Polyhydroxybutyrate

Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), a polymer belonging to the polyesters class that are of interest as bio-derived and biodegradable plastics. The poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (P3HB) form of PHB is probably the most common type of polyhydroxyalkanoate, but other polymers of this class are produced by a variety of organisms: these include poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB), polyhydroxyvalerate (PHV), polyhydroxyhexanoate (PHH), polyhydroxyoctanoate (PHO) and their copolymers. Fermentation can also be used to produce the alcohol needed to produce plastic, although this renewable source of energy is expensive and is not used commercially.

Biosynthesis
PHB is produced by microorganisms (such as Ralstonia eutrophus or Bacillus megaterium) apparently in response to conditions of physiological stress. The polymer is primarily a product ofcarbon assimilation (from glucose or starch) and is employed by microorganisms as a form of energy storage molecule to be metabolized when other common energy sources are not available. Microbial biosynthesis of PHB starts with the condensation of two molecules of acetyl-CoA to give acetoacetylCoA which is subsequently reduced to hydroxybutyryl-CoA. This latter compound is then used as a monomer to polymerize PHB.

Structure of poly-(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate (P3HB), apolyhydroxyalkanoate

Chemical structures of P3HB, PHV and their copolymer PHBV

Thermoplastic polymer
Most commercial plastics are synthetic polymers derived from petrochemicals. They tend to resist biodegradation. PHB-derived plastics are attractive because they are compostable and derived from renewables. ICI had developed the material to pilot plant stage in the 1980s, but interest faded when it became clear that the cost of material was too high, and its properties could not match those of polypropylene. In 1996 Monsanto (who sold PHB as a copolymer with PHV under the trade name Biopol) bought all patents for making the polymer from ICI/Zeneca. However, Monsanto's rights to Biopol were sold to the American company Metabolix in 2001[4] and Monsanto's fermenters producing PHB from bacteria were closed down at the start of 2004. Monsanto began to focus on producing PHB from plants instead of bacteria. But now with so much media attention on GM crops, there has been little news of Monsanto's plans for PHB. In June 2005, a US company, Metabolix, received the Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Award (small business category) for their development and commercialisation of a cost-effective method for manufacturing PHAs in general, including PHB. Another group of researchers at Micromidas Inc. have begun to produce PHB from the bacteria in municipal waste water. This approach shows promise for the future of human waste disposal and biodegradable plastic production. Biopol is currently used in the medical industry for internal suture. It is nontoxic and biodegradable, so it does not have to be removed after recovery.[

Properties of PHB

Water insoluble and relatively resistant to hydrolytic degradation. This differentiates PHB from most other currently available biodegradable plastics, which are either water soluble or moisture sensitive.

Good oxygen permeability. Good ultra-violet resistance but poor resistance to acids and bases. Soluble in chloroform and other chlorinated hydrocarbons. Biocompatible and hence is suitable for medical applications. Melting point 175C., and glass transition temperature 2C. Tensile strength 40 MPa, close to that of polypropylene. Sinks in water (while polypropylene floats), facilitating its anaerobic biodegradation in sediments. Nontoxic. Less 'sticky' when melted, making it a potentially good material for clothing in the future

Microbial growth on carbon monoxide

The utilization of carbon monoxide as energy and/or carbon source by different physiological groups of bacteria is described and compared. Utilitarian CO oxidation which is coupled to the generation of energy for growth is achieved by aerobic and anaerobic eu- and archaebacteria. They belong to the physiological groups of aerobic carboxidotrophic, facultatively anaerobic phototrophic, and anaerobic acetogenic, methanogenic or sulfate-reducing bacteria. The key enzyme in CO oxidation is CO dehydrogenase which is a molybdo iron-sulfur flavoprotein in aerobic CO-oxidizing bacteria and a nickel-containing iron-sulfur protein in anaerobic ones. In carboxidotrophic and phototrophic bacteria, the CO-born CO2 is fixed by ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase in the reductive pentose phosphate cycle. In acetogenic, methanogenic, and probably in sulfate-reducing bacteria, CODH/acetyl-CoA synthase directly incorporates CO into acetyl-CoA. In plasmid-harbouring carboxidotrophic bacteria, CO dehydrogenase as well as enzymes involved in CO2 fixation or hydrogen utilization are plasmid-encoded. Structural genes encoding CO dehydrogenase were cloned from carboxidotrophic, acetogenic and methanogenic bacteria. Although they are clustered in each case, they are genetically distinct. Soil is a most important biological sink for CO in nature. While the physiological microbial groups capable of CO oxidation are well known, the type and nature of the microorganisms actually representing this sink are still enigmatic. We also tried to summarize the little information available on the nutritional and physicochemical requirements determining the sink strength. Because CO is highly toxic to respiring organisms even in low concentrations, the function of microbial activities in the global CO cycle is critical.