hole pressure is applied during the well killing process. An assumed bottom hole angle of 89 should be used. The TVD of the "deepest" part of the horizontal section should be used for hydrostatic pressure-related calculations. In principle, well control situations should not be critical since the casing is normally set directly above the production zone.
6. 7.
8. 9. 10.
11.
See WCSD Multilateral Well Control on the Shell Web for further information. 5.9. Multilateral Wells
Multilaterals are becoming more common due to an increasing requirement to drain small isolated accumulations or areas of un-swept pay. They pose a challenge in terms of well control as each bore may have penetrated a different pressure regime and have the potential to kick while only the active bore will be available for an on-bottom kill.
5.9.1.
TAML Classification
Multilateral wells are classified according to the TAML System, which groups wells on an ascending scale from 1 to 6, based on their degree of mechanical / pressure integrity. In short, these are: Level 1: Generally comprise barefoot mother-bore/laterals with the junction(s) in open hole. Level 2: Cased and cemented mother-bore, barefoot or slotted liner hung off in open hole. Level 3: As Level 2 but lateral liner anchored to mother-bore but not cemented. Level 4: Both bores cased and cemented at the junction. Level 5: Pressure integrity at the junction(s) achieved with the completion. Level 6: Pressure integrity at the junction(s) achieved with the casing.
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As with any well, the need for effective well control should be a key consideration in the design and planning of a multilateral. The TAML classification should be selected on the anticipated risks from each bore and to facilitate effective isolation if required. It is recommended that the WCSD Multilateral Well Control report be read in full prior to the design or operational phases of a multilateral well.
5.9.2.
Risks Different reservoir pressure in each bore and therefore different kill weight mud. Potential for both (or all) bores to flow simultaneously. Potential for cross-flow of well fluids while drilling and during kill operations. Potential difficulty in getting kill mud to a kicking passive lateral. Variable (and possibly unknown) kick tolerance along both bores and junction. Narrow bore laterals increase potential for a swabbed kick. Long high angle sections through the reservoir increase the potential kick intensity. Hazard Mitigation / Recommendations
The well control hazards which may be presented by a multilateral include:

5.9.3.
Due to the potential well control hazards associated with multilateral wells, the following should be considered.
In high risk wells, where possible do not perforate the main bore until the liner has been run in the lateral and the junction has been pressure tested. If pre-perforation or sand screens are a requirement of the main bore, consider a recoverable packer below the whipstock. It is generally considered, that the time of greatest risk is when re-entering the main bore after completing the lateral. ECD will be relatively higher when drilling a lateral due to the smaller hole size and high deviation (with resultant cuttings beds). This will result in a greater reduction in bottom hole pressure when circulation stops. It is important to flow check the well whenever the pumps are shut down. In order to avoid a swabbed kick when pulling out of a lateral: Ensure mud is conditioned to optimise rheology. Keep tripping speed below the maximum allowable indicated by swab-surge software. Pump out of the hole. Kick Detection
5.9.4.
The surface indications of a kick in a conventional well also apply to multilateral wells. (See Section 3.4). However, as the situation may develop where losses occur in one bore while another flows, surface indications can be masked.
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There are some signs that may be used to identify an influx in the active lateral. These include: If After The Well Is Shut In
The shut-in casing pressure (SICP) is slightly higher than the shut-in drill pipe pressure (SIDPP) when the lateral is non-horizontal. There may be a decrease in pump pressure, which may be accompanied by an increase in pump speed (particularly if the lateral is non-horizontal) Hook load may increase (if the lateral is non horizontal) due to reduction in string buoyancy. There may be a drilling break (due to decreased chip hold-down effect).
If While The Influx Is Actually Entering The Lateral (i.e. Active Bore)
NB: The signs above are only valid in the early stages of the kick when the influx is still below the junction. Additionally, one or more of the signs MAY occur, i.e. the effect is not guaranteed. An influx in the passive mother-bore can be confirmed by the following signs during the well shut-in period if:
SIDPP is equal or close to SICP (when the active lateral is non-horizontal)
NB: Again, this is only valid in the early stages of the kick when the influx is still below the junction. 5.9.5. Shut In Procedure
The shut-in procedures as described in Section 3.5.6 will apply to multilateral wells. Some additional points should be noted if the well bores are drilled at high angle. When the kick occurs in a high angle or horizontal hole section SIDPP is equal or close to SICP, this is because the influx causes nil or minimal reduction in the annular hydrostatic pressure.
Zero shut-in pressure indicates that the formation is not under balanced, but it does not mean there is no influx. Together with a positive pit gain, it may indicate that the influx (caused by swabbing or failing to keep the hole full) is still in the horizontal section. The conventional method of determining influx density / type (gas/water/oil) based on pit gain and shut-in pressures can not be applied if the kick is taken from a high angle or horizontal hole section. A gas influx MAY be recognised by a gradual increase in shut in pressure but this will be subject to hole geometry and mud rheology (& type, i.e. OBM). Kill Method
5.9.6.
The kill process may be complicated due to the number of variables which could be involved. In order to simplify the process, a decision tree has been produced. This forms part of Appendix WCSD Multilateral Well Control report but has been extracted for use in this document and appears on the following page.
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No/Maybe
Take a kick & Shut Well In
Assess Shutin Parameters
Is kick from active lateral?
Assess results of circulation Consider increasing MW & then taking required intervention steps in kicked lateral
Definitely
Well dead?
Yes
No Perform W & W or avoid pump press. Schedule & perform Drillers method(Use KWM(1)). Monitor circ. very closely to ensure well not unloading Definitely Is kick from active lateral? Maybe Mix KWM (1) & perform 2nd circ. of Drillers method. Maintain choke press. until KWM @ JUNCTION. Assess new SIPs & take required action. Monitor circ. very closely to ensure well not unloading Mix KWM (2) & perform 2nd circ. of Drillers method. Maintain choke press. Until KMW @ JUNCTION. No
Mix KWM(1) & perform 2 circ. of Drillers method. Monitor circ. very closely to ensure well not unloading
nd
KWM (1) based on Bit Depth

