Chemistry is the branch of science which studies the characteristics of substances and the changes they

undergo when they are mixed one with another. Chemistry uses this new information to prepare new
substances of value to us. Chemistry is involved in some way with almost everything we do or use. It is
central to most of science and technology, blending at one extreme into physics, mathematics and
engineering and at the other into the earth and life sciences. Chemists are employed in industries which
provide us with food, energy, consumer goods, in regulatory bodies that protect our health and
environment and in research institutions that provide new materials and techniques for the future. In other
words, chemistry is an essential part of modern life. It also supplies us with the answers to many
questions, such as -

• Is this food fit for consumption?

• How can we make stronger fibers?
• How can we design a new fuel cell?
• How can we make pharmaceutical, or vitamins?
• How can we make industrial chemicals from oil and natural gas?
• What is the concentration of certain contaminants from this factory?
• How is a new industrial process likely to affect the environment?
• How can we tell what is happening inside a blast furnace, or in the exhaust of a jet engine, or
down a coal mine?
• What are the natural concentrations of heavy metals in ground water

Inorganic chemistry is an essentially experimental subject comprising the chemistry of all elements with
the exception of the chemistry of carbon compounds. Substances and reactions in the solid, liquid and
gaseous state are studied. There are no clear-cut distinctions between inorganic chemistry and other
subdivisions of the field; the chemistry of materials, organometallic chemistry and bioinorganic chemistry
are typical borderline areas. In recent years, the swift development of the theoretical aspects of the
subject and of new experimental and computional methods, as well as the discovery of new and different
materials, such as the high-temperature superconductors and quasicrystals, have characterized inorganic
chemistry

Inorganic chemistry is an essentially experimental subject comprising the chemistry of all elements with
the exception of the chemistry of carbon compounds. Substances and reactions in the solid, liquid and
gaseous state are studied. There are no clear-cut distinctions between inorganic chemistry and other
subdivisions of the field; the chemistry of materials, organometallic chemistry and bioinorganic chemistry
are typical borderline areas. In recent years, the swift development of the theoretical aspects of the
subject and of new experimental and computional methods, as well as the discovery of new and different
materials, such as the high-temperature superconductors and quasicrystals, have characterized inorganic
chemistry

When we talk about the mixing of two or more

substances together in solution we must consider
solubility. Simply defined, it is a measure of how
much solute will dissolve into the solvent. Not all
 substances will dissolve in all solvents.
Understanding solubility properties will provide a
basis for understanding the golden rule of
solubility...Like dissolves like!

Factors Affecting Solubility

Temperature will affect solubility. If the solution

process absorbs energy then the solubility will be
INCREASED as the temperature is increased. If
the solution process releases energy then the
solubility will DECREASE with increasing
temperature.

Molecular Size will affect the solubility. The larger

the molecule or the higher its molecular weight the
less soluble the substance will be. Larger
molecules are more difficult to surround with
solvent molecules in order to solvate the
substance. In the case of organic compounds the
amount of carbon "BRANCHING" will increase the
solubility since more branching will reduce the size
(or volume) of the molecule and make it easier to
solvate the molecules with solvent.

The Polarity of the solute and solvent molecules

will affect the solubility. Generally polar solute
molecules will dissolve in polar solvents and non-
polar solute molecules will dissolve in non-polar
solvents. The polar solute molecules have a
positive and a negative end to the molecule. If the
solvent molecule is also polar, then positive ends
of solvent molecules will attract negative ends of
solute molecules. This is a type of intermolecular
force known as dipole-dipole interaction. All
molecules also have a type of intermolecular force
much weaker than the other forces called London
Dispersion forces where the positive nuclei of the
atoms of the solute molecule will attract the
negative electrons of the atoms of a solvent
molecule. This gives the non-polar solvent a
chance to solvate the solute molecules.

