EARTH SCIENCE CHAPTER 5: EARTHQUAKES CHAPTER 6: VOLCANOES PAGES 128-175 I. What Are Earthquakes? pages 130-135 A.

Where Do Earthquakes Occur? 1. seismology = the study of earthquakes and seismologists are scientists who study earthquakes 2. most earthquakes take place near the edges of tectonic plates (Figure 1, page 130) a. tectonic plates are giant pieces of Earths thin, outermost layer b. tectonic plates move in different directions and different speeds 3. faults are breaks in Earths crust along which blocks of the crust slide relative to one another 4. earthquakes occur along faults because of the silding blocks B. What Causes Earthquakes? 1. deformation = the bending, tilting, and breaking of Earths crust; the change in shape of rock in response to stress 2. there are two types of deformation: a. plastic deformation; like a piece of molded clay- does lead to earthquakes (Figure 2, page 131) b. elastic deformation; like a rubber band- does not lead to earthquakes 3. elastic rebound = the sudden return of elastically deformed rock to its undeformed shape 4. the energy released during elastic rebound, called seismic waves, causes earthquakes (Figure 3, page 131) C. Faults At Tectonic Plate Boundaries 1. plate motion and fault types include: transform boundaries create strike-slip faults, convergent boundaries create reverse faults, and divergent boundaries create normal faults 2. earthquakes can happen both near Earths surface or far below it a. most earthquakes occur in the earthquake zones along tectonic plate boundaries b. earthquake zones are areas where a large number of faults are located c. not all faults are located at tectonic plate boundaries d. some earthquakes occur along faults in the middle of tectonic plates D. How Do Earthquake Waves Travel? 1. seismic wave = a wave of energy that travels through Earth, away from an earthquake in all directions 2. waves that travel through Earths interior are called body waves (Figure 4, page 134) 3. P wave = a seismic wave that causes particles of rock to move in a back-and-forth motion; P waves are called primary waves, they are the fastest waves, and P waves travel through solids, liquids, and gases 4. S wave = a seismic wave that causes particles of rock to move in a side-to-side motion; s waves are called shear or secondary waves, they are the second-fastest waves, and S waves travel through solids and gases 5. seismic waves that travel along Earths surface are called surface waves a. one type of surface wave produces motion up, down, and around (Figure 5, page 135) b. the other type of surface wave produces a back-and-forth motion

II. Earthquake Measurement pages 136-139 A. Locating Earthquakes 1. seismograph = an instrument that records vibrations in the ground and determines the location and strength of an earthquake 2. a seismogram is a tracing of earthquake motion and is created by a seismograph a. seismologiests use seismographs to calculate when an earthquake began (Figure 2, page 137) b. an earthquakes start time is determined by the difference in arrival times of P and S waves (Figure 3, page 137) 3. epicenter = the point on Earths surface directly above an earthquakes starting point, or focus 4. focus = the point along a fault where the first motion of an earthquake occurs (Figure 1, page 136) B. Measuring Earthquake Strength And Intensity 1. in 1935, Charles Richter created the Richter Magnitude Scale or the Richter Scale 2. this scale was used to measure ground motion recorded by seismograms at seismograph stations

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the measure of the strength of an earthquake is called magnitude (Table 1, page 138) a. the Richter Scale measures the ground motion and adjusts for the distance to find the strength b. when the magnitude increases by one unit, the ground motion becomes 10 times larger a measure of the degree to which an earthquake is felt and the resulting damage is called intensity a. Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale: range of I (not felt by most people) to XII (total damage to an area) b. more than one intensity vaule is assigned based on the distance from the epicenter

III. Volcanic Eruptions pages 156-161 A. Nonexplosive Eruptions 1. volcano = a vent or fissure in Earths surface through which magma and gases are expelled 2. traits of nonexplosive eruptions: (Figure 1, page 156) a. nonexplosive eruptions are the most common type of eruption b. nonexplosive eruptions release large amounts of relatively calm flows of lava 3. traits of explosive eruptions: (Figure 2 and 3, page 157) a. explosive eruptions are much rarer than nonexplosive eruptions b. during an explosive eruptions, clouds of hot debris, ash, and gas rapidly shoot out c. molten rock is blown into tiny particles that harden in the air B. What Is Inside A Volcano? (Figure 4, page 158) 1. magma chamber = the body of molten rock that feeds a volcano 2. vent = an opening at the surface of Earth through which volcanic material passes C. What Erupts From A Volcano? 1. magma erupts as either lava or pyroclastic material (hot ash, dust, and gas), which forms when magma is blasted into the air and hardens 2. the ease in which lava flows is called viscosity; a milkshake has high viscosity (stiff) and milk has low viscosity (fluid) 3. the four types of lava are: (Figure 5, page 159) a. Aa pours out quickly and forms a brittle crust b. Pahoehoe flows slowly, has a glassy surface with rounded wrinkles c. pillow lava forms when lava erupts underwater, creating lumps in the shape of pillows d. blocky lava is cool, stiff, lava that does not travel far from the erupting vent 4. the four types of pyroclastic material are: (Figure 6, page 160) a. volcanic bombs are large blobs of magma that harden in the air b. lapilli are pebblelike bits of magma that hardened before they hit the ground c. volcanic ash froms when the gases in stiff magma expand and explode into glasslike slivers d. volcanic blocks are pieces of solid rock erupted from a volcano

