TREATISE

ON

THE

DIFFERENTIAL

AND

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS,

AND

THE

CALCULUS

OF

VAELA.TIONS.

THOMAS
PROFE880K
09 MATHEMATICS

Gf

'HALL, M.A.,
IN

KIVO's
ST

COLLKOE,
;

lOVDOtf,
*i.

PBEBEITDABT

OF

FAUL'S

AND

LATE

FELLOW

AND

TUTOB

OF

MAODALENE

COLLEOE,

CAMBBIDGC.

"

FIFTH

EDITION,

REVISED.

LONDON
JOHN W. PABKEE AND
M.DCCC.LII.

SON,

WEST

STRAND.

\'*

"

V-^

t'

'^^"^C^
.

By

the

same

Author.

Elements

of

Algebra.
Treatise Edition,
V2s.
on

Third

and

cheaper

"dition^
and

5s.

Elementary
Calculus.
Fourth

the

Differential

Integral

6d

Elements

of

Descriptive Astronomy.

Gepmetry.
Thirteenth

6s.

6d.

Outlines

of

Edition,

10c?.

"

" "

"

"

^1

PEEFACE.

A is

KNOWLEDGE

of

this branch

of any
on

the
one

Pure
can

Mathematics

"

absolutely necessary,
the

before of works the

successfully Philosophy^ in

fi

undertake which material

For the

perusal
of

Natural
laws

effects
are

observed
to

that

govern

the

world

reduced

calculation.

Students
as

deficient
as

in

this

knowledge^ yet
them
to master

anxious

^
Q
"

to

obtain

much

may

enable
to

the chief

analyticaldifficulties
Treatises written:
of
on

incident

the

study

of

Elementary
has
a

the with

Mixed the
be

Mathematics, hope
that

this book its means,

to
an

been

and

by

subject

high

interest

may

rendered

accessible

increased

number The will

of readers.

Table

of

Contents

which

accompanies
as

the

work

exhibit sufficiently
of few in it. may in

it9 plan^

well

as

the

subjects

treated
I

). !
1

words

be

here

added^ in explanation of the

the definitions.
of M.

principles adopted By
that
a

laying
to

down that
be

method,

similar
can

Poisson, it
in
a

is shewn series of

"i=/(j; + ^)

always
powers
form of of

expanded
wl"ch

ascending integral
under
the convenient

h;
the

may

be

written

equation

The

term

Ah, the first

to

term

of the

difference
u :

between

Ui

"

u,

is defined of A

be

the the

differential differential
for

of

and

the
and
are

coefficient
from in

is called

coefficient:

these

definitions^ the
derived.

rules

Differentiation

general

IT

PREFACE.

But

since

when

the

general form
-^"
is

o"f(x

h)
when

has

been A

demonstrated^
we

we

see

that the

equal to A,

may

therefore sides
of

find

ing differential coefficient^ by divid"

both

the then

equation Ui
make
A
=

"p(x, k) (not
method^
of

panded)^ ex-

by A, and
sometimes
is in of and few instances

0.

This

which

diminishes

the
made in

labour algebraical
use

J., finding

of.

It is in fact the method

Limits^ often useful

to

the

of application
so

the Calculus,
an

which

the idea of series is

notion of
a

necessary
seems

auxiliary.
in the ferential Dif-

In

truth the
with the

series
"

nected coninseparably

method
it

of Limits
a

^to

which
and

Calculus
which
u

gives
stands

clearness

of precision, For
to

that and

method
Ui be

much when

in need.
x

say

if

=/(x),

its value is the

becomes

Xi, that the

differential Coefficient
while the

value

to

which

"

tends

Xi

continually approaches x
which
exists between
must

without
Ui

first
u;

exhibiting
use
a

relation

and

is to the for
"i

mysterious obscuritywhich
the

heavilytax
But

faith its

or

credulousness
and It has been

of

the

reader.

put

pansion ex-

the

vanishes. difficulty

said

that

/(x
that

k) produces divergingseries
is

"

^if by this it is meant,

Ah

improperly determined,
method
enter

the and

objectionlies equally against the although a preface is

be
not

of

Limits;
into such
have

the

place to
one

discussions,it may
a

remarked

that it is
a

thing to
of

diverging series, arising from

to

known number

function, and
terms

another
value

determine
a

by

limited

the

of such

series.

If however

it be
our

granted that
with

the method
t^

of is
a

Limits, and
function the
same

that used
one

in

will when definitions,

of
re-

variable

only, lead

to equal facility

PREFACE.

suits ; this is
is
a

not

the case^
or a

with

the former

method

when
"

function
some new

of two

greater number
some new

of variables
sary, neces-

either

definition^ or

is hypothesis
+

in order to arrive at the

equationdu
;

=i(-^jdx l^jdy,
is readily
+

being a

function

of

and ^

yet how

the
+

same

result obtained these remarks

me

from I may

the

expansion off(y
a

kj

h).

To

add, that
of

long experiencehas
best suited

vinced con-

that the method that rejecting

of
a

often combined series,

to

with struction the in-

and

not

of

Limits, is

class. for the differential coefficient of

and used

The invented

symbol

-r-

=f(x)^

by Leibnitz,

almost

without

exception
the
vived re-

by the continental writers,is here retained"

fact,since the notation dj,ufor the
same

-I mention

term
"

has been I do
not

by
tend
to

some

Cambridge
the

Mathematicians.
of the

pre-

decide

questionwhich
of best

two,

-j-

or

d^u,

dx

estimated coefficient
to

by

its power
to be

the differential representing

I
;
see

ought

but preferred,

that the latter

is liable to of

is,

say the

least, an

notation imperfect
x,

and

the

that objection has

a

the suffix

in

the calculus from

ences finite differ-

different meaning entirely

that indicated that

by

the

in

d^

But

the

most

is importantobjection
a

already alluded to, namely, that when

.cqolted
with

student

has become

the

propo"^
be

noUtion

from

his

clemently
Leibnitz,
read with

books, his eye

must

familiarized

with

that

of be

before the works

of Lacroix

and

Laplace can

advantage. Lastly,if
to

it be considered
one

necessary

to

offer of
a

an

ment inducescience
"

any

to

enter
one
^^

upon of

the

study

which

is the

result of know

Newton's

most

coveries, brilliant disa

let him

that it is'a

not high privilege,

Yl

PREFACE.

duty,
laws

to

Study
which

this God

language
has
of

of

pure

unmixed

truth. the the laws

The universe

by

thought lofty by

good

to

govern and

are

surely

subjects

contemplation^
which
alone

study
can

of

that

symbolical decyphered^

language
is

these noblest

be

fully

well

deserving

of

his

efforts*."

Professor

Sedgwick

on

the

Studies

of

the

University.

KiNG*s

College,

Lokdon.

CONTENTS.

DIFFEEENTIAL

CALCULUS.

CHAPTER

I.
PAGE

Definitions

and

Principles
+

1
M

Toprove
Definitions Rules
for

that Mi=/(a7

A)

-4A+

C/A'
....

of Differential

and

Differential

Coefficient
.

6
8

finding the Differential

. .

Coefficient
...

Examples

....

.12
.

CHAPTER Difierentiation
Differentiation

II.

of of

Angular Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

.

18 24 25

Examples

CHAPTER Sucoessiye Maclaurin's Differentiation

.......

III.
31 34

Theorem
.

Examples
Series for the

..."....."

35 38
40

Length of the Circle

Logarithmic Series Exponential Series Examples

41 43

CHAPTER

IV.
45

Taylor's Theorem Examples Approximation Examples

to the

46

Root

of

an

Equation

...

48 50
;V
T"

"

""

VIU

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

V.
FAOE

Taylor'sTheorem Theorem Limits of Taylor's

1 ne

Failiiie of

"

Explanation of the Term

51 55

Katio

-r?

"

rT\

"

77
n

"

"

;r?

TiX

"

"

"

56

The

Remainder

after

terms

in

Theorem Tayloi^s
58

=^2ibi--^"-(^^*"
....

CHAPTER

VI. 59 64

Vanishing Fractions Examples

VIL

CHAPTER Maxima and Minima defined

or

66

Rules for

determiningMaxima

Minima

....

68

Examples and Problems

The Cells of Bees
du
or

71
84

Case of Maximum

Minimum

when

-r-^
or

oo

"

85

CHAPTER Functions of two

or more

VIII. 87
88
or more

Variables

Expansion of /(d?+ A^ j(+ ^)

Difierentiation of Functions of two Variables
.
.

91 95 96 98

Examples Homogeneous Functions Functions Implicit

Elimination

by

means

of Dififerentiation

....

102

CHAPTER Maxima and Minima of Functions

IX.

of two

Variablcis

106

Examples
CHAPTER X.

107

Equations to Curres.
The

The

Line Straight

....

115 118

Circle

"

CONTENTS.

IX

PAGE

Parabola,Ellipse^ Hyperbola Conchoid, Witch, Ciflsoid,

119

Logarithmic Curve, Quadiatrix, Trochoid, Epicycloid, Hypocydoid, Lemmscata, Cycloid, Involute of Circle 123 Spirals,

CHAPTER

XI. 134

Tangents to Curves Equation to Normal"

"

to Tangent ^Equation

....

Values

of

mal, NorTangent, Sub-tangent,

136 141

and Sub-normal

Asymptotes Examples

143

CHAPTER The Difierentials of the Areas and

dA If i^ be the Area

XII.

Lengths of Curves

153
164

of

Curve, ^

=y

ds

I
=

H^
165 dV

If* be the If rbe

Length, ^
of

,^1 + ^
Solid of

the Volume

Revolution, jr

wy*

"

^^^^

be the If iSi

Surfiice, ^*2jry.^
8

167
in
....

Spirals Value of the Perpendicular the Tangent in Spirals on Tangents and Asymptotes to Spirals
.

Differential Coefficients of ^ and

159 160 161 162 163

To

find the Loeus

of F

Examples

CHAPTER

XIIL
166

SingularPoints in Curves
Mnhien
a

Curve

is Concave

or

Convex

167
168

Points of

Contrary Flexure

Multiple Points Conjugate Points Cusps

To
trace
a curve

172 176 178

from its equation
.....

182

Examples

187

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

XIV.
PAOE

Currature Order
of

and Contact Circle

Osculating

Curves

191 192

Osculating
Evolute Radius
and of

Radius
"

of

Curvature

'

193
...

its

Properties
and "volutes of

195

Curvature,

Spirals
....

198 200

Examples

CHAPTER

XV.

Envelopes
Caustics

to

Curves

206

211

CHAPTER

XVI.

Change Lagrange's

of

the

Independent

Variable

218

Theorem

227

INTEGEAL
AND

CALCULUS,

CALCULUS

OF

VARIATIONS.

CHAPTER

I.
PAGE

Definition

of

Integration

232 233 234

Integrationof Monomials Examples

of

Simple Integration

CHAPTER Rational Roots Fractions

II.

237

of the

Denominator^ (1) aU impossible

different^ (2)

some

equal,
237
243 244

(3) some

Integratbn by parts Integrationof 7-^^

"

it;

Int^prationof Examples

-"tt

247
249

CHAPTER Irrational

III.
253

Quantities
J!)ifferential Coefficients
.
. .

Integration of known
Binomial Difierential of

254 258
. .

Coefficients

Examples
Bernoulli's

Integrationby parts

260
.

Series

267
268

Examples

CHAPTER

IV.

Integrationof Logarithmic Find/^e-'from^^-co

to^
=

and
co

Exponential Functions

273
.

277
278

Examples

XU

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

V.
PAGE

Integration of Circular Integration of

"

Functions
."..".

280

"

^,

r-

286
....

Integration of (0+6

cos
n

^)cos

288
".

Integration of log (1 + Examples

J?)

289 291

CHAPTER Methods of

VI.

finding the Areas

and

and

Lengths

of

QvaY"", and

the
294 296
.