Finish kill, adjust MW if required
Assess new SIPs & confirm kill achieved. Monitor circ. very closely to ensure well not unloading
Yes
Is kick from active lateral?
KWM (2) based on Junction Depth
No Circulate with KWM(2). Maintain choke press. Until KWM @ junction Intervene in Passive as Required
Figure 5.9.1: Multilateral Well Kill Decision Tree
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5.10.
Slim Hole Drilling
Well control in slim holes is achieved using the same principles as are used in any other size of hole, that is generally the maintenance of BHP at or slightly above reservoir pressure, whilst maintaining hole integrity. However, because of the hole, casing and drill string geometry, the influence of the high annulus frictional losses may differ widely from what is observed in conventional geometry wells. i.e. in conventional wells the annulus friction pressure drop is used as a (small) safety factor to help maintain BHP above reservoir pressure. In a slim hole well, if not taken into account, this frictional pressure loss could cause formations in the open hole to fracture/take fluid, so making the well kill more difficult. Refer to:
The Shell Slim Well Guide EP 94-5000 Guidelines for drilling, evaluation and completion of wells with a hole size at total depth of 4-3/4 or less. Introduction
5.10.1.
Well Control for slim hole well operations, requires particular attention on effective kick detection due to
The increased vertical height of even small influxes (normally one barrel detection is recommended); On the impact of the high annular circulating friction pressures while pumping On the increased chances to swab in an influx.
These high annular circulating friction pressures may lead to fluid losses while circulating. If formation breakdown results, the liquid column may decrease, allowing a kick to occur. It is also possible to inadvertently be drilling in underbalanced conditions with high ECDs preventing the well from flowing. However, any time the pumps are shut down, the potential for flow from the well exists. As discussed above, the selection of pump rates may be critical. Kill rate speed and pressures must keep the annular friction manageable i.e. so the choke is not fully open. The use of downhole pressure sensor tools to determine annular friction is recommended. If unavailable then calculations of circulating friction pressure loss should be performed. Due to the smaller annular clearance the swabbing potential increases dramatically. Calculations for trip speed at a given depth should be made and followed. 5.10.2. The Factors
Low Circulation Rates Because of the small annular clearances, sufficient cuttings lift velocity and thus hole cleaning can be achieved with low mud circulation rates. Even at low circulation rates it is not uncommon to have turbulent flow conditions in the annulus. Turbulence assists in fragmentation and dispersion of gas bubbles and results in lower annulus kill pressures than would otherwise be expected.
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Short Lag Time Bottoms-up and cuttings arrive relatively quickly after drilling a specific formation, therefore indications of approach to a high pressure zone should be visible on surface that much earlier, together with shorter kill times. Low Circulating Pressure Unlike standard wells, the annulus friction pressure may represent a larger proportion of the total. This means that small changes in annulus flow conditions may be reflected in a detectable change in total system pressure loss. High ECD High annulus circulating friction pressure results in high bottom hole equivalent circulating density. This can mask the fact that a high pressure zone that is not overbalanced by the mud hydrostatic pressure may have been penetrated. The well may not kick until the rotary and/or circulation is stopped. ECD must be known at all times for a range of circulation rates with the current mud in the hole. (Slim Hole Slow Circulation Rates, SCRs). This data is needed for secondary well control. High Swab & Surge Swab and surge pressures are closely related to annulus circulating friction pressure. A system with high ECD will also experience high swab and surge. Particular caution is required when tripping in slim holes. A trip tank with very high sensitivity is essential. Low Influx Rates The rate at which an influx can enter the hole is limited by the hole geometry and the small annular clearances. Influx rate causes an increase in annular velocity which in turn results in higher ECD thus limiting the rate of influx. Additionally, the small hole size itself tends to restrict the rate of influx. Low Kick Tolerance Characteristic of slim holes because a small influx occupies a large height in the annulus. 5.10.3. Well Control
Primary Well Control Secondary well control in slim hole is recognised as being potentially more hazardous than more conventional wells. Therefore, it is absolutely imperative that primary control is maintained. Every possible indicator should be used to forewarn of possible entry to a high-pressure transition zone and mud density should be adjusted accordingly. Additionally, only the very best practices should be used whilst tripping and in execution of all other operations. Secondary Well Control Early Kick Detection Since a small volume of influx fills a large height in the annulus, a small gas kick can have a very large impact on maximum well pressures. If a kick occurs, every effort must be made to limit the size of the influx by detecting it as early as possible. This can be achieved by:
Crew training. Rapid response times are essential; Sensitive flow out measuring instrumentation;
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Accurate flow in / flow out measurement and comparison; Sensitive pit level indicator on a small volume active pit; Sensitive pit volume totalizer. Continuous calculated / actual standpipe pressure comparison; Long and thorough flow checks after drilling a section and circulation is stopped. The well may kick as the pore pressure gradient of the newly drilled formation could be higher than the hydrostatic mud gradient. Drilling breaks should be treated as potential kick situations. The well should be closed in immediately after circulation is stopped after each drilling break and the well observed for any pressure build up. When circulating bottoms up, the well should be closely monitored for any kick indications (e.g. increased mud returns, pit level increase, change in pump pressure). Sensitive trip tank calibration and monitoring, with constant circulation across the wellhead whilst tripping. Pumping out of hole (inside the casing as well as in open hole) should be considered to avoid swabbing. The well must be shut in as rapidly as possible whenever a kick is detected or even if there is reasonable suspicion that it may be happening. With the pump still running and, if possible, the rotary still turning, pull back to place a tooljoint above rotary and correct space out for the BOP; Stop the rotary and the pump; Secure the well using hard shut in. Kill Procedure
Rapid Shut-in
5.10.4.
Conventional kill start-up procedures should be used if it has been determined that high annulus pressure will not cause formation breakdown. A slim hole well is a well where slim hole well control must be used, therefore some upfront Engineering together with continuous checking during the well construction must be carried out to determine the effect of the annulus friction pressures. In case of a weaker formation or any uncertainty, a modified startup procedure should be used. The Driller's method should typically be used since the Wait & Weight method may give no advantage because of the reduced annular volume. i.e. The influx may be circulated to surface before high density mud reaches the bit. Kill circulation rate should be as high as necessary to take full advantage of the high annulus circulating friction pressure and to help fragment and disperse the gas bubble. The rate should not be so high as to cause the choke to be fully open, or to exceed the capacity of other surface equipment. As an aid to minimising Shoe Pressure, the kill circulating rate should be that rate which produces annulus circulating friction pressure which equals initial shut-in choke manifold pressure (from SCRs).
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At startup, in critical wells, it is only necessary to hold a small safety margin on the choke, thereafter manipulating the choke to maintain constant standpipe pressure until the influx is circulated from the hole. Well control software is helpful in determining the optimum circulation rate and choke manifold back pressure. The choke pressure can be reduced by the major part of annulus circulating friction pressure except for approximately 350 kPa (50psi) maintained as a safety margin. Note that the ECD whilst drilling will not be the same as that calculated for the well kill since there is no rotation factor whilst circulating to kill the well. Pre-recorded information should include calculated volumes and calculated annulus circulating friction pressure loss over a range of circulating rates without rotation. Surface equipment losses and calculated drill string friction pressure loss subtracted from slow circulating rate pressure (SCRs) is used to calculate annulus circulating friction pressure loss. Caution: Although the well may not have flowed whilst circulating prior to taking the kick when the pumps were stopped, it is not safe to attempt to circulate the kick out of the hole without having the BOP closed and maintaining control with the choke. The gas expanding near surface will unload the hole, causing a reduction in bottom hole pressure and allowing another kick to enter the hole. This applies to swab kicks as well as to on bottom drilling kicks. 5.10.5. Practical Considerations
When ECD is high, the probability is that the majority of kicks in SHD will occur when the rotary and pumps are shut down, or of swab kicks while tripping. There should be intense focus on early kick detection in these modes. The flowline flow-out instrument must be capable of detecting a very small rate of flow and there must be a well tested system of visual observation during flow checks. Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) may be necessary to enable the Driller to monitor for flow without leaving the BOP control panel. Hydraulics should be modeled with suitable software.
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EMW Ppg
Shoe Pressure kPa 10000
18
9000 16
A
14
8000
7000
12
6000
10 5000
Figure 5.10.1: Comparison of Shoe Pressure for two kills with different technique for handling annulus circulating friction pressure. A. Kill with circulating overbalance maintained at annulus circulating friction pressure. Startup choke manifold pressure equals initial shut in choke manifold pressure. (This is the normal technique for conventional wells.); Kill with circulating overbalance maintained at 350 kPa (50psi.) Startup choke manifold pressure equals 350 kPa (50psi.) which is 1400 kPa (200psi.) less than initial shut in choke manifold pressure. Drilling with Low Margins
B.
5.11.
The term low margins is used to describe the situation where the fracture or fluid injection pressure is close to either the hydrostatic or dynamic (ECD) pressure of the fluid column. 5.11.1. Background
Fracture gradient is calculated by a number of methods. One of the most important, industry-wide is the Eaton Method, where:
Fracture Gradient Age Corr Sedimentary Basin Correction Poissons Ratio Poissons Ratio Age Corrected Overburden Stress Grad. Pore Press Depth Pore Pres. Depth
1 -0.0125*
Although the actual maths of the equation are not important in the scope of this manual, it can be seen that pore pressure features prominently in the calculation.
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The diagrams below illustrate graphically the relationship of pore pressure and fracture gradient. Both diagrams are of a Gulf of Mexico style model, i.e. continuous sedimentary sequence with no un-conformities or depositional discontinuities. The fracture gradient has been calculated using the Eaton Method.
Normally Pressured
Gradient psi.ft 0.4 0 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85
0 0.4 0.5