Themes > Science > Chemistry > General Chemistry > Solution and Solubility
> Solubility of Solutes and Aqueous Solutions > Solution Index > Molality

An alternative unit of concentration to molarity is molality. The molality of a solute is

the number of moles of that solute divided by the weight of the solvent in kilograms.
For water solutions, 1 kg of water has a volume close to that of 1 liter, so molality
and molarity are similar in dilute aqueous solutions.
To figure out the molarity of a solution, simply work out the number of moles of the
solute (Probably from the molecular weight) and divide by the weight of the solvent.
It's probably the case that you're given a volume of solvent rather than the weight:
use the density to convert between the two

molality (M) = moles solute/kg of solution

To convert a volume and a molality of a solution to moles of solute, simply solve the
above equation for moles of solute:
moles solute = molality * kg of solution

Example 1: If you have 10.0 grams of Br2 and dissolve it in 1.00 L of cyclohexane,
what is the molality of the solution? The density of cyclohexane is 0.779 kg/l at room
temperature.

Solution 1: First, work out the number of moles of bromine. Br2 has a molecular
weight of 159.8 g/mole, so we have

10 g / (159.8 g/mole) = 0.063 moles BR2

Next, convert the volume of solvent to the weight of solvent using the density
1.00 L * 0.779 kg/l = 0.779 kg
Now just divide the two to get the molality
0.063 moles Br2/ 0.779 kg cyclohexane = 0.080 molal

The molarity of a solute is the number of moles of that solute divided by the volume of the solvent in liters.
It's the handiest measure for most aqueous solutions, since we are usually interested in the number of
moles of the solute, but we work with volumes.

To figure out the molarity of a solution, simply work out the number of moles of the solute (Probably from
the molecular weight) and divide by the volume of the solvent

molarity (M) = moles solute/liters of solution

To convert a volume and a molarity of a solution to moles of solute, simply solve the above equation for
moles of solute:
moles solute = molarity * liters of solution
Example 1: If you have 10.0 grams of NaCl, table salt, and dissolve it in 500 ml of water, what is the
molarity of the solution?

Solution 1: First, work out the number of moles of salt. NaCl has a molecular weight of 58.43 g/mole, so
we have

10.0 g/58.43 g/mole = 0.171 moles of NaCl

Next, convert the volume to liters, since it is in milliliters
500 ml * 1 liter/1000 ml = 0.500 liter
Now simply use the equation above
molarity (M) = moles solute/liters of solution
M = 0.171 moles/0.500 L = 0.342 M

Example 2: How many moles of Ba(NO3)2 are there in 250 ml of a 0.450 M solution?

Solution 2: Again, we need to convert milliliters to liters, so

250 ml * 1 L /1000 ml = 0.250 L

Now just use the equation above to solve for the number of moles
moles solute = molarity * liters of solution
moles Ba(NO3)2 = 0.450 mol/L * 0.250 L = 0.113 moles

Often when working with reactions in solution, we can write a simple form of the balanced equation called
a net ionic equation which eliminates ions that don't take part in the reaction. For example, the formation
of solid silver chloride that occurs when you mix solutions of NaCl and AgNO3 can be written as
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) -> AgCl(s)
What happened to the Na+ and NO3-? Both the salt and the silver nitrate are strong electrolytes, so they
are in ion form in the solution. The sodium and nitrate ions are still in solution after the reaction- they don't
change. They are known as spectator ions, and aren't important to the reaction, so we just ignore them.

Note that just like any other chemical equation, this one has the same number of atoms on both sides. (It
obeys atom balance) In addition, it also has the same amount of total charge on both sides (0), so it also
obeys charge balance.

Example: What is the net ionic equation when solutions of Ba(NO3)2 and Na2CO3 are mixed?

Solution: Both of the above molecules are strong electrolytes, so the solution contains Ba+2, NO3-, Na+
and CO3-2 ions. Of the possible combinations of cations and anions, only BaCO3 is insoluble: the sodium
and nitrate ions do not take part in any reaction. Thus, the net ionic equation is
 Ba+2(aq) + CO3-(aq) -> BaCO3(s)

A strong electrolyte is an ionic substance that dissolves to a large extent in water. For example, the
reaction
NaCl(s) -> Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
goes substantially to the right. (In other words, Ksp is a large number) The name refers to the fact that
aqueous solutions of substance conduct electricity well.