Volumes
Areas

Surfaces

of Solids

of Curves
of Curves

Lengths
Volumes Surfaces

d04 .310
. . .

of Solids
...
. .

of Solids

815 318

Examples

CHAPTER Differential

VIL and

Equations, Order

Degree
first

of
.
.

320
.

Equations of the first Order Equations Equations Lagrange's

Simultaneous Total Partial of the
of the

and
and

Degree
n*

321
....

first Order second and

of the

Degree
....

339
. .

higher Orders

345 352 355 358 360

Variation

of Parameters

Differential

Equations

Differential
Differential

Equations Equations

CHAPTER Calculus Formula Maxima of Variations

. .

VIII.

369
. .

for the and

Variation
of

of fVdo!

371
....

Minima

Integral FormuUe

374
383

Isoperimetiical Problems

THE

DIFFERENTIAL

CALCULUS.

CHAPTER
1.
a

I.
be of
a
u

Onb
the of

quantityu
value
x.

is said to

function

of another

when

of the Thus

magnitude
area

variation the
area

the

of

depends upon the is a function of triangle

unaltered, since the
increase
b
to
or

base, when
will increase

the
or

altitude decrease

remains

with

the and

decrease

of the base. And

since if if and
x u
=

(u^dtbx^ where
variable
one,
u

are

constant
a

is said of
"

be

function altered:

quantities, of a, this

changes,
u

the
x

value

will

be

relation
u

between

and

or s=y*(ar)

the tp(ar),

expressed by writing and the word symbols/* 0 expresQsing

is usuallv

function.

quantities expressed by the letters a and b are in the equation u=f{x). omitted Since, although they of function, they remain determine the particularkind unchanged, while x passes through every degree of magnitude.
The The
u

the
2.

quantity x is called dependent variable.

Functions
are

the

and independentvariable^

called
x^

and explicit
u

implicit : u
in
terms

is

an

function of explicit in the equation as

when u'x
or
"

when

is known
An

u^ax'+bx. involved
An

of x, implicitfunction is in

ana

are
=

aux

+
=

bx*
0.

0.

together,as function implicit

into

is

equation written /(m, x)

scendental. tran-

the

") "l"(u,
3.

Functions

are

also divided

and algebraical be

functions Algebraical
in terms number of x^ by of terms.
tt
=

are

those where
an

means

of

expressed of a finite equationconsisting

u

may

Thus
A
an
a

ax'* +

fto?"*"* + "c. function

sum

+qx'-^rx
of is
x.

-{" s

where is

(m) equal

is

is an finite,
infinite

function algebraical

Transcendental

one

where
cannot

to

series,the

of which

be

by expressed
B

limited number

of terms.

DEFINITIONS,

Thus

"

which log(1 + or),

and

sin

a?

J?

"

"

"

"c.

to

infinity.

are

transcendental 4.
Functions A

functions
are

of x*. called continuous

when it
or

also
is

tinuous. discon-

function when

continuous^

gradualchange ; it is gradual,or
value
to

when discontinuous,

the function

undergoes a change is not changes suddenly from one

the
Thus when

another between of

very different value.

the dif^

ference

f{x)

and

J\x
as

A)

may^
as

diminution continuous

h, be made
but

smsdl

we

by the continued f(x) is a please,

tlie
same

function;

when

under

circum-

+ h) differs widely from f{x\ the latter is a dis-^ stancesy*(jr We continuous function. liken a continuous familiarly may of to a stream water quantity^ flowingequably and steadily through a tube, and a discontinuous one" to water falling in drops,from a height. or interruptedly,

the relation between equationu =y*("r) expresses variable x, and the values of the function u and the single u depend upon the change that may take place in x : solely have but if we three unknown an equation between tities, quanwhere and such as tf x bxy*, are aa^y independent y of each other, i.e. not connected together by any other equation; then the value of u depends upon the change,
5.

The

"

both

of

and y^ and

is said to be

function

of two

bles varia-

expressed by writingu =y{", ^). As an instance,we may again take tlie area of a trianglei the rectangle of the the magnitude of which depends upon which lines are totally base and the altitude, independentof
each
of 6.

; this is

other. that there may

be functions of

It is obvious
or n

three,four^
let its

variables.
But
to return to

functions

of

u^f(x) express the independentvariable

Let
*

relation between
x.

variable ; the function and

one

increase

and. become
to

x-^H, then the value of

an

"sl+dr+dr'
the
sum

+""+"".

is infinity

funcdon algebraical
r
"

of Xf

since

of the series is

expressedby

PRINCIPLES.

3
the
new

"win

most

probablybe altered. Let by w" then "j=y(d?+ A),

and
"". u

value be represented

=f{x\ by hypothesis; =/(a!+ A)-/(jr).

t/i
or

x-^-h and

the functions of the difTerence between and shall first shew we depend upon h, x^ must be expressed that it may by a series of the form
"i
*

Now

Uy

JA
And
or
.'.

+
+

BA"+CA" -4A
a

+ +

"c.;
C/"* + "c.,
terms

that w,

"

Bh*

that t/i is

equalto

tt +

series of
which

and

inte^alpowers

of

h,

ascend

involving positive from the simple

is to

of the Differential Calculus : uie primary object power find the coefficientsA, B, C, "c.

?"

We

will first shew

form

that
a

", may

aeries of the above

by
=

few

expressedby particular examples;

be

(1)

Let
"".

fi

a?";
+ A)' (a?
tt

ttj=
=

a?*+ Sa?'A+ 8a?A" + A*.

+

Sa^h

Sxh'

A^,

which

is of the

form* required

(2) Next, let u=^af;

by

the Binomial

Theorem,
for j^,
ft
"

Or, puttingu

2
a

series of

ascendingpowers
=

of k*
+

(8)
.-.

Lettt
=

Ja^

"""+Ci'

"c-;
+

w,

+ Ay + A)"+C(d: + -B(a? ^(.r+ A)'"

"c

:*

+ fiMi^'A {jT t

^-^^^ ar-*A"
2

"c.} *

+ "jr-'A (a:-

"

^-^^j!^A"
2

"c.)

+ poj'^'A + p (af

^^

oi^W

"c.)

+
=

"c.
Ax''
+

JB"*

Cjc* + "c. J?"^*

+

+ " {tnAar-^

"c.)k
b2

r
4
".

PRINCtPLBS.

+
=

"C.
11 +

"Cr

pA

-f

^A'+

"c,
-^

by writingti

for its

p, g, "c. for the coefficientsof

value, Aa^ + Baf k, h\ "c.

""., and

putting

can

+ h), (4). It hiayalso be shewn that a***, log(x + A),sin (j? of be expanded into series the form

but

we

proceedto
Prop.
a

demonstrate

the

following generalProu

position.
8.
becomes

If

=fM,
Ui
=

and ", be the value of

when

h, then shall
u-hAh-i-

Uh',

where
terms

and u is the original function, that follow jih. It is however

Uk% representsall the

necessary contain
to prove,

(1) That "i or/(x + k) can indices. 'For if with positive

"i
=

only

powers

of h

M+^r

BA"^

"c.=:M
^

i4r+7j4."c.
would
can

when

0,
That

tii instead of
hone

becoming

u,

be infinite. be

(2)

of the indices of k

fractional ;

for if possible let

tt,=

ilf+PAn

jB.

then
two

*.*

A"

or

J7^
3f
+

has

different values, let

hi and A,
+

be

of

them;
.%

tti=

PA,
"

12; and
=

tti"M
.%

PA,
or

12;
is
no

"".

P(A, subtracting,
of the form PA*

Aa)
.

0;

P=0;

there

term

(3)
For
"""

That
Ml
=

the firstterm
or

of the

expansion
=

".
=

let

+ A) /(or
or

JIf + -4A*

"c.
=

then let A
"

0;

fi^)
.-.
a

u:^M,
or

M^u;

and Mj ^A*
+

^A*
+

"c.

Let where
Now
Ui will

"i

f(x

A)

J5A^+ CA^
x.

"a,
next

is the least of the indices of

A, and /?the
A become

in

and magnitude,

A, By "c.
x

are
a?

functions of
+

whether
must

become
+

A,

or

become/(^
be

on 2A), and the expansions identical

A or SA, either supposition

+

6
.'.

PRINCIPLES*

"!

=/(^

k)^u

Ak

Bh^
a

CA"

Bh'

"c.

it will afterwards be

Theorem,
on

Theorem, called Taylor's that the coefficients^ A^ B, C, "c" have a dependence shewn, by Ah, is called or expansion, diminutive of differential being the
of the
:

each other,
The second
u

9. the

term
:

differential of

difference ; for Ah is the first term of the difference between a part only of the difference Ui and u, and is consequently but the difference and in
cases

differential differ the

the less k less,,

is, and
taken

of

the approximation,

latter is sometimes

for the of h

former.

Instead
is but then

writingdifferential at

full length, the letter d

u, and

used, thus du is put for differential of

as

thus du=Ahi

symmetry

is called the differential of ;r,^therefore for of notation dx is put for k^ and thus du Adx.
=

A is called

and is expressed the^r^^differential coefficient^

dtt ^

by the symbol
Hence
we

when
,

^f{x)^
the second term

define

to be differential

of the
be

expansionof /(.r+ h\ and the differential the coefficient of the Jirstpower qfh,
du

coefficient to

The

proqess

by

which

A,

or

-j-

is found

is called

dif-^

ferentiation.
From
the

that the differential oft/, is the product of A into the differential of a; ; or calling
these definitions
we see

first quantity lu, and

5.
.^

the second
lu

Ix^we
du
.

have

the ratio of the differentials of u and x is or ratio of the diffbrential coefficient to unity.
The make letter " is here the used

equal to

the

differentials with
we use

only to avoid confounding the differential coefficient, but in general

+

of the letter d.
u^-u

10., Again, since

" "
.

Ah-^

Uh^,

l"^^A-hUh;

but

"("

fi

is the increment

therefore
increment

of u^ and h is the increment ofx; of the function, to the the ratio of the increment and as h decreases,this ratio of x, =A-^Uh;
as

tends to il

its limit, and

when

h vanishes

actually A^
-^

w~^

PRINCIPLES.

That

A isy

or

-J-

is the limit

of the ratio of the increment

to that of the variable upon which it depends. of the function

of u and "r^ Hence, the ratio of the differentials and x. the ratio of of limit of the the increments u equals Cob. 11.

Hence

we

have
is

method

of

the finding

differential

coefficient which

Expand frequently very convenient. A sides subtract divide 0 ; make both h, + /(jr), f{x h), by will be and the term terms or remainingof the expansion
=

the coefficient required.

12.
become

We
ar +

have

seen

that if u be any function of or, and

A, /(x + A)
=

-^A+

Uh\
ar,

if Similarly,

z, v, "c.

be
x

become respectively
JBT+ -r-

when
A
+

functions of is made or +
v

then

they will

A,
+

ZA*, and

^-h
dx
terms

Vh\

dx

'

where
13.

Zh* and

FA' representall the

after the first two.

Thus it appears^ that in order to find the differential have merely to put or + A for x, or differentialcoefficient, we of A, and the and expandy(d? + A) according to the powers both of the term at once to Ah will give us corresponding of our objects enquiry. But such a direct process would be often almost and We tedious, always impracticable. therefore proceedto investigate rules which will not only but render it diminish the labour of differentiation, greatly will but first a we simplealgebraical operation apply the ;

general process

to the function
a u
=

+ jr
:

b
a-^x

+
a M. *
=

-^x

b +

b+x+h
,

1 +

b-^x

(fl i
+
dr

o?

xj\
1 +
"

A b
+
x

_(a + x _A_\ ~\6T^^A + J-^^"A

.