Abnormally Pressured
Gradient psi.ft 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
500
500
1000
1000
Depth m
Depth m
1500 Fmn Grad Frac Grad 2000
1500 Fmn Grad Frac Grad 2000
2500
2500
3000
3000
Figure 5.11.1: Pore Pressure/Fracture Gradient Diagrams In the left hand diagram, the well is normally pressured to TD. The fracture gradient rises rapidly with depth to provide a very wide margin. This well can accommodate a wide range mud weights (& ECDs) for example to maintain shale stability. On the right, a range of pore pressures increasing with depth has been input (not actual data). It can be seen that as the pore pressure rises, the fracture gradient also increases but the margin between the two curves decreases. In the deepest section of the well, the margin is very low, considering that the mud and ECD gradients must fall between the two curves. This problem is exacerbated by the fact that heavy muds are also high rheology, meaning that ECDs will be proportionally higher. This pore pressure / fracture gradient / ECD issue is particularly problematic in HPHT wells. Fracture gradients apply to shales and tight formations, however a low margin will also apply to porous, highly permeable formations such as Darcy sands or vugular limestones. Under these conditions, the margin is the difference between the mud weight (& ECD) and the injection pressure of the permeable zone. This scenario can apply to low pressure or sub-pressured (depleted) wells. 5.11.2. The Hazards
There are a number of well control issues associated with low margin drilling:
Direct Kick: By definition, the pressure gradient is never far below the mud gradient. As pore pressures, particularly in high-pressure zones have an erratic profile, the risk of penetrating an isolated zone of slightly higher pressure is ever present. Underground Blowout: Again as the pore pressure profile is likely to be erratic, a kick taken on bottom may fracture the formation higher in the hole or flow to a permeable zone while being circulated out.
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Swabbed Kick: As the overbalance margin is low, swabbed kicks on connections and while tripping are always a risk Loss of Primary Control: Catastrophic mud losses leading to a kick are a realistic probability, even in low-pressure wells. Case Study
5.11.3.
The Brent Field (Shell Expro NBU) is undergoing depressurisation to recover gas from the residual high GOR oil. As the reservoir is blown-down below bubble point, the pore pressure drops accordingly. This has a direct influence on the fracture gradient through the reservoir and Low Margin Drilling techniques are now standard practice in the Brent field. Problems include
Isolated lenses of virgin pressure pay Mud losses to depleted sands Mud weight to maintain hole stability in the cap rock (Kimmeridge) is higher than the new reservoir fracture pressure(s).
The despite the hazards, the Brent teams have not suffered a significant well control incident. They have evolved a system termed ECD Management, a combination of good oilfield practice and awareness training. See Brent Challenge In Well Construction on Shell Web. 5.11.4. Guidelines
Optimise the casing design to limit the exposure Maximise annular clearances to limit the ECD. PHPA mud can give significantly lower circulating pressures compared to conventional WBM or OBM (although its use is best restricted to top-drive rigs). Minimise flow rates to reduce EDC Ensure mud rheology is optimised to avoid un-necessarily high PV/YP In extreme cases, consider keeping Trip Mud on surface, i.e. slowly circulate the hole to a slightly heavier mud prior to POOH. Although costly in time and chemicals, this removes the need for a trip margin on the drilling mud and therefore lower MW/ECD. Pay particular attention to swab AND surge when tripping When making a connection, do not work the pipe with the pumps off, continue circulating until the string is set in the slips. Circulate to break the gels regularly when RIH, minimising the initial ECD on bottom. Consider Under Balance Drilling (UBD) with rotating BOP etc. See Section 5.13. Persistent thief zones may be squeezed-off with cement
See also Section 8.
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5.12.
HPHT
Definition: Exploration and appraisal wells where the undisturbed bottom hole temperature is greater than 300F (150C) and where either: the maximum anticipated pore pressure gradient of any formation exceeds 0.8psi/ft, (18.1kPa/m, 15.4ppg) or pressure control equipment with a rated working pressure in excess of 10kpsi (69,000kPa) is required will be termed High Pressure, High Bottom Hole Temperature wells, or HPHT. The following guidelines apply to operations on this type of well. 5.12.1. General
In HPHT wells, the margin between fracture gradient and pore pressure gradient is small. Formation breakdown is always a possibility. HPHT wells also have a tendency towards hydrate problems. Mud expansion due to heating is a very common phenomenon in HPHT wells. The expansion rate will depend on the initial temperature differential between the bottom of the hole and the mud. It may take days for the fluid column to achieve equilibrium with the geothermal gradient but in general most expansion takes place in the first few hours.
Note: A number of Shell OU HPHT manuals are available, refer to the Bibliography. 5.12.2. Equipment
The high pressure overboard lines should be rigged up and function tested with seawater prior to drilling out the last casing shoe. The glycol injection system must be ready for use and function tested prior to drilling out the last casing shoe. All elastomers exposed to high temperature on the BOP etc. must be capable of withstanding the maximum anticipated temperatures plus a safety margin. All pipework down stream of the choke must be suitable for operation in extremely low temperatures due to the severe chilling effect of expanding gas. Drilling
5.12.3.
The following should be available prior to drilling out:
One hole volume plus 20% excess of high density mud weighted to 0.1psi/ft (2.5kPa/m, 2ppg) above the mud in use. Sufficient barite to weight up the entire active system to the maximum expected pore pressure equivalent plus 0.1psi/ft (2.5kPa/m, 2ppg). Sufficient cement and chemicals to cement off the entire open hole section plus 200% excess.
The mixing of mud in the active system or the transfer of mud to the active system will not be condoned while drilling into or drilling through an HPHT zone. If this
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becomes necessary, drilling operations must be suspended for the duration of the mixing / transferring activity.
Trip gas must be circulated out after a trip and prior to drilling ahead. For safety reasons, the latter part of this circulation should be conducted with the BOPs closed and returns via the choke manifold whilst maintaining 350 - 700kPa (50 - 100psi) backpressure. The well must be flow checked after any drilling break or any indications of a kick. The flow check must be for 15 minutes with slow pipe rotation. In HPHT wells, the temperature of the returning mud flow (Mud Temperature Out MTO) can be a good indication of an approaching transition zone. The mudloggers must monitor MTO constantly for any fluctuation. It must be noted that above the transition zone, the MTO may drop due to the so called thermal shadow effect before rising sharply once the zone is penetrated. If the background gas rises but not associated with a kick situation the mud may be weighted-up to control the level. However, weighing-up can lead to further problems
Losses due to the narrow pore pressure / fracture gradient margins associated with HPHT wells. Ballooning of shales giving unexpected returns of mud and potentially destabilising the hole. Super charging of sands leading to give-take or loss-gain situations
In the situations above, the decision to weight-up or not must be made on the evidence available. If it is certain that the gas is not due to a kick, the well should be circulated off- bottom through the de-gasser until background gas drops to an acceptable level. On HPHT wells, casing wear may become an issue critical to well control. The following guidelines are recommended:
The wear bushing should be pulled regularly and inspected for wear. A ditch magnet (several) should be placed in the header tank or flowline and checked regularly for metal returns. The magnet should be cleaned hourly if possible, particularly during slow drilling, and the swarf washed and dried. The samples should be weighed and reported as grams per hour or grams per thousand revolutions. If available, casing wear program such as Wear2000 or Cwear should be run while drilling. If casing wear is anticipated, a baseline multifinger caliper survey should be run prior to drilling into any potential HPHT zones. Additional surveys may be run as required, determined by metal returns or wear program output.
5.12.4. Tripping
Tripping in HPHT wells, particularly POOH can be very different to normal holes, for example:
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In water based mud, the trip tank may rise significantly faster than the hole takes mud to replace steel volume. This increase is due to thermal expansion of the mud after circulation has stopped. In oil based mud, the same effect can be seen but in addition there may be complications due to the slightly compressive nature of the base oil. Due to the extreme pressures and temperatures involve, the volume increase due to relaxation of the energy stored in the system may be considerable.
The above phenomena are difficult to predict with accuracy at the well planning phase, However, once on the well, abnormal responses must be assumed to be indications of a kick until proven otherwise. Mud expansion rates during flow checks and pulling pipe must be recorded as a rate since circulation stopped and used as a bench mark for all subsequent trips out the hole. This technique is also termed finger printing the well. The data should be recorded as in the following example:
Pump slug and pumps of at time zero. Zero to zero plus 30 minutes Zero plus 30m to 2 hours 2 hours to 5 hours
x bbls per hour y bbls per hour z bbls per hour
A check trip on bottom is a technique often used on HPHT wells. The well is flow checked on the trip tank for 15 minutes and the kelly cock shut. The string is then pulled back the length of a stand (or as high as possible if a kelly rig) and run back down to TD say five times, to simulate the pulling of five stands. The well is then flow checked on the trip tank for 15 minutes and then bottoms up circulated. When bottoms up are 600m (2000ft) below the BOP continue circulation through the choke, maintaining constant standpipe pressure with choke manipulation if necessary. At bottoms up, check shakers for cavings and confirm any swabbed gas peak with the mudloggers. Flow check again, and if the well is stable, pump a slug and POOH. The importance of accurate flow checks cannot be overstated. These should be performed
On bottom prior to POOH. At the casing shoe At a point half way between the shoe and the BOP Prior to pulling the BHA through the BOP
And at any time the hole fill deviates from the expected In short, the string should not be pulled if there is any doubt that the hole is in a stable condition.
Remember: A negative flow check means that the permeable zones in the well are apparently balanced by the mud column. It does NOT mean that there is NOT an influx in the hole.
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5.12.5.
Secondary Well Control
The Driller's method is usually the technique of choice for circulating well control after an apparent well flow. The reasons behind this include:
It is often very difficult to determine an accurate stabilised shut-in drillpipe pressure. The Driller's method can be employed to remove the influx first, then determine the required kill mud density. If there is potential for hydrate formation, the influx should be removed by the fastest means possible, before it has time to cool.
Annulus circulating friction is often very high. Allowance should be made for this fact to avoid formation breakdown. See Section 8. 5.13. Underbalanced Drilling