The properties of solutions can differ substantially from those of pure solutions. Changes in the behavior
of the solutions that are due primarily to the concentration of solute particles rather than the properties of
those particles are known as colligative properties. Some of the most common include:
..Boiling point elevation
..Freezing point depression
..Vapor pressure lowering
..Osmotic pressure

In general, solutions have a higher boiling point than does the pure solvent. This boiling point elevation is
an example of a colligative property, one which depends only on the number of moles of the solute. not
the identity of that solute.

The amount of the elevation is given by

DTb = kbm
where kf is the molal boiling point elevation constant of the solvent and m is the molal concentration of the
solute.

When working with ionic solutes in water and other polar solvents, one must be careful to take into
consideration the fact that the ion concentration is higher than the concentration of the solute. For
example, table salt, NaCl dissolves in water to form ions
 NaCl(s) -> Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Each mole of NaCl makes two moles of ions, so if we have a 1 molal solution of NaCl in water, the ion
concentration is 2 molal.

Example 1: The normal boiling point of benzene is 80.1 oC. It has a boiling point elevation constant of
2.53 oC/m. If we make up a 0.500 molal solution of Br2 in benzene, what is the boiling point of the
mixture?

Solution: Simply use the above equation and substitute in the proper values

DTb = kbm
DTb = 2.53 oC/m * 0.500 molal
DTb = 1.27 oC
Since the boiling point is normally 80.1 oC, the boiling point of the mixture is 80.1 + 1.27 = 81.4oC.

Example 2: The normal boiling point of water is 100.0 oC and it's boiling point elevation constant is .52
o
C/m. If we make up a 1.00 molal solution of Na2SO4, what is the boiling point of the mixture?

Solution 2: Again, use the above equation but we need to be careful to account for the ions. Na2SO4
fragments into three pieces when it dissolves,

Na2SO4(s) -> 2Na+(aq) + SO4-2(aq)

so if the solution is 1.0 molal in Na2SO4 it is a 3 molal solution of ions.
DTb = kbm
DTb = 0.52 oC/m * 3.00 molal
DTb = 1.56 oC
Thus, the solution has a boiling point of 101.6 oC

In general, solutions have a higher boiling point than does the pure solvent. This boiling point elevation is
an example of a colligative property, one which depends only on the number of moles of the solute. not
the identity of that solute.

The amount of the elevation is given by

DTb = kbm
where kf is the molal boiling point elevation constant of the solvent and m is the molal concentration of the
solute.

When working with ionic solutes in water and other polar solvents, one must be careful to take into
consideration the fact that the ion concentration is higher than the concentration of the solute. For
example, table salt, NaCl dissolves in water to form ions

NaCl(s) -> Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Each mole of NaCl makes two moles of ions, so if we have a 1 molal solution of NaCl in water, the ion
concentration is 2 molal.

Example 1: The normal boiling point of benzene is 80.1 oC. It has a boiling point elevation constant of
2.53 oC/m. If we make up a 0.500 molal solution of Br2 in benzene, what is the boiling point of the
mixture?

Solution: Simply use the above equation and substitute in the proper values

DTb = kbm
DTb = 2.53 oC/m * 0.500 molal
DTb = 1.27 oC
Since the boiling point is normally 80.1 oC, the boiling point of the mixture is 80.1 + 1.27 = 81.4oC.
Example 2: The normal boiling point of water is 100.0 oC and it's boiling point elevation constant is .52
o
C/m. If we make up a 1.00 molal solution of Na2SO4, what is the boiling point of the mixture?