A
+

A*
^

^^'^ a:"^(6 ;r)"

+

Si
fl +

PRINCIPLES.

d?,ri
Kb
+
x

fl

ar)
,""

b+x du
"
^^^

(6 + j:)*J
a^
^^

1
^^
^^^^^^

X
^^ ~

h-a
*

"

dx~
ti
=

(6 + ")* (6+ *)'

we

Again, since

"

shall have

by

the

same

process

""

"

"

"^

"

}"^^*' ((It^*
*

***"^ ^*'-

and

by making

0, as in Art. ll"
du
__

b-^a

dx

(b+ ar)"

'

Utiles
14
-J-

Coejkient. /or Jinding the Differential

We

repeat the definition of Art. 9" that if u ^f(x) ;

of k in the

is the coefficient of the first power

expansion

ux

of M, , or of /(j? + Let u=^ax, a

.".

h)"

being a
=

constant
=

quantity ;
+

Ui

(x + k)
du
-jax
=

ax

ah

""

ah

d
a or
.

(ax)
J

/.

--a.

ax

Cob.

If "=";.".

t-

1,

%'

=1.

15.

Let

u^^ax^by

where

and

are

constant

(fti
.

.*. 1-

dx

a,

that

d(axd=b)
"^-3
dx
=

18, ^

a.

But

by

the

Article,*-3" preceding

=^i

d(axdzb) _d{ax)
^ ""

dx that is,constant the

rfof

'

connected with quantities in differentiation. "*" disappear signs

variable

one

by

RULES

FOR

FINDING

THE

DIFFERENTIAL

COEFFICIENT.

16.

Let

u-aaT.
Ml
=

Then,
a
.

-"" Kffl(ar

A ma:**"* (d:"'+

"c.)

ax

find the differential coefficient of cw?"*, 6y the multipli/ index and then diminish the index by uniti/.
or

to

Ex.

5x'';
u=:a2

.*.

-r-

35ar".

ax

17-

Let

where if

is

function
x

of x;

therefore
.2

become dz A

h,
;

becomes^

+ -7ax

Zh'

dz
.*. Ut
=

az-^a-r'h-"aZJi^;
dx du
'

d(az)
or

dz
=

"\

-7ax

\
dx

fl"-r~.

ax

18.

If

u=a2-hhy
,

and
du

being constant
dz

quantities,

then

t-=".;t-,
adz
^

d(az + b)
"'"

d(az) being
^^10
w

di
+
v

'di"~~d^'
rv

19.
of
"

Let

"c.,

z,

v, w,

functions

du
.-. II +
-r-

^ "c.

dz -r-A
dx

dv
+
v +

-7-A +
dx

dx

-rax

A! +

"c.

du
dx

dz
dx
+

dv
dx

dw
^

dx

d.(z
or
"

+ v

""7V

"c.)

dz
+

dx

^=-jdx

dw dv -j-+-rdx
sum ax

"c.

Or

the differential coefficient of the

sum

equalsthe
20.
two

of the

of any functions differential coefficients of each function.

To

find the differential coefficient of the

Let
u=^zv

product of

functions.

10

EULES

FOR

FINDING

^zv-^lz-^+
where B
du
_^

v.

-7^ Ik
F2
+
-j-

BA*+

"c.

Zv

-f- ;

dv
~

dz
^

'

i/j?
or

dx

'

dx*
two

the differential coefficient of the

sum

product of

functions

equalsthe
21. of two
r Let
^

of the

productsof

each function

ferential into the dif-

coefficient of the other. To

find the

differential coefficient of the

du dv
+
"
-r=

quotient

functions.
z "
=

dz
-r.

-;
t;

,*.

vu

z;'

-r-

dx
1

dx
u

dx

du
^'

dz

dv

tlx

v' dx

V* dx
s

^1
^

dz

dv

v' dx
dz
'

v'*dx
dv
'

dx ""

dx

the simpleexpression^
than

form

of which

is

more

membered easilyre-

the enunciation.
=

22.

Let

zvw,

writingvtv
dCvw)
=

for

t;

in Art, 20

du
.'. -7ax 2.

dz
-^-vw-r-*

"

dx

-J

"

dx

-, But

d.{vfD)
^
"

dfv

dv
dx

h"
ax

-v.-j-^w.-T-; dx

du
ax

drv
dx

dv
dx

dz
dx

Similarly may
the

the

differential coefficient be
it will be

found the

for
sum

product
n

of

functions^and
the

equal to

of the

productsof the differential coefficient of each multiplied by

= ,

of the

functions

remaining n
..dz
j...^n
"

1 functions.

Thus,
dv
.

d.{z.v.fv.s...{n)}_^
V. ft^.

1^-7-+

zws

"""

\n

"

"*/ '"T"

2t/j...(n1)-7- +"C.
"

THE

DIFFERENTIAL

COEFFICIENT,

11
j?

23.

Lemma.

If

be

function
du

of z, and

be

tion func-

of Xy then du
__

dz
dx

dx For
Uy

dz

if

luy Iz, Ix be
xi
,

the
^

differentials corresponding
lu
.

of

Zy and

"
. *" ,
_

_lu
"

Iz
#

men

"~~-"t^"~j
c

."

^ ox

-s;

sr"

"

dz

bx

Zx"

dx'
du dx

hz"
du dz

dz'
dz dx
we

Tx"^ dx'

an

important theorem^
demonstration.

of

which

shall hereafter

give

another 24

Let

"

s",

js

being =/(jr) ;

find

-r-

Jar""
or, to

""

dx"

dz' dx"

'

dx'

find

the

differential coefficient
the index

index, diminish

by

of 2", and then unity,

multiplyhy the multiply by the

--=2a:;
ax

coefficient of z, differential
Ex.
If
tt
=

then (a*+ a:*)"

c^-{-a^ and

25.
is

The

rule for

findingthe differential coefficient of

when
n
=

z"

but general, perfectly

it has

value

which

it

is useful to remember.

Thus,
dz

dx

dx

^Jz

whence

this rule.

of any root square under of the quantity

root

find the differential coefficient of the divide the differential coefficient quantity,
To

of tne

the square quantityitself.

u
=

root,

by

twice the square

Ex.

Let

Ja
"
.

bx

ca^;
6
+

du ^

2ea?
'

2ja

bx-i- ex*

le

BXAUPLES.

Examples.
(1)
(2)

"=3J;
tt
=

3.|"'7A .".g
=

jp' + ""+ar

l;

(3)

tt

+ o) (or -i- 6) ; (j?

.

_=(,
=

a)_k_J+(,+6).__J.
a

Art.

(20)

0?

a: +

2d? +

(a+ 6).

(4)

tt

+ a!'); + drO(l j:(l

1 +3a?'+4a?"
or

6a?*.
na

(5) "=j.

a"jr*;
a

"

na*x'*~^

"

(ilit; du
a

.iH-l*

.^

(6)

tt

^ ;

See

(Art 13),

dlr
~

rfjf
j? +

"

+ by (d? ft + a) (jr
"

ix+by (7)
u
=

{x-^by

+ l)"" (ar

J"

?wd^* d;"*. + !)"". ?" (a: dx'^ {x + iy^ moT + 1) mx*^^ (dp
_ -

a?

l]

m"

maT^^

i\^^

xTi]
'

(8)
du ^
Qx
X

Art.

2,jn^

JTT^

(25).

14

EXAMPLES.

(16)

"

{iax + ""){ 2^
+ **) *"(! J
=

2m

(a + ")(2a"+ "")""-'.
+

(17) (18)
(19) (20)

"

^ 2*(1 8*0. (l+2"0(l 4"');^ 4*(l+3"+10*").

+
=
"

tt

2ar(l+a:)";
=

(2+ 7ar)(l+a?)*.

tt

+ ar^"; (l+a?)*(l

J
(21) M=(a
2j
=

4(l + ar)"(l+x"){l+ar + 2j:"}.

+ a?)((? + a?); a?)(ft

Sa?*+

2(a +

c) a?

flft +

oc

6c.

(22)

tt

(l-2j:)(l-3jr)(l-4ar);
"". + 5j=-(9-52a?

72"').

(23)

tt

(l+a:")"(l+a?")" 64?(l+ar7(l+"")(l+x + 2;r"),

jj-

(24) M":(l +"*)"(! +4r")-.

(25)

"

(l+a:)Vrr:?;
j?M_l~d?--2j;'

(27)

tt

"

-r-

=
.

nl/x'Jxi+ l'
i*

(SO)
^31)

tf=

; T-~-

^,^^^"^^1. ^"^

4^(4?* --1)

EXAMPLES.

15 Sx^

a^

du

(32) (S3)
(34) '

Jl-hx'" dx
JTV^^l Jl^l
'

(n.a:")f
dx

uJ-^Zl, duJ{JlTl^l)\
x'Jl + (a?-l)f
a^

du^ix^JiTl ^,^(^+1)^.
dx

"

JiVx
Jl"x
_

^'
a^

dx du

2(1+0?

^")**
x^-l

"

(38)

Let

"*jr-M
;

aj'-a*

0;

find

j-,

this is

an

plicit im-

function
dv

put
+

t;

u^x,and differentiate ;
but
,

du 2^=0: du
/.

.""3^-^

+ "' (20); 3^-2"*3;^

^

dv

du
, ,^^.

du

2tM::T- +

M*-:T-+ 2a:"0;
^

^(2"*-l) -("'
=

2*)^

^^"

{39) t^-Sua^-^a^^O;
...

find^;
+
=

3""^*^-3ar"^-6ii^ Sar* 0; dx
dx du

_^9,ux"a^ ^m
du
u
Si
=

(40)

.V

2fi" + iiw'-oar

0;

^=-=

(41) ""*+^"*-fi'*

0;5^

-^^3^-j.

(43)

tt

H-jp +

va

jj +

+ ^ya

o:

"c.

t"

n/?n. /

16
du

EXAMPLES.

26. have

In

the
be find V, if
=

precedingexamples^difierential coefficients
obtained found
; but

only been
may

by the

the differentials definitions,

by the
Thus
z

to

efficients by multiplying the differential coincrement of the independentvariable. the differential of the product of two tions func=

and du
-7-

zv^ then dz
+ 1;
-7-

dv
jsr-ruJC

; let
^

ex

mcrement

of*;

CUP

uJC

.".

d{zv)
-J-

"

-J-

Sd?+

T-

SJ?.

But

hx

differential of

dv,

ax

dz

and

-Jax

Sj?

differential ofz^dz;
=

.'.

d{zv) zdv-^vdzi
fz\
vdz"zdv
"

and

in the

same

manner,

^\v)
and d
.

V"'
nz*^dz.
for the

(z*)
=

27.
what

It wiU

now

be
to

natural

student

to

enquire

is the

object

be

attained, by

the differential finding

but coefficient,

it will be

satisfactory answer with which subjects

Lacroix la nature

difficult at present to give a completely without introducing to the enquiry, he have can no acquaintance.

" II serait fort difficile clairement d'expliquer says : du Calcul differential a ceux qui n'en ont pas les

notions." premieres

Yet
x

perhaps he

may
a

be

told^that
-pis

if ^

be the ordinate

and

the abscissa of

curve,

gonometrica ti^tri-

which tangent of the angle,

with
"

the axis of
an

or

that if

be the

area

the tangent makes of the same curve, the

area

=^;

equationby
be
a

which

hereafter
s

of space

the de-

curve

may

found.
a

Again, if

represent the
ds

scribed

by

pointin
at

time t,that

-^representsthe velocity
pointis moving,
retard3^ the

(v)with
and
-J-,

which

the end

of that time the

the force which

either acceleratesor

dt

EXAMPLES.

17
u

motion. point's

And
"" .

again, if
or

=f(jt)be

an

equationaddu
-j-

mitting
an

of maximum

minimum the

that values, values

be of
x

nish will furii a

equation, by
or
=

which

that make
And

maximum
n

minimum
an

may

found.

if lastly,
roots
are

=/(")

0 be

equationof which algebraic

;"=

the

a,

h, c, "C.,then
of the

will

the equation, give the limiting is so useful in

knowledge
the
roots

of the roots

of which

determining
few

original equation.
this

28.

We

shall conclude

Chapter by
of plate
metal

simple

applications. (1) The radius

find
.001

of of

circular when

the

increase

area

the

is 12 inches ; radius is increased

inch.
tt
a

If

area

of
u
=

radius circle,

j?