Underbalanced drilling (UBD) refers to the practice of drilling a well with the drilling fluid hydrostatic pressure below the formation pore pressure. Well control equipment, drilling fluids, practices and procedures are in place to allow UBD wells to be drilled with one or more formations flowing. This section indicates differences in well control practices. The Dynamic Annular Pressure Control technique may be used to drill with underbalanced mud but to maintain balance or predetermined overbalance by use of computer controlled devices to control annulus pressure. 5.13.1. Objectives
Formation damage reduction through reduction or removal of overbalance. Optimised casing schemes e.g. in deepwater drilling. Improved well control, for example avoiding mud density increases. Primary Well Control
5.13.2.
When considered in terms of conventional drilling practice, UBD could be considered as a continuous exercise in well control. The conventional concept of primary well control must be modified to include special pressure equipment to provide pressure containment in addition to the mud hydrostatic pressure. UBD equipment and procedures are described in the Gas Research Institute UBD Manual. 5.13.3. Secondary Well Control
Reasons to initiate secondary well control are;
Failure of surface equipment, Approaching or exceeding the boundaries of the operating envelope of the equipment in use.
The main significant threats to primary control will be from human error or special pressure equipment malfunction or failure. If primary control is lost then the well can be shut in with the conventional BOP whilst the problem is rectified, or, if absolutely necessary, the well can be killed. Details of kill
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techniques are well specific and beyond the scope of this manual and should be included in the well programme. The required volume of inhibited kill fluid of the correct density should always be on hand. 5.14. Mud Cap Drilling
This is a drilling technique that can be applied when a well is experiencing total dynamic mud loss to a thief zone at or near bottom, and it is not safe and/or practical to drill completely blind. Well Control in Pressured mud cap and Floating mud cap operations is reviewed in this section. 5.14.1. Applicable Circumstances
Mud Cap drilling can only be applied when there are total mud losses, i.e. there are no mud returns to surface when attempting to circulate. This total mud loss may be natural, in which case a Floating mud cap is used, or induced by applying pressure at surface in the case of Pressured mud cap 5.14.2. Pressured Mud Cap
The annulus from surface to the loss zone is bullheaded full with viscous mud. Drilling continues through a Rotating BOP (RBOP) pumping a low cost drilling fluid such as seawater through the bit. Viscous mud can be squeezed into the annulus at a rate to overcome any gas migration. 5.14.3. Floating Mud Cap
Exactly the same principle applies. The difference being that the density of the annulus mud is adjusted (if necessary) to maintain 100% primary well control. The annulus must continue to take fluid. If even partial mud returns begin, the BOP must be closed and more mud bullheaded into the annulus. 5.14.4. Well Control
Well control is always maintained by bullheading. Circulating techniques cannot be applied because of the mud loss situation. It is not uncommon to require bullheading several times during trips. Float valves must always be run in the drill string. 5.14.5. Planning
These techniques invariably consume huge volumes of mud and water, which must be readily available. The thief zone must be effectively sealed-off, usually with gunk squeezes. The equipment and procedures must therefore be in place to effect these cures. Drilling procedures are detailed in the Gas Research Institute (GRI) Underbalanced Drilling Manual.
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5.15.
Dynamic Annular Pressure Control
There are several methods of well control that utilise circulating friction pressure to maintain overbalance when mud hydrostatic pressure is inadequate. The success of these methods is dependent on the amount of friction pressure that can be developed. Hole and drill string geometry, mud properties and circulation rate are the chief influencing factors. 5.15.1. Dynamic Kill
This is a technique most often used to kill blowouts from a relief well. In essence, if enough mud (or water) of suitable density can be pumped into the out-of-control well fast enough the friction pressure (back pressure) created by this mud being blown out tends to progressively reduce the rate of inflow until the well is killed. It almost invariably requires large volumes of mud and high pumping capacity. These kills are always conducted by blowout control specialists who have developed sophisticated software to model the kill process. 5.15.2. Low Choke Method
This is the name usually given to a procedure that may be undertaken when MAASP is reached whilst circulating out a gas kick. The procedure is discussed in Section 3.5 under MAASP and is not recommended. 5.15.3. No Choke Method
This is normally the technique applied to kill shallow gas kicks. The well cannot be shut in and cannot be controlled by choke once the well is diverting. Primary control can only be regained by filling the hole with mud of the required density. This can only be achieved if the combination of mud hydrostatic pressure and dynamic annulus friction pressure exceeds formation pressure. In essence it means that a large volume of heavy mud must be pumped at the fastest possible rate. To this end the following points are noted:
Small holes generate more dynamic friction pressure than larger ones. This is usually insignificant because of the short hole length in top hole. The decision to drill a pilot hole can rarely be justified on this factor alone. A given volume of mud occupies a much longer vertical column in a small diameter hole than in a larger one. There should be minimum internal restrictions in the drillstring so that very high pump rates can be achieved without exceeding surface pressure ratings. i.e. There should be no jets in the bit and there should be no restrictive down hole tools such as motors or MWDs. External restrictions such as large diameter drillcollars and stabilizers assist the process. Pump liners should be sized to deliver the maximum flow rate possible. This may not be the maximum liner diameter for the pump as pressure rating may be the limiting factor. A pit of kill mud should be available for immediate pumping. Diverters are generally not reliable over long periods, therefore the kill must be effected promptly.
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Water flows from artesian aquifers are commonly killed using the no choke technique. The well usually flows because it is drilled with water. There is usually only a small increase in mud density required for balance. This is usually achieved by increasing the circulation rate and "mudding-up" whilst continuing to drill. Drill solids and the cuttings load assist the kill process. See Sections 5.11 and 7.5. 5.16. Coring Considerations
Although an important data gathering exercise and standard technique, coring is potentially dangerous from a well control point of view. 5.16.1. The Risks
In coring, a representative sample of reservoir is brought to surface, including:
rock liquids gases (hydrocarbons and H2S) pressures (in the pore spaces) stresses (in the rock matrix)
In practice, the sample will not be fully representative as fluids will tend to be flushed while the core is being cut and gas pressure will reduce to surface conditions as the core is POOH. However, there are risks associated with certain circumstances:
Low permeability rocks will have a tendency to retain fluids and/or gas and therefore de-pressurisein an unpredictable manner, while on route to surface. Even a core from a normally pressured reservoir can contain a considerable volume of gas at surface pressures and temperatures. If de-gassing occurs unexpectedly, the well could unload and / or the reduction in bottom hole pressure could allow an influx into the hole. The gas may unload up the drill string. A drop in dart or coring compatible NRV should always be deployed before POOH. 1% H2S in the core gas phase can pose a considerable risk to the drill crew. Old rocks or rocks in tectonically active areas may be highly stressed when cut. These stresses will be released, possibly in an explosive fashion. It is not unknown for a core to de-stress in the barrel with dramatic results. Under certain, but not unusual combinations of permeability, pressure and tectonics, the core can de-stress with an associated rapid release of gas compounding the hazards. In HPHT wells the potential for problems and their effects are considerably worse.
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5.16.2.
Guidelines
In virgin structures, carefully consider the need for a core particularly in potentially HPHT regions. Would a sophisticated logging suite suffice? (image logs etc.) Coring should only take place in a stable hole. The target zone should be penetrated by an agreed depth (2 -3m) and bottoms up circulated. A flow check and check trip must be used to confirm the well is in balance prior to POOH. Core barrels have a large outside diameter relative to the hole size which significantly increases the risk of swabbing on trips and connections. This must be carefully assessed using swab surge calculations to determine safe tripping speeds. In wildcat or HPHT wells, consider limiting the first core to 9m (30ft). This will reduce the amount of gas that may be brought to surface. Subsequent cores may be 27m (90ft) if circumstances permit. Prior to cutting a core (including subsequent cores) bottoms-up should be circulated. As bottoms up nears the surface, 600 - 1200m (2000 4000ft) below the BOP, circulation should continue through the choke. Constant standpipe pressure must be maintained by choke manipulation if necessary. While core is being cut, there may well be drilling breaks. In most instances a drilling break will be indicative only of change of porosity and not of increased pore pressure. The decision whether to flow check, and how to flow check must be decided prior to running the core barrel. i.e.
Can the corehead be left on bottom to avoid breaking the core? (top drive) Is it a HPHT well? Always flow check Very low risk well? Continue coring and monitor the well on the active pit?
While the core is being POOH, the gas will expand according to Boyles Law and the core will expand due to pressure / stress release. In HPHT wells, deep holes, tight formations or areas of tectonic stress it is good practice to allow the core to de-gas / relax on the way out. If the bubble point of the oil is known, this can be used to calculate a depth, otherwise a depth of 600 - 1200m (2000 4000ft) below the BOP should be selected. The following procedure should be applied:
Put BHA on depth Flow check Circulate bottoms up plus 50% through the choke monitoring for gas Flow check and POOH
All circulating well control procedures should be by the Driller's method. Therefore, it is not necessary to obtain slow circulating pressures after dropping the ball and before coring. 5.17. Stripping and Volumetric Well Conrol
The traditional drilling well control methods, the Drillers and the Wait and Weight, are more likely to succeed if the drill string is on or near bottom. This section deals with well control with the string off bottom
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5.17.1.
Overview
The traditional methods have no immediate application in circumstances such as; The pipe is a considerable distance off bottom.
Out of the hole. Stuck off bottom. Plugged bit or drill string. Dropped, parted or sheared drill string.
The control of the well under such circumstances may require the use of techniques (or combinations) such as;
Volumetric. Stripping. Lubrication. Snubbing. Bull heading.
Of these techniques, bullheading and snubbing are covered elsewhere in this manual (Section 3.5 and 5.21). Every rig must be prepared with suitable equipment and personnel training to successfully apply these techniques. It is strongly recommended that these techniques are practised using rig specific procedures. The suitability of these techniques for a particular situation and their method of implementation are well and rig specific. Any Rig specific instructions must be agreed by the OU and Drilling Contractor. 5.17.2. Rig Preparation for Stripping and Volumetric methods