Solution 2: Again, use the above equation but we need to be careful to account for the ions. Na2SO4
fragments into three pieces when it dissolves,

Na2SO4(s) -> 2Na+(aq) + SO4-2(aq)

so if the solution is 1.0 molal in Na2SO4 it is a 3 molal solution of ions.
DTb = kbm
DTb = 0.52 oC/m * 3.00 molal
DTb = 1.56 oC
Thus, the solution has a boiling point of 101.6 oC

In general, solutions have a lower vapor pressure than does the pure solvent. This vapor pressure
lowering is an example of a colligative property, one which depends only on the number of moles of the
solute. not the identity of that solute. The boiling point elevation of solutions is really an effect of the vapor
pressure lowering: since the boiling point of a solution is the point at which its vapor pressure is the same
as the external pressure, if you lower the vapor pressure you'll raise the boiling point. Freezing point
depression is also a result of vapor pressure lowering. Can you figure out why? (Hint: draw a phase
diagram of the solution as compared to the pure solvent.)

The equation governing the change in the vapor pressure when you use a nonvolatile liquid or solid is just
a special case of Raoult's Law, Ptot = PaXa + PbXb. Since the second component has a negligible vapor
pressure (nonvolatile), Raoult's law reduces to

P = P0 X
where P is the vapor pressure of the mixture, P0 is the vapor pressure of the pure solvent and X is the
mole fraction of the solvent.

When working with ionic solutes in water and other polar solvents, one must be careful to take into
consideration the fact that the ion concentration is higher than the concentration of the solute. For
example, table salt, NaCl dissolves in water to form ions

NaCl(s) -> Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Each mole of NaCl makes two moles of ions, so if we have a 1 molal solution of NaCl in water, the ion
concentration is 2 molal.

Example: At 35oC, the vapor pressure of water is 43.4 mmHg. What is the vapor pressure of a 1.00 molal
solution of NaCl?

Solution: First, we need to figure out the mole fraction of water in the solution, then apply the above
equation for the vapor pressure lowering. 1.00 molal means 1 mole solute in 1 kg water. 1 kg water =
1000 g water. Water has a molecular weight of 18.01 g/mole, so 1000 kg water/18.01 g/mole = 55.5
moles of water.

We have to be careful about the number of moles of solute. NaCl ionizes into Na+ and Cl- ions in water, so
we have 2 moles of ions in the solution, not 1.
We have 2 moles of ions and 55.5 moles of water in 1 L of solution, so we have a total of 57.5 moles of
solution. The mole fraction of water is thus

Xwater = 55.5 moles water/57.5 moles total = 0.965

Now just use the equation above.
P = P0 X
P = 43.4 mmHg * 0.965
P = 41.9 mmHg

Osmotic pressure is another example of a colligative property, one that depends only on the number of
solute molecules or ions. It's a bit less obvious than something like boiling point elevation, but not hard to
understand.

Consider making up a solution of sugar in water. Place this solution in a bag made of a semipermeable
membrane. This is a membrane which has many small holes in it which allows the solvent to flow through
but not the solute. Place the full bag in a bucket of pure water: the pure water will begin to diffuse into the
bag of sugar water, causing a pressure in the bag. This is known as osmotic pressure.

A simple example can be seen when making a pickle. A cucumber is placed in a brine solution and the
skin of the cucumber acts like a semipermeable membrane, allowing the water in the cucumber to flow
out into the brine solution. You end up with a shriveled cucumber. The opposite process is used to purify
water: place impure water in the bag, then put a large external pressure (Greater than the osmotic
pressure forcing water into the bag.) on the bag, forcing the water molecules across the barrier while
leaving the impurities behind.

The osmotic pressure is given by the equation

P = MRT
where P is the osmotic pressure, M is the concentration in molarity, R is the gas constant and T is the
temperature. Careful about the units: see the example below. Osmotic pressures are often quite high.

When working with ionic solutes in water and other polar solvents, one must be careful to take into
consideration the fact that the ion concentration is higher than the concentration of the solute. For
example, table salt, NaCl dissolves in water to form ions

NaCl(s) -> Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Each mole of NaCl makes two moles of ions, so if we have a 1 molar solution of NaCl in water, the ion
concentration is 2 molar.

Example: What is the osmotic pressure of a 1.00 molar sugar solution in water at 25oC?

Solution: Simply use the above equation and substitute in the proper values

P = MRT
P = 1.00 mol/L * 0.0812 (L*atm/mol*K) * 298 K
P = 24.5 atm