.",

wx*'y and
.001
X

du
;
=

2'n-xda,
=

Make
.*. du
=:

;r

12 ; dx^s
X

then du

increase of
of
a

area

S.1416
cube

24

.001

.0753984
same

square

inch.

(2)
"
=

of metal

of the

thickness

is

similarly
inch.

increased;
oj* ;

find the cubical du

=

expansion.
X

.-.

3x'dx

144

.001

.432

cubic

Cob,

Divide

by

"

"%

"

Now
.

"

is in che-

dx

mistry
hence

called

the

and cubical,

"

the
X

linear

expansion;

the cubical is three timies the linear As

an

expansion.
small infinitely
a

(3)
draw PN

instance of AB

the finding
a

ratio of

Upon quantities.

describe
to

draw semicircle, AP

chord
=

AP;
PN

perpendicular ultimately ; i.e. at the moment

Make iiy"
.""

AB; then prove the arc when

that AP

vanishes.

or, jIB

"

2a;

AP

AP^J^ax^ PN^J^aX'-x'; J2ax J2a

,

.^

^= ^=: 1;
(4)
The

or

AP^PN

ultimately.
d? :

limit of the ratio of sin

sin

is 2

1.

CHAPTER

n.

Differentiation of

and Angular,Exponential, Functions.

garithmi Lo-

29.

To
u

find the dlflTerentialcoefficient of

"

u,

when

sinx,

cosd?"

tanx,
tan
or
" "

secx.

Sec

The
__ _

must followingProposition

first be k
.

provedr
i "

sin h If A be
an

angle,
that h

unity, when
h

0.

It is known,
or or

"

sin k,

"

tan

{Trig.Art. 57)
tan

h lies between and sin A

tan

sin h and in order

"

h,
tan

sin
"*.

A, h,
A
"

k
is
"

are

of
or
"

magnitude ;
A
"

tan

A,
"

sin

A^
0,

A.
a

If therefore
.

tan

sin A

ever

or

-;

"

t-=

1 ;
tan

fortiori
_

sin A

A
"

willA-smA
"",',",

f =

0, andtanA-A
^ ^

-I

"

" =

0;

rv

or"

t"

" ,

1.

sin A

cos

A
=

1
T 1
=

Now

"

I tan

r=-T~

i. l* whenA
,

"

^^

0;

.'.

and

"7"

also

respectively 1,
=

if A

"

0.

30.

Let

sina:; find^-.
x

For

X,

put

k,
** +

.%

tt

becomes

"

-r-

Uk',

and and

j^

^^'

sin

{x + A),

ssinj;;
+

.-.

-T-

A
2

C7A'

sin

(x + A)
sin
.

sin

"

ax
*

cos

(^ + i A)
,

| A*.
siniA

rfw
y,,
,,v

A+B
"

^-5
.
"

Sincesin-4-8m5

"

^ =

2co8.

"7;

.sin

"

.J

DIFFERENTIATION
and

OF

ANGULAR

FUNCTIONS.

19

making
dn
=

0;

"".

.^
X

1 ;

d.sin
cos

"".

-r-

X,

or

"

ax

dx du

J"

cosx.

31.

ttscosjr;

find
du

di*
=

"'" "+

dx
+

j-/" + ^^*
Uh'

+ A); cos(a:

du
".

A "/j;
-T-

cos

(x + A)
2 sin

"

cos

"

+ ^A)sin ^h ; (j?
*-"
"

.%

J-+ C7A=-sm(jj
du d
=

4A)
cos

4*
"

'

a; sm a?.

.".

making
tan

0,

t-

dx

dx

32.

"

s=

a?;

find

-j-

.%

tt +

t/A'

tan

-f A); (a?

.".

'j-h+
ax

Uh*

tan

+ A) (a?

tan

_tanA(l +tan'a?)^
""

1 -tana;,

tan

du
jjj
'"
"

tan

k
*

(1+tan'a?)
^

dx A

"

tan

a?

tan

'

make

0 ;

.". tan

0, and

".

"

1 ; 1
=

du

tan

x
="

1 + tan'
^ ^

"

sec'jp

cos' a?

du
;

^.

vsecxs cos
"

find-r-;
dx
X sm
^

-a

a;

cos

du
(3^0?

dx

X
""

sm

or
'

I
*

(cosa?)
d
.

(cosa?)' cos
"r
B

cos

sec

or

dx
02

tan

ar

sec

""

20
34

DIFFERENTIATION

OF

ANGULAR

FUNCTIONS.

tt

F.sma?= du
dx
cotan

"

cosar;
'

d
.

cos

dx

oo,

-^

"

"

sm

"

^^_
"

+ (cosj:)* (sinar)"

dx
=

a;)' (sin

"7-7^,
=

(cosec xY
^

(sm X)
36.
u
=

(1 +

cot* x).

cosec

-;

"

sino;

dsinx
dx
. .

du
"""

"cos n4

a?

-r-=

dx

(sinar)' (sin a?)

the results, collecting
du
.

=7-^

"

r-,

cot

a?

"

cosec

a?.

37.
If
T/.

Hence
.

sm

a*,

-T-

cos

a?,

cos

X,

T"

"

"^^

^' ^

du
^
.

du
tt
s

sec

X.

-T-

sec

ar

"

tan
_

x,

dx
^.

du
.

tt-v.sma;;

.'.

31,

"=''"^*'

cosec

a?,

t" ax u

"

""

cosec

a?

cot

jp,

38.

Next

let

sin 2, where
dar

=/(ar).

az

dx

du

du
"".

^^
=

Butj^^cosz;
39.

3j

cosz^.

Let

tt

coss;

nnd^.
"^w

du
.

dz
.
^

22

DIFFERENTIATION

OF

ANGULAR

FUNCTIONS.

(1) u^shr^x;
dx
"".

.\

smu;

-p du

cos

^yi
"

sin'w

^1

"

x";

du dx

(2)

tt

cos~*ar, orxscostt;
c^tf dx
1
^

"""

T-

-sintt;

1
tt

sin

Jl-a^'
dx
.'.

(3)

"

tan-"*a?; ,-.
du
* *

ar

tan";
1

j1

(1+ tan*t") ;

tan'"

""

;*

(4) "s=8e(r*j?; /.
du
"".

ar

sec":

""" -yau

sec

"

tan

1
sectttamu

dx

xja^-^l*
dm
.".

(5)

"

cof'4?; .'.
du

d;

cotti;
1

j-

(1+
*

cot" ");

1
11

dx

1 + cot*

1 + a;"

(6)

tt

cosec"' a?;
du
*
*

.%

a?=

cosec

"

.""

^
1

cosec

ti.

cot

"1
cosec
w

dx

cot "

xjaf
"

(7)
"""

"

""" x t;.sin~*j?;

"

vsmu;

^=
1
"

sin tt
cos u

^1
=

"

cos"
1 +

i"

^(1
"

cos

u) (1+

cos

").

But

x;

cos

"

x,

Tencr

functions.

Thus,

if "

logat,then

"

ai

" log*' expresses that u

is a

number

of which the

is jt. logarithm

DIFFERENTIATION

OF

ANGULAR

FUNCTIONS.

23

Hence
d

sin"* X
dx

Ji'X''
"

COS"* X
dx

'JT^^'
X
_

d
,

tan~* dx

""l+jp**
1
" X

sec"* X
rf"

Jji^ 1
"

"? cot"*
.

d
.

cosec"*
dx

d?

"

xjaf-^i*
X

d
.

sin"*

44.

Again, if"=:sin-*-; .". -=sintt;

a a

dx

3^

" ^

(1)

rf"_ 1
^
_

du
/a\ (3)
"e .f"

,xdu
=

co8--,

H-JWT^'
.*.
-

(3)

Iftt=Btan"*-;

tanw,

efftan-*.-")
*

dx

a" J.

ar*'

(sec"*-)
dx

(4) Similarly,
45,

xJ^pO^**
z

Also, if u

sin"* z, where

=f(x), to

find

"

dx

24

DIFFERENTIATION

OF

ANGULAR

FUNCTIONS.

dz du
_^

1
^

du
*
'

__du

dz

dx

dz"

Ji^^'
du

dx"

dz' dx^

TTl--^*
dz dx

T Let

"1
=:

du

"

, cos"*' zi

.\

dz

-y-

Jl^^'
du
1
=

^dx

^i-z'*
du dx
=
"
" "

Let ^

^ =

tan

_i

: '

"

-?-

dz

1 +

^'

"""

"

dx

l+s"'

"

and

in the 46.
To
:

same

manner

for the other circular functions.

find

the
d" d d
.

differentials from

th^

differential

efficients co-

(idnx) cosx.dx,
=

;r) (cos
= =

sin

;"

dx, dx, J?)

(tan0?) (1 +
=
.

tan*

and
.

d
.

(siir^ x)

dx

dx d
.

x) (sec~*

"

Ex.
as

Find Let
But

that

angle (x)which
sin ;r

increases
dx.
.*. *
"

twice

as

fast

its sine.
tt
=

du
.".

cos iV
=

"fM

^dx;

cos

^;

60**.

and LogaHthmic Functions. Eayponential

47.
between Let
a u
=

"*, which
u

in

generalexpresses
du
-r-

the relation
*

number

and

its logarithm x, find

.% ""
=

dx

Since
But

"

a* ;

"*"*
A

a'. a\
=

a*

1 +

-4A

^^'A*+
=

"c.

where
+

a log.

(Alg.269) ;

.-. M,

a*

(1 +

i4A

i^"A"+ "c.) ;
Aa'
.

.". -J-

Aa'

and

rf" "

dx.

da

DIFFERENTIATION

OF

ANGtJLAR

FUNCTIONS.

25

Cor.

If

e=s2.71828"
=

log.""l;
rf.c'se'rfj?.
dx

"'; and

48.

Next

let

"==

logir;
du
\

.".jp=a";
11

^\

-r-^Aif^A.x;

*'

c"r

^
du

A' x'

If the base be

J" (e),

andT-

-,

ord.loga?

"

49.

Again^
^"
A

if

"

"', find
du

-7-.

^du
dz

ds
J
__

dz
^

aj3

ax

ax

ax

CoR.

If

e,

or

-4 =

1,

.".

-4"
ax

^":r"
aa

50.

If

ii

log(j5),
1
^

find^.
du
^

du

^1

_^du

dz
^

dz

dz"

A'z*

**

dx"
dz

dz' da'' A' z' dx'

If ^
From

1,

^:MiL).|; andrf.Gog.) ^\
=

obtain this rule : we equations, The differential coefficient of the logarithmof a function equals the differential coefficient of the function,divided by of which

the fonner

the function Ex.

tt
=

itself.

log^J?Tj?+T
du
"

"

9,3?+

Observe

in

future^whenever

log is used,,the Napierian

logarithm is meant.

Examples.
(1)
{%)
tt
=

(sin x)*;
-

3"

*"

cos iA^ *)""*

x.

us^Binnx;

-f

"

f^ cos

nx.

26

EXAMPLES.

(3)

tt

(tanjp)'; ^=3
sin 3x
3 cos
.

tan* or sec* ;p.

(4)

cos

2Xy
2
J?

du

2"

3ar cos

-^

sin Sjt. sin 2"

3x (cos
cos cos

cos3ar
cos

cos

2j; + 2 QxA-Q

2x

sin 3x sin 2ar)

Sx

cos

5ar.

(5)
.'.

"

s=

sin du

(cos x)
dz
=

sin
,

z, if
,

jsts cos

;r

du

j-=

-j-.T-

cos2.(" sin")=" smxcos(cosa?)"

"^

(6)

tt

8in-"-7^=":*:8in-^5, if"=

dx

rr?

(i+"*)*'

cia?

l +

or*
1 +

'

(7)

tt

+ ^ log(a?

"*) log0.
=

du
Cm?

dx
J

/:;

-j-

2
J^

^_1
"'"5J~

Vl

+g*^-3?

^iT?"