Accurate Pressure Gauges
Adjustable Choke
NRV
Calibrated Trip Tank
Calibrated Strip Tank
Figure 5.17.1: Equipment set-up for combined stripping and volumetric control
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
The trip tank must be calibrated, and a stripping tank must also be installed on the rig. Mud defoamer should be available for use in the trip and stripping tank to ensure a clear interface on the mud to allow accurate gauging. Choice of whether to use a manual or hydraulic choke should be made depending on the rig and its equipment. All gauges used must be of adequate resolution and regularly calibrated. If well pressure exceeds 14,000kPa (2000psi) it may be necessary to use the annular and ram type preventer in sequence in order to pass the tool joint through the BOP preventer. (Annular to ram stripping). It should be noted that this option is very time consuming. On all rigs equipped with a surface BOP stack the annular preventer shall be used whenever possible to strip pipe in hole. Work instructions must be in place for changing out annular elements with pipe in the hole. On all rigs with subsea BOPs only the annular preventer shall be used for stripping. Care should be taken to ensure that rig heave allows the bit to move freely between the annular preventer and the blind/shear ram when entering a well under pressure. Care should also be taken to avoid buckling drill pipe in the marine riser. Recommended BOP closing pressures can be obtained from the manufacturer's BOP operating manuals. These must be readily available on the rig. It is common to dump oil, diesel or viscosified water on the annular BOP to lubricate the string and to apply drill pipe dope or grease to the tooljoint. The fluids used for this purpose must be agreed with the Drilling Contractor and confirmed with the BOP manufacturer for suitability. Slow tool joint stripping speeds reduce surge pressures and prolong the annular preventer service life. Stripping speeds should not exceed 1 m/sec (3 ft/sec). The packing element of an annular preventer must be allowed to expand slightly when a tool joint passes through. The pressure regulator valve of the BOP control unit should be set to provide and maintain the proper control pressure. A surge bottle connected to the closing line of the annular preventer will improve BOP control when stripping tool joints through the annular preventer. The surge bottle may not be necessary if the control pressure can be regulated easily for each tooljoint. When a subsea BOP stack is used, a surge bottle may be installed on the annular preventer opening and closing lines. Where the Drilling Contractor has installed check valves in the control lines to the BOP, with the purpose to ensure that the BOP stays closed if the hydraulic supply is lost, these should be removed to permit fluid movement during stripping operations. Volumetric and Lubrication Methods
6.
7.
8. 9.
10. 11.
12. 13.
5.17.3.
The Volumetric Method can be used to control the expansion of an influx that is migrating during the shut in periods of for example the Wait and Weight method, when the bit or
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BHA is plugged or the pipe is stuck off bottom. The Lubrication Method is used to remove influx fluids from the BOP stack or to lower surface pressures. The simplest form of this method is the Static Volume Method when the drill pipe is available for monitoring bottom hole pressure. The most common requirement for using this method is where there is not enough mud in use or kill weighted mud available to allow the well to be circulated dead with the Drillers or Wait and Weight Method. The procedure is as follows; Volumetric Method Using Drill Pipe Pressure Guidelines 1. 2. 3. Record the initial shut in drill pipe and choke pressures. Prepare an annulus pressure graph as if for the Drillers Method. (The annulus pressure will follow this profile whilst maintaining constant bottom hole pressure) Determine the migration rate. The migration rate can be estimated from two pressure readings, recorded either both on drill pipe or casing, taken at a known time interval apart.
MR = P 2 P1 1 T
m/hr (ft/hr)
where: MR = Migration Rate P1 = Pressure at start P2 = Pressure at end 1 = Mud gradient T = Time Interval 4. 5. m/hr (ft/hr) kPa (psi) kPa (psi) kPa/m (psi/ft) hours
Allow drill pipe pressure to build by an overbalance margin. 350 - 700kPa (50100psi). Allow drill pipe pressure to build up by a further working margin to ensure that the overbalance is maintained as mud is bled from the well. This margin may be 350kPa (50psi) to 1400kPa (200psi), bearing in mind the resultant wellbore pressure and proximity to breakdown pressure. Bleed mud from the annulus to reduce drill pipe pressure by the working margin. It is strongly recommended to bleed mud from the annulus in small increments to allow the drill pipe pressure to respond. The annulus pressure will decrease by a lesser amount. (Compare with graph prepared in 2. above). Bleeding off mud too quickly may result in an unintentional reduction in BHP and allow further influx. Continue steps 5 & 6 until the influx has reached surface. When gas cut mud or influx fluid migrates to reach the BOP the well must be closed in and mud lubricated into the well using the Lubrication Method outlined later.
6.
7. 8.
If the drill pipe pressure is not available to monitor bottom hole pressure, for instance a plugged bit or drill string, the following method should be used. Volumetric Method Using Choke Pressure Guidelines 1. Record the initial shut in drill pipe and choke pressures. Even if the drill pipe is plugged monitor and record the drill pipe pressure throughout the procedure.
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2. 3.
Prepare an annulus pressure graph as if for the Drillers Method. (The same profile is required to maintain constant bottom hole pressure). Determine the migration rate. The migration rate can be estimated from two pressure readings, recorded either both on drill pipe or casing, taken at a known time interval apart.
MR = P 2 P1 1 T
m/hr (ft/hr)
where: MR = Migration Rate P1 = Pressure at start P2 = Pressure at end 1 = Mud gradient T = Time Interval 4. m/hr (ft/hr) kPa (psi) kPa (psi) kPa/m (psi/ft) hours
Calculate hydrostatic pressure per m3 of mud at the point in the annulus directly above the influx.
Ppuv =
where:
1 1973.414 (d
2
dp )
kPa/m3
Ppuv = Hydrostatic pressure (kPa) per unit volume (m3) of mud 1 = Mud gradient dh = Hole or Casing ID dp = Drill string OD OR (for field units)
kPa/m3. kPa/m. inches. inches.
Calculate hydrostatic pressure per bbl of mud at the point in the annulus directly above the influx.
Ppuv =
where:
1 1029.414 (d
2
dp )
psi/bbl
Ppuv = Hydrostatic pressure (psi) per unit volume (bbl) of mud 1 = Mud gradient dh = Hole or Casing ID dp = Drill string OD 5. 6.
psi/bbl. psi/ft. inches. inches.
Allow choke pressure to build by overbalance margin. Convenient values are between 350 and 700kPa (50 and 100 psi). Allow choke pressure to build up by a further Working Margin to ensure that overbalance is maintained as mud is bled from the well. This margin may be 350 to 1400kPa (50 to 200 psi), bearing in mind the resultant wellbore pressure. Bleed mud from the annulus whilst holding choke pressure constant. Volume to bleed is the Working Margin divided by the hydrostatic pressure of mud per unit volume calculated earlier. It is strongly recommended to bleed mud very slowly from
7.
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the annulus. Bleeding off mud too quickly could result in a secondary influx occurring. 8. 9. Continue steps 6 & 7 until the influx has reached surface. With gas cut mud or influx fluid at the BOP the well must be closed in and mud lubricated into the well using the Lubrication Method outlined later.
Having used the Volumetric Method to bring the influx to the stack we now need to vent the influx while maintaining constant bottom hole pressure. On surface stacks the Lubrication Method is used while on subsea stacks a variation known as Dynamic Lubrication or Dynamic Volumetric Method is used. This variation is required because of the complication of monitoring bottom hole pressure through a lengthy choke line that may be full of gas cut mud. These methods may also be used to reduce surface pressures prior to stripping or bullheading. 5.17.4. Lubrication Method Guidelines
During this procedure the volume of mud lubricated into the well at each stage during this procedure will reduce due to the reduction of gas in the well and the consequent loss of compressibility. Because of this it may be required to use the cementing unit or to dress a mud pump with liners sized to accommodate the pressure. If the influx is a result of a swab kick the well pressure should reduce to zero as mud is lubricated. If the drilling mud density is insufficient to balance BHP, surface pressure will reduce to the under-balance on the formation. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Record the initial shut in drill pipe and choke pressures. Even if the drill pipe is plugged monitor and record the drill pipe pressure throughout the procedure. If not already calculated, calculate mud hydrostatic pressure per unit volume at the point in the annulus directly above the influx. (See equations above) Determine the maximum surface pressure to be used to pump to the annulus. Use the lower of MAASP, equipment rating or pump pressure relief valve setting. Slowly pump to the annulus until the desired maximum surface pressure is reached. Stop the pump and shut in. Allow the well to settle, allowing the lubricated mud to fall through the influx. With the well stable, bleed gas from the well to reduce the surface pressure by an amount equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the mud lubricated into the well. If the surface pressure increased after lubricating mud then bleed off this additional pressure as well. Ensure that no significant mud volume is bled from the well. If mud volume is bled then shut in and allow further time for the influx to percolate. Repeat until the influx is bled from the well or until the surface pressure is low enough for stripping. Stripping Procedures
7. 8.
5.17.5.
Stripping is the technique used to move the drill string through the BOP stack with the well under pressure. To avoid over pressuring the well, a volume of mud must be bled off equal to the closed end capacity of the drill pipe and tool joints stripped in. A volume of
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mud should also be bled to allow for influx migration. Procedures concerning the combined stripping and volumetric method are discussed for the following conditions: 1. 2. 1. 2. 3. Bit off bottom. String out of the hole. Close in the well, record Pa and determine Vinflux = initial influx volume m3 (bbl) Install an inside BOP on top of the full opening safety valve used to shut in the well. Open the full opening safety valve and ensure that the inside BOP is not leaking. Allow the closed-in annulus pressure to build up to Pchoke , where:
Bit Off Bottom
Pchoke = Pa + Ps + Pw
and:
kPa (psi)
Pa = initial closed-in annulus pressure before second build-up has taken place Ps = allowance for loss of hydrostatic pressure as the gas rises from below the bit to around the drill collars. Pw = working pressure increment. 4. 5. Commence stripping. Allow the choke pressure to build up to Pchoke = Pa + Ps + Pw without bleeding off any mud. Once the required choke pressure is reached, Pchoke is kept constant whilst additional drill pipe is stripped in the hole. The excess pressure increase with each stand stripped is bled off via the choke manifold into the trip tank. The closed-end pipe displacement of each stripped-in stand of drill pipe is drained from the trip tank into the stripping tank. The string is stripped in the hole until a volume V1 has accumulated in the trip tank.
V1 = Pw
Vann 3 m (bbl) 1
where: Pw = working pressure increment Vann = open hole/DCs annular capacity 1 = mud gradient 6. kPa (psi) m3/m (bbl/ft) kPa/m (psi/ft)