IV. Effects Of Volcanic Eruptions pages 162-165 A. Volcanic Eruptions And Climate Change (Figure 1, page 162) 1. during large scale eruptions, enormous amounts of volcanic ash and gases are ejected into the upper atmosphere (Mount Tambora in 1815 caused The Year Without A Summer in 1816) 2. ash and gas can block the sunlight and cause the average global temperature to drop B. Different Type Of Volcanoes (Figure 2, page 163) 1. shield volcanoes are built of layers of lava released from repeated nonexplosive eruptions 2. the runny lava spreads out over a wide area layers of lava create a volcano with gently sloping sides (Hawaii) 3. cinder cones are made of pyroclastic material usually produced from moderately explosive eruptions a. the pyroclastic material forms steep slopes b. cinder cones are small, occur in clusters, and usually erupt for a short period of time (Mexico) 4. composite volcanoes (stratovolcanoes) form from explosive eruptions of pyroclastic materail followed by quieter flows of lava a. these cycles of eruptions form alternating layers of pyroclastic material and lava b. composite volcanoes have broad bases and sides that get steeper (Mount St. Helens in Washington)

C. Other Types Of Volcanic Landforms 1. crater = a funnel-shaped pit near the top of the central vent of a volcano (Figure 3, page 164) 2. lava flows and pyroclastic material can pile around the vent, making a crater 3. caldera = a large simicircular depression that forms when the magma chamber below a volcano partially empties and causes the ground above to sink (Figure 4, page 164) 4. lava plateau = a wide, flat landform that results from repeated nonexplosive eruptions of lava that spread over a large area (Figure 5, page 165)

V. Causes Of Volcanic Eruptions pages 166-171 A. The Formation of Magma 1. magma forms in the deeper regions of Earths crust and in the uppermost layers of the mantle where the temperature and pressure are very high (Figure 1, page 166) 2. rock in the upper mantle is a puttylike soild (due to pressure) that flows slowly 3. temperature in the mantle is fairly constant and a decrease in pressure causes magma to form B. Where Volcanoes Form 1. many volcanoes lie on tectonic plate boundaries (Figure 2, page 167) 2. the Ring of Fire is the area around the Pacific Ocean where many volcanoes/earthquakes occur 3. magma forms and tends to rise to the surface at tectonic plate boundaries 4. On land, 80% of active volcanoes form where plates collide and 15% form where plates separate C. When Tectonic Plates Separate 1. at a divergent plate boundary, tectonic plates move away from each other (Figure 3, page 168) a. rift zone = an area of deep cracks that forms between two tectonic plates that are pulling away from each other b. magma will rise through these rifts to the suface and harden, creating new crust 2. lava the flows from undersea rift zones produces volcanoes and mountain chains called mid-ocean ridges (if these ridges rise out of the water, they are called islands) 3. at these ridges, lava flows out and creates new crust; most volcanic activity on Earth occurs at these ridges D. When Tectonic Plates Collide 1. a convergent plate boundary is a place where tectonic plates collide 2. when an ocean plate collides with a continental plate, the denser ocean plate slides underneath the less dense continental plate; this process is called subduction (Figure 4, page 169) 3. during subduction, the ocean plate will melt, creating magma that will rise to the surface and harden, often forming volcanoes E. Hot Spots 1. magma can form away from plate boundaries 2. hot spot = a volcanically active area on Earths surface far away from a tectonic plate boundary a. some scientists believe the hot spots are directly above columns of rising magma called mantle plumes b. hot spots often produce a long chain of volcanoes, such as the Hawaiian Islands, because the mantle plume stays in the same spot while the tectonic plate moves over it (Figure 5, page 170) F. Predicting Volcanic Eruptions 1. Volcanoes are classified into three catagories: a. extinct volcanoes have not erupted in recorded history and probably never will b. dormant volcanoes are currently not erupting, but the record of pas eruptions suggests that they may erupt again c. active volcanoes are currently erupting or show signs of erupting in the near future 2. most active volcanoes produce small earthquakes as the magma moves within them a. just before an eruption, the number and intensity of earthquakes increase b. scientists also study the volume and composition of volcanic gases (sulfur dioxide SO2) 3. the Earths surface may swell as magma rises to the surface a. an instrument called a tiltmeter will help scientists detect changes in the angle of a volcanos slope b. a Global Positioning System (GPS) may also be used to detect changes in the angle of a volcanos slope c. infrared satellite images can be used to detect changes in surface temperature and gas emissions