Vl~+** "^/^^a:"'

"

^
"
=

^/TT?'
log(log J7) logz
=

(8)

Ju dx

c?u e?;?

1
X X

dz* dx

z*

logx

EXAMPLES.

27

(9)
,

"""*,
.

where

z=f{x),
du
\
=

dz

1
^

l")gtt"log";
=

^.-

^bg"

+ 2.-;

(10)
.

u^!f,
.

and

being functions
du
1

of

or.

dv.

dz

**

5i~"
if

(da?
"
=

"

z' dx)

(11) u^e^^e,
" "

"";
c
"

'

"

-5"

"

C^

-"

C^

C^"

OX

"tr

(12)
Let

where B*^,

2, ", and y
=

are

functions

of

x.

"^=t;i;

.". ti

js'i,

C*""

%JUG

LUC/

U*Mf

^^.^'{log^.log^.l+flogi
"^log^^-^; ^
"

(14)

^.
1 1

"/"

ri5'\

-1

(16)

=ttlog-===^"
Gog")-;
"";
=

-_="

^^=..

(17)
(18)

t,

.-.

".(log*r.i.
^^^*}-*'^^^(^'^)'

"

2~

^U

2S

"^

EXAMPLES.

(19)

i"

;: (8inary"
".
"

/"

du dx

-7_"
*

/.
(

cos'o: )
.

sma?

(20)
/ai\ (21.)

tt

logtanar;
1 loff./,

-^ ti^
sin
;

^ sin ^

/I
1

+
-

J?

rfw
;
-r-=-

1
,

tt

V
u

sm

J?

(MP

cos

a:

(22) (23) (24)

/g
-X

\og(co3x +

^smx);

^-^^-^.
~

"

+ 24); e'(a?*-4^+124^"-24a?

*\e*,

(Mr

sin'o? cos

ar

sin'o? (3

sin'or).

C08X

^
^ _

cos2jr) 8injr(2-f (cos2d?)*

=

"'cos2ar' ^""
tt
=

(26) (27)

e'.cosx;

sina:). e'(cosj?^

tt

^= 8in-"(Sar-4r");
cos-"(4^-3a:);

(28)

i"

"=-7^.
1 +

(29)

tt

tan

X-a?"'
^

(^

a^'

fQtw

-1/^ +
M

a
J

cosarN

(30)

",

-p===^.cos du
"

j;

dx

a-hb.

cos

a?

(31)

"

""'"'. cos

a?

^
a?

^"*"'(1sin ar
-

sin'ar).

/oa\

/I

-cos

^M

(33)

"

8in-'(2*-l);

g= -^J=j.

30

EXAMPLES*

(51)

a(z

8in2);
du
__

ar

o(l-cos5);
af
"

/2aw V

'dx"

(52)

d'./-

-r-="^-

"

sec
/i-"\ ^ '

a?

rfa
Q
^ ^

3(sma?)'

'

dj?

(sin a?)*(cos j:)"

(54)

tt

8in-^(2arVrrZ);

-^^-j^^. .""^ ^^'^.

=

{55)

tt

2e"^(a?*-Sjr+ 6V^-6);
^;

(56)

tt

^
^
1

^"^Mog(e*-).

(57)

x^';

^'n'^^ logxAognj.
+
-

(58)

"

sin"*
.

ar

du

ar*

ar(l-ar)*
(59)

irujr^-hjr^*=a'.
du

jr^

(60)

If

vrr^+yr^=o("-.tt).

CHAPTER

m.

Successive Differentiation. Maclaurin's

Theorem.

51. derivative
of

If

u^f{x);

^,
a

or

as

it is
o^

frequentlycalled^ its
is

being
For

also be may differentiated. du

function

x,f'{x),and
put a-^h,

capable

suppose

that

-^^p,

and

for

'

du

\dx/
J
h
+

dp
"c.
=

then

2^
inu

JP +

"c.

(by writing

-.-forw,'
dx

-r-h-^Uh');
dx

dx So also be function

dx of ;rj equal q^

-p

may

dx ax

dx

dx\dx

and

so

on

for other

differential coefficients. and differentiation,

This

process is called successive

^c* called the firsL the

-7-,

-^9 ^"
"UB

Are

second, third, "c. differ-

dx "c. derivatives first, second, third,

ential coefficients, or
of
""

A
reason

more

convenient
may

notation be
we

than remark

that

above is used, the

consideration
as

for which
; and

derived
may

from

the

of

differentials is

here

that dx
u

well

as

h,

always
Now

considered since

to be

when invariable,

=/(ar)"

-T--Pl
"""

"'"

du^pdxi
but

d(du)'=dpdxi d{du)=^qdx\

dp^qdx;

"",

1
32
But
been because
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION.

d(du)

is the
d^u

symbol

for

twice

and differentiated^
;

since d is the

shewing that u symbol of

has ferentiation difti j

therefore

will

fitly express

the fact of

being

thus

twice

operatedupon ; .*. d^u^qda^.

drdj^

s^rdj^, Similarlyd(d*u)s,d^u=^dqdjs'

d(dPu)=:d^u=^
"c. ;

sdx\

dp
"*"

^(Pu
d^u
_

di^^^dP'
dq
dr dx

dx^^'d?'
d*u dx^4
*

and

the "*^ differential coefficient is

Observe
"c.

^-^.

^-5,

-j-g,

are

most

commonly read, second

cubed; but sometimes, by dx cubed, "c.

d%i

by

dx
Uy

d two

squared, third d by dx squared,

Let
"
=

da

by

dx
u,

three
+

Ex.1.

jr*+ ""

a:'+ "+l,
+

-J-

40!*+ Sa^

2a? +

1,

3-5

S.4a?'

2."t

2,

d^u

2-3

2.S.4a?

2.S,

Ex.

2.

Let

ii

jr-\
1

iftt

g-

^_ -ar-

"

^,
2

d*u_^^

^^-2ar-

^,

SUCCESSIVE

DIFFBRENTUTION. 2.3.4
=
"

33

^^

5-,

A O 9 2.3.4^"

-5

^,

d^
Ex.
3.

(-l)"2.3.4.5...w.ar^"+^
d'u
sin (ax
+

Let

5) :

find

"

du

^
d*u

+ i), -o"cos(aa?

^
Ex.
4.

a* sin

+ 6) (aar

a*".

^"" Let
"
=

c*'; find
ffu

(/or'

du

d*u
_

"/" dx

"

"

Ex.

5.

Let
"."
.'.

;""
=

; to
+

find (fw, "pw, "c.

vefe.

"?"
d^u

zdv

(1);
(/^(ft;,

+ diydz). J(2:dv)
=

But

from

(1),d{zdv) d(vds)
=

S(f i;

v^i'^r + ifvrfz ;
+
.

.',
.-.

d'u
rf*"

zd'v

2dzdv
2

vd's ;

+ d{zd*v)

+ ^(vcfjs). d(dzdv)

But

J(z d^v)
.

^frf't; +

dzd\

2d(dzdv)
=

2(?*5(ft; + 2dzd^v, dvd^z

;
+

vcPz + (t;"?*j8:)
=

"".

cPu
=

z^v
+

3"f5d!'" + Sdvd'z

t;"f ^,
+

and

(Pm

zd*v

4t?z"i"t; + edP'zrf'" + A^zdv

t;rf*".

34
Since

maclaurin's the law

theorem.

of the numerical

coefficients is

apparently

that of the coefficients of (j^u zd^^ + (fw djf due

to

(a + b)*;
+
n

.".

dzcP^^v

^"
.

(n

"

1^
" -

d^zd^v d^z
da?

"c.

d*"_
dar
a

"fe cP^^v da: dar-^

("-l)
2

d^^v
^

doT^

be used to find may the differential coefficient of the product of two functions. To prove the law of the coefficients. Let

theorem

Leibnitz^ and which

n"

1
.

d!*u

zd^v

ndzdr^v

"

2
/.

^"

cPzcT^v

"c.

^^u

zd^^v

dz{fv

+ cPzcP^^v) (dzcTv

n-^"
2
.

+ {f 2 (^zt?*-'v

+ "f-*r)

"c.

zcF^^v +

(n + 1)

dzd'v

^.d'z ^-^-^^
"

(^-'w +

"c.,
for
=

which

shews

that if the theorem

to
.'.

be true be true when

n

n-hl, and it has been shewn it is .*. true when "s=4; and

for n, it is true and n for n^2, is any

3 ;

integer.

Eocpansion of
52.
form
"
=

Functions.
into Ex*
a

If

=f{x)
^
"c.
+

can

be

expanded
+

series of the

5ar
are

Cs^

DoJ*
to

"c#

where

A^ By C,
Since

constant,
or

find these

coefficients.

This

is Maclaurin's
u
=

Theorem.. Stirling's
+

Ba:+ Ca^

Dj?

Ex*

"c.

By

successive differentiation

^
ax

=B

2Cx

3Da?'"i"E.a'

"c.

^=
dor
""

2C

SBx

4- 3

4"
.

0?"+ "c.

2^
dx*

2.3.D

2.3.4jE.ar

"c.

^=2.3.4E
"c.
"=

"c.

"c"

EXPANSION

OF

FUNCTIONS,

35
"c.

Make

a?

U^ 0, and let "7o,CTj,tT",,

of
",
-r-

represent the

values resulting

-j-^,

"c.

"73 2.32);
=

.-.

D=C7;^"
"c.=:"c-;
0^
^

^=^4'g

3^"

a^
^

,4

Cob.

The

generalterm

is

obviouslyC7";

"

r
"

"

r
"

"

3...n

Examples of
(1)
Let
M
=

the

Expansion of Functions.
.'.

+ a)*; (a:

"7; a*; if jp
=

0;

.'. ZZ^ 2.3.4(a:+ fl);

=

4fl,

2.3.4;

.-.

"r, 2,3.4,
=

^=0;
y -r";
+
"

"".

C7" 0, and
=

U^

U^^ "c. each=0;

^*"*^i.
+

2
+

^^1.2.3
a;*.

"

2.3.4

a*

4a'j; + 6a V

^aa?

C3^, (2) Expand {a-k-hx-^ u^{a'^bx-hca^*; .". lTo a%

=

D2

36

EXAMPLES

OF

THE

EXPANSION

OP

FUNCTIONS.

-7-3

n.

("- l).("-2)(fl+ .("- 1)(a +

.

6a?+

+ 2cjr)" car')"-*(6

+ 2w +
...

bx

ca^'^2c.(b+ 2ca?)

2c

"

("

Us
"c.

n(n
"c

(b + 2car) + ca:*)*^ ; ) (a+ fto? + 2 3".(a- l)a'^6(^ l)(n-.2).fl"-'6"

-

.-.

+ ca^* {a-^bx

a''+

na'^'bx-^{n.^^^^.a'^b nar^^
+

"C. sin

(3) Expand
If du
=

j;

and

cos

in

terms

of

x.

t(=:sinar"
~"

s dx
dl'u

*'

-sin^,

--^

sa

"

COS

ar,

d^u

"C. After

"C.
recur.

the 4'^ differentiation the values

Make
=

x^O,

then in the series for

sinor^
=

r7o 0, t7i=:l, U^=0,

and in the series for cos^,

C/3=-l.

C^4 0,

?75=I""c.,

27^=1,
.",

t7i 0,
=

17, -!,
=

t7,= 0, C7^=l, "c

J?*
" " " "

sina:

a?--"

-+

-"c.

and

cosar

"

^r-r:

1.2

2.3.4

."

"c.

Cor.

sin

by

may the latter. differentiating

The

series for

cos

be

derived

from

that of

38

CIRCULAR

FUNCTIONS.

(6)
ax

siiT^x,whence

if

a?

0, C7J" sin~*0
=

0,

Jl^a*
Madaurin's

2.4"

2.4.0

but

from

Theorem,

.-.^7,-1,

t7.

o,

|^ |;
=

.'.