Once the correct mud volume ( V1) has entered the trip tank, the choke is closed and the annular pressure is allowed to rise by the magnitude of Pw by stripping drill pipe into the hole. The closed-end pipe displacement volume should not be bled from the trip tank into the stripping tank during this phase of the operation. It is recommended to strip the complete stand in the hole for each phase of the operation (e.g. whilst maintaining Pchoke constant, or when increasing Pchoke by Pw ) to simplify the bleeding off process from trip tank to stripping tank and to improve the accuracy of V1 measurements which directly results in better control of bottom hole pressures. Stripping is repeated as often as necessary, filling pipe every three to five stands, until one of the following situations arises:
7.
8.
the bit is back on bottom;
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gas has reached surface; stripping is no longer possible (excessive pressures, BOP stack problems, open hole resistance, etc.).
9. Stripping is then stopped and the influx is removed by the chosen circulation method, if the influx is above the bit.
String Out Of Hole If the string is out of the hole when an influx is detected and the closed-in surface pressure allows lowering the first stands of drill stem into the well, stripping should be initiated since it will improve the well control situation. Care must be taken on rigs with a subsea stack to avoid buckling the pipe in the marine riser, in addition the rig heave should not prevent free movement of the string with the bit between blind/shear rams and upper annular preventer. The maximum surface pressure that can be overcome by the weight of the first stand, ignoring the friction between the annular preventer and the string, is calculated as follows:
Maximum surface pressure (kPa) = 6.2
weight of first stand in mud (kN) cross - sectional area of the stand (in )
2
Maximum surface pressure (psi) =
weight of first stand in mud (lb) cross - sectional area of the stand (in )
2
and the minimum weight of pipe to overcome surface pressure (without annular friction) is:
Minimum weight (kN) = 0.161 surface pressure (kPa) cross - sectional area of the stand (sq.ins)
Minimum weight (lb) = surface pressure (psi) cross - sectional area of the stand (sq.ins)
Annular stripping friction cannot be ignored and should be determined in advance during a stripping drill. If it is indicated that the surface pressure is too high to allow stripping i.e. the string must be snubbed in the hole then the rig should attempt to lower surface pressures by using the Lubrication methods outlined earlier. The procedure to enter the string back into the well is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Make up a bit and an inside BOP on the bottom of the first slick stand of drill collars or drill pipe. Use a bit without nozzles to reduce the chance of plugging. Lower the stand into the BOP so the bit is just above the blind/shear rams (SBR) Close the annular preventer. Pressure up the cavity between the SBR and the annular to the well pressure. Open the SBR and strip through the annular preventer. Allow the choke pressure to increase by Pw and maintain this value constant thereafter. Fill the string with mud.
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7.
If drill collars are used instead of drill pipe, continue stripping the slick BHA and maintain a constant choke pressure. Do not use more than three stands of drill collars. Allow the choke pressure to increase to (Pa + Ps + Pw) without bleeding off any mud when stripping the first stands of drill pipe. Continue the combined stripping and volumetric method as described in the previous "String off bottom". If it is not possible to strip the string into the well and gas migration is indicated, the volumetric method or bullheading may have to be employed.
8. 9.
A plot of idealised surface and bottom hole pressures for volumetric control are and lubrication is presented as Figure 5.17.2. Note: A stripping worksheet with a worked example is available for your information on the Wells Global Network, Forum-24, Well Control, Well control Information No.10. Worksheet for Stripping and Volumetric well control
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Surface pressure increases due to pumping fluid into a gas influx at surface Allow influx to migrate migrate to increase surface pressure
GAS INFLUX INFLUX AT SURFACT
SURFACE PRESSURE
Allow Influx to expand by Delta V holding constant surface pressure
Surface pressure bled off by: 1. HHD of fluid pumped in at surface 2. Increase in surface pressure as a result of pumping fluid into gas influx at surface
Allow Influx to migrate to increase surface pressure by Psafety + Pworking
VOLUMETRIC CONTROL
LUBRICATION
Surface Pressure Bled off by Psafety
BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE
BHP increases by Pworking
BHP decreases by Pworking
BHP increase due to pumping fluid into gas influx at surface
BHP increases by Psafety + Pworking
BHP pressure bled off by: 1. HHD of fluid pumped in at surface 2. Increase in surface pressure as a result of pumping fluid into gas influx at surface
Figure 5.17.2: Plot of surfact (choke) pressure and BHP for volumetric control and lubrication process
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5.18.
Workover and Completions
This section deals with well control considerations for workovers and completions. The complications and associated hazards of these operations are often underestimated and statistics show that they account for the majority of blowouts in the industry. 5.18.1. Overview
Much of this section is focused on the barrier requirements for a particular phase of an operation. Reference should be made to Section 3.7. In addition the Person In Charge may change when a well operations move to the completion phase. This must be defined and documented at the planning stage. 5.18.2. Barriers Under normal circumstances, two independent barriers against the formation pressure should be maintained at all times. The liner is the first barrier and the drilling BOPs are the secondary. Running The Completion Well control is available via the drilling BOPs by closing either the annular preventor or appropriate pipe rams against the tubing or accessories. For well control, the tubing in the hole requires a circulating head and valve to be installed on the top, therefore, it is necessary for an appropriate well control assembly to be on stand by at the drill floor at all times. Removing The Drilling BOPs & Installing The Xmas Tree Two independent barriers are normally required on both the annulus and tubing side of the completion. This is usually the liner, packer/tubing and the tubing hanger for the annulus. The tubing generally requires the installation of a mechanical plug. Any tubing plug must be placed at a point above any port or valve installed between the tubing and annulus. Removal Of Barriers If the production tubing is not filled with kill weight fluid, the use of pressure control equipment above the xmas tree is required for the recovery of the mechanical plug by wireline or coiled tubing etc. In any case, as a minimum, it is recommended that appropriate intervention BOPs are fitted above the xmas tree. 5.18.3. Barriers Two independent barriers against the formation pressure should be maintained at all times. Where the formation is exposed, kill weight fluid (supported by mud filter cake) and/or a mechanical barrier such as a completion isolation valve can act as the first barrier. The drilling BOPs are secondary. Running The Completion Well control is available via the drilling BOPs by closing either the annular preventor or appropriate pipe rams against the tubing or accessories. Primary well control is then via the Running a Completion (Open Hole or Perforated Liner) Running a Completion (Un-perforated Liner)
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BOPs. For well control, the tubing in the hole requires a circulating head and valve to be installed on the top, therefore, it is necessary for an appropriate well control assembly to be on stand-by at the drill floor at all times. Removing The Drilling BOPs And Installing The Xmas Tree Two independent barriers are required on both the annulus and tubing side of the completion. This is normally the packer/tubing and the tubing hanger for the annulus. If an isolation valve is installed in the casing above the formation the tubing requires the installation of a mechanical plug placed at a point above any port or valve installed between the tubing and annulus. If at this stage the kill weight fluid against the formation is the only barrier, it is recommended that two mechanical plugs are set in the tubing because of the unreliability of, and the lack of ability to monitor the kill fluid. Removal Of Barriers The use of pressure control equipment above the xmas tree is required for the recovery of mechanical plugs by wireline or coiled tubing etc. 5.18.4. Working Over a Well
Killing The Well Killing a live well may be achieved through one of the following methods. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Bullheading tubing contents to the formation. Tubing perforation followed by tubing/annulus circulation and final bullhead. Utilisation of gas lift mandrels or sliding side doors for tubing/annulus circulation. Coiled tubing. Snubbing.
Establishing Barriers And Well Control Establishing the first tubing mechanical barrier can be carried out before or after the well kill. This is dependant on whether or not the packer/tailpipe is to be left in place when the tubing is retrieved. If the packer is to be left in place, a mechanical plug can be installed in the tailpipe prior to killing the well. After the tubing is recovered, the packer/tailpipe can be removed, if required, utilising drill pipe and normal drilling well control methods. If the packer/tailpipe is to be recovered with the tubing or it is in poor condition, the well should be killed prior to the installation of any plugs to avoid trapping hydrocarbons below. Two independent mechanical tubing barriers/plugs should be installed prior to the removal of the xmas tree. A tailpipe plug plus one other placed at a point above any port, valve or perforation in the tubing. The annulus side of the completion also requires two independent barriers. These are normally provided by the packer/tailpipe plug and the tubing hanger. The annulus should also be circulated to kill weight fluid. If the well is sub-hydrostatic (unable to flow without artificial lift), it may be decided that a single barrier is sufficient.
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Well control during these operations should be provided through kill lines to the annulus and xmas tree. The drilling BOPs will provide the main secondary barrier once installed. Removing the Xmas Tree and Installing the Drilling BOPs Removal of the xmas tree and installation of the BOPs can be carried out with the above barriers in place. The BOPs should be pressure tested against the upper mechanical tubing barrier and tubing hanger. Replacing the Tubing With the BOPs in place, the tubing can be recovered and replaced. If the packer/tailpipe has been left in place, this will provide the first barrier. If the packer/tailpipe has been removed, the kill weight fluid against the formation should be circulated and conditioned and the requirement for an LCM pill across the formation to prevent losses assessed, prior to running the new completion. Removing the Drilling BOPs and Installing the Xmas Tree Two independent barriers are required on both the annulus and tubing side of the completion. This is normally the packer/tubing and the tubing hanger for the annulus. If at this stage the kill weight fluid against the formation is the only barrier, it is recommended that two mechanical plugs are set in the tubing because of the unreliability of, and the lack of ability to monitor the kill fluid. Removal of Barriers The use of pressure control equipment above the xmas tree is required for the recovery of mechanical plugs by wireline or coiled tubing etc. 5.19. Wireline Operations
Wireline work is carried out in many well operations. This section considers the different aspects of well control whilst conducting open hole, cased hole and tubing wireline operations. 5.19.1. Open Hole Wireline Electric Logging