"7.= !,

C^,-0,

^r
_

5
_

2.8.4.5.6.7
"

"2.4.
X
9

6'
S ST

"

^^~^
X
m

TT-it

*'

""

**

e".
'

tMf

"

1.2.3
1 1.2

1.2.3.4.5 a^
3 1.3 2.4

1.2.3.4.5.6.7
1.3.5

jc* 5

ar^
^

2.4.6

the

generalterm

of this series

(Newton's)is obviously
x^^
'

1.3.5

(2yi~3)

2.4.6

(2"-2)*2/i-l
a

By

this

the lengthof series^

==

circular
;

arc

may

be found

thus, let sin-^a:

11
BE
"

30 ;

.".

a?*^

and

the
1

length of 30*,
J. "C.
^

1
-1
.

1.3
+
,

1.2

3x8

2.4

32x5

(7)
for

The
let
u

same

series maj
=

be also

thus, obtained,
;

sin~^a?

a,j? +

a^

+ "c. + Ojoi' Ogpi^

sin~^a?cannot
du
.
_ "

tiontain
1

even^powers

of a?;

"

But

-Ti=- i+^^+i4-^* 144^

=

^c-"

Jl-a^
,

2.4
1

2.4.6
11

fl,=

l, 3fla=-;
1.3

"'"

"a==2'3"
1

1.3

1.3.5

1.3.5

SERIES

FOR

THE

LENGTH

OF

CIRCULAR

ARC.

39

X
.,

0^
3

1.3

x'^
5
=

1.3.5

X^
o

12

2.4

2.4.6
=

7
0 ;

(8)

"

tan-*a?;a?=:0,
=

"7;, tan-^0

l-a:*

a:*-a;*-{-"c.

dx

1 +

a:*

"rr^ rr 77, + 2 Z7o

"

SC7"" ^"
" "

4r7^a"
H

5C7;a:^
1 +

^^

^ "c.

.%

t/"=l, Z7, 0,
=

^' -1;
=

.-.

C/. -2,
=

C7, 0,
=

t^.
*~-

"

"

"^

^^

S.3.4 2 jr*
"". tt
=

25

"

Tj

2
.

4j?*
.

j:

"

JtZ
.

"c.
Z.

3.4.0

j^
or

or'
+
" "

tan~*a:

a:

"

"c. of the

Gregory'sseries for
53. the Hence
the may
arc

the
be of

arc

in terms

tangent.

found
a

for approximateexpressions

lengthof (r)
Let

circle.

tan-^ar

^;
4

/.

aT

tan^= 1,
4
.

IT
"

1
, ssi

1
1

1
H

and

"c.

(2')

Since

^
Sr
2

tan"*

i + tan-"i
,

and

tan

;r

"

2'

rs

-z-ztk

"C.

:
'

5.2*

**^

3-3-3-'^5T3-'-^"-

(3")
formulai

very

convergent

series is

given by

Machines

that

4 tan~*
-

tan"*
.

'5
4 tan"*-

-ggp=

To

prove

let -4 this,

4a.

40

SERIES

FOR

THE

COMPUTATION

OF 4

LOGARITHMS. 4

Then

tan^=

4tena-4tan"a
1-0

5125
^

tan'fl + tan^a
_

_2_
25

^
.

625

4(125-5)
625-150
+

4x120

120

1"

476
120

""119'

''

"^

'

and

tan(^-45o) ^ ^

^"^'^=ii2 tan^
+

^-L;
239
1

120

119
1
.'.

^-45"

tan-*

239'
.%

45o

4tan-l-tan-^
S-5"^5-5*
"
"

*l5
(239
54. since

^^'J
5

(239)'
found

(239)*

/"
Theorem^
be.
=

Logx
the
tt
=

cannot

be
are

by

Maclaurin's

U^, Ui, U^y "c.

infinite : but
be
.-.

log (1 + x) may
A

Suppose

to logarithms

where Napierian,

l.

log(l+j?);
l +

t7o log(l)
=

0,

ax

dx
.-.

2.3

2.3.4

t/;"i,
"^

c;=-i,
'

"7;=2,

z74=-2.s,

175=2.3.4;

2
Hi X

2.3
X

2.3.4
""

2.3.4.5

dr

1-

1-

"c. 5

CoR.

Had

been

the
if

base,then (Art 48)^

Qx

-T-^-j*
A

r X
"v

and
i

log"be

login

that system^

y.

SERIES

FOR

THE

COMPUTATION

OF

LOGARITHMS.

41

where The
it

^log^a^the
series

factor

-^

is called the modulus. does

not

just obtained
may
a* in

converge,

but

from
270.

converging series
55,

be derived.

See
of

Algebra^ p.
x.

Expand
M
"

ascendingpowers
jr
=

"',

0 ;

.'.

Uo=l;

S=^'"" 2 ^a'
=

""

^"=^'.
U,
=

A%

"

4V
----

^V
+
---

4V
+
^

.*.

""

, 1 +

-4a? +

"c.

1.2
I
^

2.3

2.3.4

Cob.
e*

1.

If

g;
1-

log, 6=1;
1-

and
1 +

1 +

J?

"

"c.

1. 22.

32.

3. 42.

3. 4. 5

5Q,

In

the

expansion for e%
j?,
x

for put successively

"

1, and

"

"I

2.3

2.3.4

2.3.4.5

Therefore
"

first by addition a^
=

and
+

then
X*

by subtraction,
=

e'V-i + gr^"Pi

2{l"^

__-."c.}
=

2co8ar.

(l). (2).

i?"^^-"r-"^i=2y^{^-^+"c.} 2/^sinjr,
by Again, adding and dividing e*^-! coso: + ^=

2,
I sin or.

42
Also

LOGARITHMIC

SERIES,

by

subtraction

and
=

dividing by
X
"

2,
x.

e*'^-^
Cob,
1.

cos

"

sin

Hence

cos

j;=

and

sinj?

e'^-i-c-'^i
"

1
T=r = , :

/c"'^-i-l\
(
p=

/.

tanir=--=:^

j=

).

CoR.

2.

These

equationshave
of x,
+
we

been

ently proved independput

=

of the value
.". cos mx

may
1 sin
+
"m?

therefore

mx

for

J-

e^^-^
sin

e*^"^]*

s=

(cosjr

J"
tt*

a:)"*,

the formula

of De

Moivre.
w" tt*
+

57.

log(l+fi)
=
,

tt--+---

"c.;
tt^
-

/
\

1\
=

M-*

"-*
4."

.*.

1 +-) log! " "/

"-*

"

--

"C.;
'

"

"".

("-"-)-i("'-ir-) log|/i^U-log"
=

For

write

e*^^;

/.

logtt Jc^-l;
=

2,y^ {sin
.*.
-

jr-

sin2^
2a? + 3x

sinSa:3x

"c.};
;

sin

a?

^ sin
2a? +

J sin
"

"c.

.'.

cos

0?

"

cos

cos

"c., differentiating,

58.

By division,

-^
tr"^-^
1 +

e-V-i""?^"""^ji
cos
or
"

"

1 sm

"

1 tan 1 tan

a:

1 2x

^"
tan

a?

J^

=:\og (i +

JTI

a?) log(1
-

y^
-~

tan

J?).

But

log(l+tt)-log(l-tt) 2{" +
=

"

"c.};

LOGARITHMIC

SERIES.

43

.\

2x

y^
+

{J^

tana? tan

(^/^

tan

xf

(J^
1
-

xy

"c.}
tan*a:-

s=

2
a;
=

/sA"^ {tana?-| tan^a?+ ^

tan
a;
-

"c.};

.*.

tan^'o? +
=

tan*a?
"

"c., (Ex. 8.)

of
x,

59.

Let

tt'
-

ttj:

a'

0 ; find
.".

in terms
=

lf*=0;

becomes

CTi;
du

(Z7o)'-"'0;
=

Uo=d=a.

du

Qu Differentiating,

^--x j-^u
"a;
"".

0;
=

make

0;

,'. "

2fl"7i-a

0;

C7;
=

f.

second a Differentiating

time^

"2flZ72 +

2.j-l

0;

"".

^2==^4^"

0; or(2i.-..)^+s(2^^lj^^
=

if

ar

0;
... "
=

217^-1=0;

.\

U^-=0;
"c.

=i:fl +

la?*^-j-2
+

Examples.

(S)
For

Iftt

smar;

5^

8m|^ar-j.
+
n

C08a?

8in(sin(a:+-j; -irj=
+
a?

^) 8in^a: cos(a; 0=:sin(^ 2y.

+ +
=

44

EXAMPLES.

(4)

Iftf

cosar;

5^ ^^s(^+"|V
=

-2)0:-^+ "("-!)("- 2)(" -3). ar*}. 4".(ii-.l).("

IfM
=

(6)

e'8inar, ^sSe'cosjr,

(8)

sin (a+6j:)=sin fl+6a:cos

"

"

"

sinfl-

--"

cos

a+"c.

2.3

(9) co3(a+hx)=cosa-bxsina
+ 6:r) log" + (10) log(a
=

"

"

.cosa

r-xsina+Src.

^-|^ ^-"c.
+

(11)

8ec.-=l+^+^+"c
=

(12) (cosx)'
(13) (tana)* (14) ^ ^ (15)
=

l-|!2|:_"c.
+

ar*+

1"" ^a*
+

"c.

e"-'=l+^+^
2 c*
sec
0?
=

??!
"c.

^
2.3.4.5

"c

2.3.4

1 +

a:

a;"+

-"

(.6) (17)
+
"

7?^.^(,.J,.f.|._^4^.4.)
Sin

(a +
a
-

6ar+
6' sin

cor*) sin
=

h-

bx

cos

(2ccos
If

a)

"

"

sina (66(;

6* coso)
-

"c.

(18)

cos

(m)
^
=-

cos

+ 1/)-x^ (jn

f
i cot
^
^

X
-;
"

y ^

7W

smw

\sinmj

\* 1

"c.

46
dP
-.

Taylor's
^u

1
theorem.

1
"**

"Ptt

^^

**^'

^'s^-d^'
.

4ij-^-J_^.
*^~

dt'z.S'do!*'
du
,

'

R tPu

L_
h*
,

^.

i.S.4,'dx*'

d*M

A*

''"''' =

"^d^^^WT7i*d?T:3^'^'the theorem
of

Cob.

From

Taylor we

may

deduce

that

of Maclaurin. For "c.

making

j?

0,

Mj

become8y(A) and

u, j-,

^3,

-j-j,

become

"c.; U^, Ui, U^, tT",,

or

x putting

for h, in which
=

case

may
+

be

put
+

for/(x),

"

+ it; * tr.

tr, y-^

r,

g-g

"C.

Exa/mples.
62.

(x +

+ A), cos (a? + A) + A),log(a: expand sin (a: Theorem, by Taylor's A)",
.

To

and

du
-

^u

h'

^u

A"

(1)

"

sinar;
c^'tf ^u ^u

cfu

after which
.".

the values
+ A) (j?
=

recur

A*
Ml
=

A*
dosar

sin

sin A*

cos

a;

"

sin A*

or

1.2

2.3

"^^^"^2:3:4^^^"^2:3:4:5"-^^
(2)
^
=

tt

cosar;
=

-sm^,

^,

-cos^,

5P=sm^,
"

^
"

C08^,

,-.

Ui

+ A} cos(a:

coso;

sm

coso?

1 +

1(2

-8in*.^ C08*.g^-"C

EXAMPLES.

47
make

Cob.

If in the two

we expansions

x^^O,

we

have

sin

"c. 2.3.4.5

2.3

^'
cos "
I.
=

^'
+
" "

"

1.2

2.3.4

7-

"C.

it

(8)

tf

log(jr);

Let
.-.

J?

1 ;

.*.

log x

0;
,

log(l+A)

A-iA"

JA"-iA* + iA*-"c.

(4)

u^af;

^\

^
.

a:*-W+

"c.

63.

The
of

is used in following Proposition the parallelogram Given of forces.

+ *)+/(^ =/("" ; put for /(or)
-

some

strations demon-

that

/(^) 'fW
Let
"

^) ;

find

/(x).

be

"""

/ W

{1 +

j-=

"

-^

J-,

r-x"

"c.}.
1

rf^tt
.

Now

of x, the coefficients since h is independent "c..

-r-^

1-1

which
,

cannot

contain ^u
^

dx*
-

k, must
d^u

be constant.

d^u

9^u

a'A'

o*A*
+

Hence

/(A) f(x)
=

2 2

{1

"

|-g--^ /(x
^

"C.}
=

2 cos

aA,

and

.'.

cos

ox;

and

A)

2 cos

^ ah), (our

48

APPROXIMATION

TO

THE

ROOTS

OF

AN

EQUATION.

-which may
2
cos

be verified ^
.

by
2

the formula
cos

cos

J (

5)

cos

(A

B),

64. the
roots

Theorem Taylor's of equations.

X
-

may

be

used

to

approximate to

Let and
a a

very

of which x is one of the roots, equation^ an approximatevalue of x, so that j; a + A, k being hence small quantity, since X of ar ; 0 is a function
0 be
an
^ =

but
terms

since
of

is assumed

after the

very second, and

small,
so

we

may
an

obtain

neglectthe approximate

value

h;

da and If this value

let it be
=

"

of

be

not

Oi, and put lengtharrive at results

the process
more

the near sufficiently : we repeated

more near

true

one,
at

shall
one. near

and

the true

Ex.
one

1.

a?*-3a?

l=0.

By (1.5)*
-

trial 1.5 is found

to be

of the roots.

/(a)

a"

Sa + 1

+ (1.5)

.125,

^^^^ 3a"=

6.75-3

3.75;

125
.-.

*=V^
a?" =

-033;

.-.

a:

1.5 + .033 and

1.533.

Ex. between

2.

100.

Since
a
=

3' -27

4*

256;

lies

3 and

4; let

3,5*
0 l +

Nowa:loga?-loglOO
"""

tf;

.%

log^r^T-;
=

/(")

3.5

log(3.5) log 100

-

^^^
3.5 log.
-

1 +

log(3.5).

But

100 loge

4.60517

1.25276 ;
;

X 1.25276-4.60517=-.22051 """/(")=3.5

^^^=2.2527
A
"

22051
"""

'^^^^^ ^^25276
*

and
'

a:

3.59832

APPROXIMATION exact

TO

THE

ROOTS

OF

AN

EQUATION.

49

more a.

value

may

be

obtained

by putting 3.59832
from

for

The

are logarithms Napierian

obtained

logarithms by
.43439Thus

each dividing

logarithm by

the common the number

100= log.

^=4.60517.
+

65. into
one

Transform
whose
z.

the

equationat-f^^
shadl be diminished

roots

qaS^ by a

"c.

0,

constant

quantity
Let
a?

jar+

y ; X dZ

=f(js+^),
dPZ

and let Z
"f*Z

=/(") ;
n

"

V*

v"

Or

if

Zi, Za, Z3, "c....Z",be put for the differentialcoefficients^

the transformed becomes equation

1.2

2.3

1.2...("-1)
X, when
2

2.3..."
x

where
.-.

Z is the value of Z

is

put for

=2*-;)s-'+ 5f2"-"-"c.
=

and

Zi

"2-*-("

l)psr^+ ("

2) qi^-

"c.

Z^,=:"("-l)("-2)...3.2j8:-("-l).("-2)...2.p,
and

Z, =n("-l)("-2)...3.2;
terms
+

the therefore^after writing

in "c

an

inverse order^
Z"
0.

+ (nz-p)!^^ If*

CoR.
term

This

Z"
2

Z^ "c.

s=

equationis used to take away any particular of an equation, of the coefficients by putting any in the others the value of 0, ana substituting
it
"

derived
Ex.

from

Transform

Sa^+lBa^-^
term.

25x

-3=0

into

an

tion equa-

wanting the
Here
Z Z

second

+Z,^
=

+^+|^
30z

0,

(forZ, 0),
=

32:'+ 15j8"+ 255-3,

Zi=

9s* +

+25,

Z,= 18-af+30, Z,al8,

andZ4

0.

50
SO
1, ButZ,"0;
. r.

-5

"""

2*-i8=-3-'
+

Zi

25-50 125

25

0,
225
-

125
+
"

152

Z=-"

"

-3"

^;

152

18""
^

.152

Examples.
+ "c. (1) Tan(a? + ^)=tana:+A.8ec*x+A".tanj?.8ec*d:

A'x
+

(2) Sm-'("

A)

8in-*

jj=^

g^j_^,

2.3(1 -j:")i
1 2^

A'

(3)

Tan-^(^+^)=tan-^+n:^A--p-:r77-2
2(3j:'-1)
"*"

A"

(l+^" (4)
Prove that if

273"*^'^

"=/(a^),

"^\i+ij"""5^' 1+0?
(5) Approximate (1) ""
(2) (6)
If
-

"*"

da:"
to
a

"

2(l+a?y
of the
0.

2?*2.3(l+")"
equations
Ans.
Ans.
tt
x
=

root

12j:

28 3

4.302.

4?*+

a?-

0.

ar

1.165.

andif whena?=fl; tt=/^ar),

6; then

In

f(x

A)^ for x-^-k, put

and

the

theorem

(Euler's)

is found.

CHAPTER

V.
:

Failure of

Theorem Taylor's Theorem.

Limits of the

same

66.

By

Taylor'sTheorem

we

can

expand f{x
+

h)

into

the series

f{x) + pA
where
of h the powers have Indeed we
are

qV

rh^

"c.

and ascend. integral proved, (Art. 8)^ that so long as x retains its generalvalue^ the expansion of /(a;+ A) cannot of A. As this proposition is an contain fractional powers important one, we here give the reasoningcommonly made
use

of

to

establish its truth.

Assume where
R

f{x
smce
x

h)-u

+
sum

Ph^

jB,
terms.
same

represents the
+

of all the other

Then
X

h enters

f(x

h)

in the

manner

as

enters

f{x),
same

it is
number
to

plain that
of

both

functions that the

than

(undeveloped)

have the

values,and
no more

developement
or

oif{x
does. make
of
X

h) ought values But if particular

neither infinite
nor

contain

f{x)
to x, to

j{x

k)

be

given

whicn
each

will value

evanescent;

then

correspond n values of PA*, since A* has n different values; and consequently the expanded function wiU contaih n times as many values as the unexpanded one ;
there will
and therefore
n

times

as

many

as

fip), which

is

manifestly

contradictory. given to x in f(x + A) the unexpanded function makes f(a-"K) contain fractional of A, we Theorem will cannot expect tiiat Taylor's powers the hypothesis that give the requireddevelopement. Now index of A into j (a? introduces + A), sup* ar a fractional a have in there the function been must original poses that
"J.
a as a
=

If then

such

value

some

such
or

term

as

{x

a)*, which
In

becomes
case

(j:
-

A)" in
some

tf,"

A* when

^cu

such

it is dear

that

of

the

differential coefficients will

become

infinite^when

Thus

if, UB"+(x-a)*;

52

FAILURE

OF

TAYLOR's
m n

THEOREM.

du dx tPu
m

."-1
,

fm

.--a

d?

-.(
"

\ii

l).(jr-a)- "r-H
/
^

"c.

1.2

where

if

"

"

p and

"

1, the

term (p + 1)"*
x
=

and

all that

follow it will become This circumstance infinite when

infinite when
of
or
=

a.

the
a

coming differential coefficients beis called the Failure of Taylor's

Theorem,
that of A.

an

improper phrase^ since

cannot

it is rather
in

an

index

the function

be

expanded

integral powers

68. contains

Again^ as the generalexpansionoff(x+k) of h, for ifj'{x + h) could negative powers k)

be

never

if A the
Now
we

ss

0, J*(x+
may

instead
led to

of

would becoming f (a?),

or
=

be infi-

nite^we

expect that if
+

introduces

into

unexpanded function j(x Theorem by Taylor's expansion

it is clear that
must to

A) a
a

term

will indicate

have had

such such

term term

A"*,the involving some absurdity. dependent on A~*,

M
as
7

have oriffinally
A for a:,

r-:

for

putting a?
J?
=

4-

becomes
.^

"

-y

r-

y=

when

a.

not

being supposed to
derivatives
of

vanish

when
are

x=^a.

Here
x^a.

all the

-;

r^

infinite when

69.
some

The

theorem

therefore

from u disappear into "i =jr(a? + A), a term a fractional involving power renders the original when function infinite. x^a or
As
an

surd

makes ^f(x)^ and therefore introduces

or
=

failswhenever

of A ;

example of

the firstcase^ let

"

Jx-a;

54
infinite.
u

FAILURE

OF

TATLOr's
been
JM

THEOREM.

This, as
a

it has
term
":

observed, is the
r-,

case^

when
d?+

=/Yd?) contains
A

for then, if A
.

d?

become

A,

(x
Let

")"" (x +

hJA~*

ap
+

hr "c. ;
.

then
.

f{a + A)

d.j\a-^h)_^mA

rf*./(fl +

A)
_ -

m(w

l)(m + 2)

...

(w
=

1)J J
,

and

^^j;
it is manifest

^i"^s
becomes

which

infinite if A

0.

72.
x
=

Hence
true

if the

fC^ derivative

become

infinite when

expansion contains a fractional power of h lyingbetween (" 1) and (");and if a; a makes y(ar)s00^ of h, the true expansioncontains negative powers
a,
"

the

j"

Ex.

If

tt

6jr

c{x

ay

dj?

wi(wi 1)
-

...

(m

"

l)6;ir-*,

and

let ^ q

"

"

but

"

""

1.

Then

-^r

is the first differential

cbf

coefficient which
true

becomes
a

and infinite^
term

there
,

ought

in the

for
we

expansionto be by puttingx + h
have

h* involving and

which

there

is;

for x,
.

afterwards
cA
"
.

writing a

for x,

f(a
to

A)

+ (a + A)"*

If Tn":n,
we
come

the values the n%

wUi

of the differential coefficients until when disappear

recourse x=^a.

73.
the
common

In functions

of this kind

must

be had

to

methods. algebraical
u
=

Thus^ suppose
.".

2ax 2a

f(a

A)

ajx^-a'; (a + A) + J^ah +
+
a

h'

2a(a + h) +

~\ a,j2ak.(l
+

LIMITS

OF

Taylor's

theobbm.

55
Theorem.

(1

"\
The

is to be

by expanded

the Binomial

74.
If

Limits of
be

+ k) y*(dr

Theorem. Taylor's Theorem, expanded by Taylor's

of the firstn

and

we

terms may differ sum the true value o"/(x+ h); it is therefore necessary limit of the error which to calculate the amount or the of the series. terms arisesfrom neglecting remaining the To do this we must a rticles. following premise

stop at

the n^ term, the

widelyfrom

75.
the same
but

If

=/(j?)
=

0 when

"

0, then

and

-r-

will have

signwhile

increases from
a

0 to a, if a be

positive;

if contrary signs,

be

negative; being supposed -7to

neither to changeits increases from 0 to a. Let

a

nor sign,

become

while infinite,

be divided into

each equalparts,

A, or

rA.

Then

since f(x +

h)=f(x)+

PA"

(1) ;
jp

if

Ui and Pj be the values of -j- and P, when

==0,

/{h)
Now
if

Ufi + P,h'.
du

U.,

U....U. I^ ^3,

^^

^^^^^

^^ from

^^

when h, Zh,

are Sh...(n"\)h put for x; .*. /(A + h)-/(h) =UJi + PJi%

(1),

/(2k + h)-/(h + h)=U^

. " a " -

PJi\
=

/{(n l)h+ A}-/{(" 2)A+ A}

whence, by addition,

UJi

P.A';

[7,4U^-"kc.-" /(nA)or/(a)=(C7;+ C7'.)A+(P.+P,+"c.+P.)A" ;

and

by diminishing A, the
be rendered

first term

("7;+Z7a+Z73+"c.+"7
the first term.

may

greater than the second, and therefore the

algebraical signof/(a)will depend onlyon

Also when

/(A) will

have

the

same

which sign as ITi,

is

^
dx

x=iQ;

or, since -^

does not

change its sign, /(A)

1
56
will have have the
xszk
LIMITS
OF

TAYLOR^S

THEOREM.

the

same

sign as

-j-

"

Also

-/(h) /(2A)
-r-

will

same

as Ug, sign

which

is the value of

when

-;
n

and

therefore the

same

sign as
same

-j-.
ax

And of the

therefore f{a)which has the

+ products ("7i+^7,+ ZJa

as sign

the

sum

Ac.