These operations are always carried out with a rig over the hole and the standard drilling BOP equipment in place. Logging suites may take many hours to complete and it is essential that during this time the mud level in the hole be monitored continuously, and the hole kept full at all times. This is best done by circulating across the well on the trip tank. It is good practice to keep a record of hole seepage loss with time so that any abrupt change can be investigated. Allowance must be made for gain due to line wiper spray and for tide changes in floating operations. If the blind rams are closed while the wireline tools are out of the hole, there must be a check for well pressure before they are reopened. In the event that an inflow is detected, the safest course of action is to firstly close the annular preventer and observe pressures and/or leaks through the annular. Kill the well by bullhead or volumetric method. Should the annular be incapable of securing the well then alternative action is to sever the wireline with a wireline cutter or, if necessary, using the shearing blind rams. The well can then be killed by bullhead or by the volumetric method.
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NOTE: Some electric wireline tools are designed to take a sample of formation fluid. In some tools, the sampling process may involve a flow-through period. It must be realised that extensive sampling may generate an influx capable of underbalancing the well. Particular attention must be paid to observing the well on the trip tank during such operations. 5.19.2. Cased Hole and Workover Wireline Operations
These operations are those conducted with a drilling or workover rig over the hole and with drilling/workover BOP equipment in place. Comments regarding open hole logging are all applicable in this mode of operation if the reservoir is exposed. Additionally, these operations often include wireline perforation which must be conducted with the highest regard for safety and well control. The following points must be addressed:
Any shooting nipple/lubricator assembly installed in the BOP casing rams must be long enough to accommodate the entire perforating gun and allow the blind rams to be closed below it. There must be a means of accurately monitoring hole fluid level and of keeping the hole full. It is not adequate to only monitor pressures as a substantial loss could go undetected and be followed by well flow. Operations must cease whenever well flow is detected or there is pressure observed on the closed well. If shearing blind rams are not fitted there must be an alternative method of severing the wireline at surface. Pulling speeds for large diameter guns should be restricted to minimise the chance of swabbing. Gas generated by the perforating gun explosive may remain in the hole. It may migrate, expand and induce well flow. Wireline Intervention
5.19.3.
This section covers pressure control on wireline operations without a drilling BOP in place. Surface Wellheads Barriers
Two mechanical barriers are required for rigging-up and rigging-down wireline equipment. These are normally provided by the xmas tree master and swab valves. Whilst operations are in progress, the pressure envelope provided by the lubricator and stuffing box is the main barrier with additional protection provided by the wireline BOPs. Pressure control is provided by wireline BOPs, Lubricator and either a Stuffing Box (SB) for slick line or a Grease Injection Head (GIH) for braided cable.
Pressure control
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The xmas tree valves provide additional pressure control whilst the wire is in the hole provided that they are capable of cutting the wire and subsequently providing an effective seal. It is not necessary to have kill facilities such as kill and choke lines and manifolds rigged-up during routine wireline operations.
Sub-Sea Wellheads Barriers
As with surface trees the master and swab valves provide the two required barriers for rigging-up and rigging-down the intervention equipment. Additional protection is provided by a Lower Riser Package (LRP) positioned just above the Tree Running Tool (TRT) attached to the xmas tree. Although all LRPs may not be exactly the same they generally include a Shear Seal Valve, a BOP assembly, and an emergency disconnect. At the rig floor of a mobile installation, appropriate BOPs, riser and SB/GIH are attached to the riser connecting to the LRP. For wireline operations from an intervention vessel there is generally no riser to surface, the BOPs lubricator and SB/GIH are directly attached to the LRP and are all remotely operated. Control of all xmas tree, TRT, LRP and sub-sea wireline BOPs and SB/GIH functions are via umbilicals from the surface. Pressure testing and bleed facilities are also provided through umbilicals. Control of surface deployed valves, BOPs and SB/GIH are normal as with surface wellheads. Coiled Tubing Intervention
Pressure control
5.20.
This section covers CT well control operations where they differ from conventional drilling, workover and intervention operations. In practice, because the CT unit is equipped with an independent BOP system, all CT operations can be considered as well intervention operations without a drilling BOP. 5.20.1. General
When a CT unit has the coil in the well, most well control issues are identical to those with a drill string while others such as stripping in/out are considerably easier. This section focuses on the differences between CT and jointed pipe operations. NOTE: The Person In Charge of the CT operation must be defined, as operations concurrent with a platform rig are standard practice in many areas
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5.20.2. Barriers
Surface Wellheads
Two mechanical barriers are required for rigging-up and rigging-down coiled tubing equipment. These are normally provided by the xmas tree master and swab valves. Whilst operations are in progress, the pressure envelope provided by the lubricator and stuffing box is the main barrier with additional protection provided by the BOPs and, if fitted, a shear seal valve above the xmas tree. Barriers to the internal bore of the coiled tubing are provided by two check valves installed in the bottom hole assembly. The coiled tubing BOPs also include shear and blind rams. Pressure control is provided by BOPs, Lubricator and a Stuffing Box. It is necessary to have kill facilities rigged-up during all coiled tubing operations. Sub-Sea Wellheads
Pressure Control
5.20.3. Barriers
As with surface trees the master and swab valves provide the two required barriers for rigging-up and rigging-down the intervention equipment. Additional protection is provided by a Lower Riser Package (LRP) positioned just above the Tree Running Tool (TRT) attached to the xmas tree. Although all LRPs may not be exactly the same they generally include a Shear Seal Valve, a BOP assembly, and an emergency disconnect. At the rig floor of a mobile installation, an appropriate BOPs, riser and stuffing box is attached to the riser connecting to the LRP. For coiled tubing operations from an intervention vessel there is also a riser to surface, BOPs with coiled tubing cutting capability, a gate valve and lubricator are directly attached to the LRP and are remotely operated. The standard coiled tubing BOPs and stuffing box are attached to the top of the riser at surface. Control of all xmas tree, TRT, LRP, sub-sea BOPs and valves is via umbilicals from the surface. Pressure testing and bleed facilities are also provided through umbilicals. Control of surface deployed valves, BOPs and stuffing box are normal as with surface wellheads.
Pressure Control
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5.21.
Snubbing / Hydraulic Workover Units
Snubbing units have been in use since the 1920s but were traditionally associated with problem wells. However, in recent years their scope of work has increased to include routine well intervention and workovers, often on installations without a rig or to allow operations concurrent with the platform rig. In this capacity they are generally termed Hydraulic Workover Units or HWUs. While snubbing as a means to regain control of a well is the remit of a specialist contractor, this section gives an overview of well control issues for general operations. 5.21.1. Jacking Assembly
A conventional rig runs and pulls the string using a block and tackle under the influence of gravity. On a snubbing unit, the string is moved in both directions using hydraulic jacks. When well pressure acting on the cross-sectional area of the pipe exceeds the string weight, the pipe could be ejected from the hole. However, a snubbing unit has an inverted upper slip bowl which means the pipe can be jacked into the hole against well pressure. This practice is termed snubbing. When well pressure exceeds string weight and the string is positively buoyant, the condition is termed pipe light. Balance Point is where well upward pressure force matches string weight. 5.21.2. Work Basket
The workbasket is effectively the drill floor of the snubbing unit. However, the main difference is access. The workbasket is invariably at a significant height and usually reached by ladders. It is therefore crucial that all stab-in valves, cross-overs, darts etc. required for the job are available in the workbasket at all times. 5.21.3. BOP
The stack is a conventional BOP with a pressure rating suited to well conditions. The ram configuration, type and throughbore are job specific will be configured according to the planned operations. Control Unit
5.21.4.
A remote BOP control panel capable of closing all rams must be used. The remote panel must be located at a safe distance from the well head but insight of the BOP and workbasket. Workstring
5.21.5.
For underbalance operations, the BHA must include two check valves. As the primary check valves may be washed out due to circulation, the BHA will normally include nipple profiles for drop-in check valves.
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5.21.6.
Well Control
For operations planned as overbalance, well control is identical to that on a conventional rig. For underbalance operations (with check valves installed), well control is very similar to that on coiled tubing operations.
Work Basket
Jacking Assembly
Upper Slip Bowl
Work Window
Lower Slip Bowl
BOP
Figure 5.21.1: Snubbing Unit Layout
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5.22.
Geothermal Well Control
In principle, geothermal well control differs little from that of wells drilled for hydrocarbons. The same basic objectives and procedures are applied. Primary well control is most important and is achieved by maintaining adequate drilling fluid density, and, ensuring that the temperature remains below boiling point. Normally pressured geothermal zones have a formation pressure gradient of 0.41 psi/ft or less, and can be overbalanced with water. Kick detection techniques applicable for hydrocarbons are valid for geothermal wells. In addition, mud temperature in and out should be continuously measured and recorded. Readouts and alarms should be located at the Driller's console. Ideally, flowline temperature should not be above 75C Shut-in procedures and kill methods are the same as for oil well drilling. High temperature resistant elastomers should be used in all BOP equipment on geothermal wells. Under normal circumstances, all casing strings will be cemented back to surface and liner cemented back to the lap. In all cases, cements acceptable for use in high temperature holes must be used, such as modified A or G, Alumina Silica Flour or Phosphate Bonded Glass. This is to prevent well control issues on the annulus side. Mud cooling techniques must be utilised when necessary. Some local regulatory bodies (particularly USA) require the use of mud cooling equipment to maintain mud properties for primary well control and hole conditioning. Fluid release during well control operations may be as critical on Geothermal wells as on oil drilling operations, as concentrations of dissolved salts and minerals may be highly polluting. H2S is also commonly encountered in geothermal environments.
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EP 2002-1500

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SPECIALIST TOPICS Complications During Well Control Operations

Hole Packing Off

Erratic rise in standpipe pressure

Total or partial loss of returns

Restricted to Shell Personnel Only

Unable to move drill string

Pump Failure or Pump Wear

Erratic stand pipe pressure Irregular movement of the mud hose

Restricted to Shell Personnel Only

Pressure Gauge Failure

Sudden fall in drill pipe pressure Casing pressure constant

Increase in standpipe pressure at constant pump rate

Restricted to Shell Personnel Only

Choke has to be gradually closed to maintain pressure

Loss of casing pressure Flow from bell nipple

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Complete Power Failure

Loss of all power

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Hydrogen Sulphide Considerations

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Detection / Prediction of Shallow Gas

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SUBSEA DIVERTER BOP

Figure 5.3.1: Subsea Diverter BOP 5.4. Gas Hydrates

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It should be noted that hydrates cannot form if:

Assessment of hydrate formation temperature

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Temperature and pressure measurement

Figure 5.4.1: Hydrate Potential

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Novel Approaches Worth Considering

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Tapered Drill Strings

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Choke manifold pressure

Standpipe pressure Overgauge hole

Choke manifold pressure

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Actual pressure reduction for the tapered drill string

Normal straight line pressure reduction plot

Tapered drill string

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If The Influx Is Liquid In Situ

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If The Influx Is Gas In Situ

In all cases there will be a positive pit gain.

(Hole not taking/returning correct amount of fluid but not flowing.)

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If The Influx Is Liquid In Situ

If The Influx Is Gas In Situ

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Gas - Oil Ratio scf/bbl

0 0 100 200 300 400 500