U^

will have the

same

signas

if

be

but positive,

the contrary signif

be

negative.
functions of x, x^ and givenvalues of x^ to find the value of the ratio
two

be and 0(a:) 76. Lety(a?)

^T]+ A two

"p(x,-^h)-(p{xy and (t"{x), that the functions /(or) stantly conit beingsupposed of x increase or constantly value for decrease, every
from
x=^Xi
to x=Xi
+

h,

or

in other words

vatives that their deri-

the same constantly sign. algebraic therefore that the derivative of /(a?) or Suppose A let and between those limits: positive always

have

f{x) is
and B

be the greatest and least value of the ratio

Xi

,,

i between

and Xi + k ; hence

"4^^"^ and
"""

"B;
-

0, and /(a?) B ^'(") 0. 0'W is the derivative of f{x) A"1" But f (x) A"p'{x) (x): and function therefore this decreases from Xitoxi+h: constantly + h)^A"p (j:, .-. /(a?i + h)"f{x,) A"p(or,) ;

/(")
"

"

"

"

"

+ A)-0(ar,) 0(ari

Similarlv Similarly.
"

/(^i+ ^)-/(^O ^(^,4-A)-^(^0

j^

Then since the ratio of "^-77" is continuous between ^ values of Xf there

Xi must

the civen

be

some

value of Xi

between lying
I

and Xi

which

will make

it equal

to

"^rf^^ ,l~''^r"

r
LIMITS
OF

Taylor's

theorem,

57 i^ of*^^A

which lies between Let this value of

a;

the irreatest and least values be

o^i + Oh

where ^ is " 1.
*

Then

+ A) 0(j?i)^'(^1 "*"^^) ^{xi If /'(or) had been constantly the inequalities negative, will exchange their values, but the resultwill be the same.
-

value of a? as x" which 77* If there be some and also f{x^ 0, 0, the formula becomes "t"{xi)
= =

makes

+ h) /(J^i /(x^-hOh) /(x + k,) + h)~ "l/{x, + hy + eh)'' "t"'{x "p{x, If also/'(xi) 0 and 0'(jri) O, then similarly,
'
'

/"+il)

A(?L"i?)
_

beinff"A

"

and then

if also/" finally, (x) 0, 0*(xj) 0 and /*-* 0, (j?,) 0, and 0""* (or,) f(x^+ h)_f.{Xi + eh) + A) + 61/r) "l"{x, 0" (jTi
= = = =
""

'

make ^ (or) (j; XiY; we example and ^ 0(d?i + A)"A"; but 0'(ar,) O; O...^*"^(j?i) + A) + 6A). "("-l)("-2)...3.2.1. .-. 0".(ari 0".(ari And if at the same time / (x^) 0. ./*"* 0, (jp,)
as an
=
-

78. If

then

+ A)-/(",) /(or,
-

"

"

+ ^A). /" ("i

.

to zero, or as it Hence^ if A be a small quantity tending and if at the same is odled an infinitesimal, time /" (^i)
"

is finite:the increment of /(or,) will be the n* order. If also J'i.Xi) 0 the formula becomes
-

an

infinitesimalof

A"

and if now

we

have
A"

at

the
.

same

time x,

0,

Ah)

or writing x for A, ./" (Sh), ^

58
in such
a one case

LOftiTs

OF

Taylor's

theorem.

as

will be Ex. Here

of the n^
u^x
=
"

this,in which x is an infinitesimal^ /(') b e finite. order^i"/*(0x) sinx,

x

Let
"
=

to tending

zero.

0, /(x)

0, /(x)

cosor

0;

/'(x)
=

8ina:

0,

and

is

an

infinitesimal of the third order.

in

79. We now proceedto determine the value of R Theorem, R beingthe remainder after n terms. Taylor's For -R put "p(h).

of this the difierential coefiicients of both members with regard since it is obvious to h are identical ; and equation Now that

f(h) (being a
as

when

0^

do also its (n
.-.

multiplied by A") vanishes 1) derivatives; + A); 0"(A)=jr.(ar

term
"

2.3.

"

'

2.3."

La

In

which

is the

form complete
=

of

Theorem. Taylor's
may dedace value of the

CoR. If a? 0, and if we write x for A, we the theorem of Madaurin^ and exhibit the remainder: for

in Taylor's is it necessary to Neither in this nor Theorem know the exact value of Q, only that it must be between
0

and

1.

Ex.

Let u^aT;

find R after

terms, when

Wi

"***;

2.o...7t

2.0...9I

if the

same

be

in required

the

of a', expansion

2.3.n-'

'

2.3...n

CHAPTER

VL

VanishingFractions.

80.
unknown
tor

When

the substitution of

value particular and

a

for the denomi-"

of

both the numerator makes quantity^ the fraction is called fraction vanish,

vanishing
divi-

fraction. Thus
"
"
"

becomes

when

jr =?

1, but
'

since by
''

""" won,

="+!;

the

true

value

of

the

fraction

when

J?=l, is 1 + 1=2. both the Here

numerator

and

denominator
factor
jr
"

vanish

if

x=:l, because they both contain the vanishes on the same supposition. 81. itslimit tion
;

1, which

"'-l That
as
x

the value
tends
x

of the be

fraction
a?-l

tends to 2

as

to

1, may

shewn numbers

by actual

substitu-"

put for

the successively 2,

S* then the values

1|, Iro, liJo* liro* ^^

of the fraction become

which value 82.

shew sufficiently
of the

that

as

approaches unity^ the

of these fractions thus

fraction

approaches2.
shew that the values
; and

We
be

proceed to

may

finite, nothing, or infinite

used with

the

term

is vamshing fraction,

great

impropriety.

(1^)
of or, and

Let
no

tt

be and

fraction
let
x
"

involvingintegral powers
a

surds;
Q
are

make
j?
-

P=0,
a^
or

and

0;
;

then

and
"".

both

divisible

by
and

its

powers*

let

P=p."^^^*
p

Qs^r.jr-aj";

x-^aV

For

divide
if any;

by
.*.

""

a, and

let

be make

the quotient and

dr^a;
.*.

the

mainder, re-

Ps(dr~a)m-|-n;
.*.

P^O
"-

by hypoa.

thesis; "'"Osm(a-a)+n;

nsO;

or

la divisible

by

60

VANISHING

FRACTIONS.

(1)
which
is

Let

"i

",

.'."

-;

and

=^

when
x"a.

*=",

since neither p finite^ Let

m"ii;
.\
u

nor

q contain

(2)

^
=

.x-a]"^

0;

i"

a.

"

(3) Letm"n;
83. Hence

/.

"

-i"-^

;;

oo"

if

ar

g.

it appears
to

the

true

value of such
of

fraction is

is found
common

by gettingrid
both
m

of that power

(x
the

a),which
value of

the numerator
n

and

denominator^ the differentiation. For

When fraction

and

are

whole

numbers,

may P

be found

by

successive

dd
r, ly .'.uQ^P;

T Let"
.

ndu
+

dP
=

^;
a\

.""

"

5-

5^

^-

Let

/.

0,

by hypothesis;
dx
^

dQdP
dx

dx

dQ
dx

or

is

equal to
and

the ratio of the differential coefficients of the

numerator

denominator,
also makes
process,

being put
-j~
=

for

x.

But

if x=ay

and

"

=0;

then

by

repeatingthe

JL
'

(^
\dxj
__

^
da^

dx

dx and

'

dx)

da^

the differentiation must be continued differential coefficients becomes finite when If both it is be finite at the
same

until
x
=

one

of the
is finite;

a.

time

the fraction

be

if the differential coefficient of the denominator nothing, first finite; and infinite when with the that is the case
numerator.

differential coefficient of the

84.
numerator

If fractional and

powers
one

of of

x"a,

be also found is

in the

denominator, this
the

method

inapplicable,

since

x=^a

will make

differential coefficients

infinite.

62

TANISHINO

FRACTIONS.

For

7T-"

i^
1

Qi

0^ w^en
0
.-

ir

a;

"

Ex.

!"

Find

the value

of

11=
"

when
,

a?=l,

Qs=a:' + 2a:'-a?-2;

.%

^*Sa:" +
0 SI

4r-l"6,

if ar=l;

Ex.

2.

Find

the
P

value

of
,

when

df

0.

a'-6',
=

and

Q
=

ar,

a'logfl-5'log6

loga~log6
*'
.-.

logT*

when

jr=^0,

""^^
=

"=logg).
if
.-

of

"

x
i

0 =;:" 0

Ex.

3.

"

:;

a?

l.

1"
=

j; +

logj:

a?"-j?, and

Q=l-a:
=

logai

^
AM?

+ loga:)-.l a;'(l

0, if ar=l,

^
ax

-1+1=0,
X

if

i,

g
^

^(l+log*)"
=

2, if"=l,

--,

-l.ifa,= l;

85.

We

may

often

dispensewith differentiation.
when ^f^ "^^^=--,
"=0.

Ex.4.

"="''"

EXAMPLES.

63

log(l+ a?)
=

"c.; j:-.|-+--|+
^
=

.-.

^
1

1 2

-g

"C.

1, if ar"0. when

Ex.

5.

If

"

1 "dp

-; 1

"

-8=00-00,
"

"=!.

JT

Ex.6.

If"

J-^-^-^^;fi"dit,if*
=

Here

tt

4a:

"ir" ^ *e'

o'^'=".s

Expand

e"

by

the formula

c*=

1 +

js +-

"

"c.

9rar+-"

"C

\
|
=
-

1.2
+
irj;

/
I

7-:+"c.
1.2
+
-"

\
I

"

"c.y

\2

+ war

+ "c.

Let

07

0;
tf=

."."="="-".

Ex. 7-

find

it,when
.%

d:

oo.

Let

logx=y;
l+V "^ +

x^^^e^.

~~

-:~-:

1.22.3

"

1
,

y
.

0 + 00

1=0,

lf5(
=

00.

CO

if w=" Similarly,

p-

and

ar

oo,

"i

0.

iJ

~~

1^ iJb

~~

"*

-i"

and

are

infinitewhen

"

a, and

we

may

use

the

second method

letx^a^h,
-

"

+ Jh J2ah A' + A ^Qa-'h l + ^a*+flj? + j:** tjh'hjh^a'+ax-^a^

1
64
EXAMPLES.

Let

ar

a,

or

A=0.

Then

"=

-^
,
.

We

might divide
Ja
"=s3i
+

at once
x-^-

by J a
"

x,

and then
,

Ja
^

x
^s=

J^
^ J

when

jr=fl.

l+Ja' +

ax-^x'

1 +

J3a'

l-sinar
_,

+ cos

C08d?
,

tt

Ex.10.

,^

w=-; Bin X +
^
"

l;

s"

cosjr-cosiwar

1-m'
=

Ex.12.

u=

::

cos

"

COS

nor

1 12

"

n^
1

j;

ar

0.

a?"-j:"-8a? ^^"^^-

'^^^^-9:r'4.4xfl2=3''
tt=
:
"

'-

Ex.14.

=1;
sin or
rg
"

a?s=0.

or

"

sina;
x

tan
_

"

1
=-;
x
=

Ex.15.

"5=

"

(sin xy
,^ Ex.16,
T.

^r-^

"

0.

l-("
t.^

l).a;"+".jr'

(1,^)^
^^"^^-

^-V-""

n(l+l)

'-

"^^^^ "==x--6x'H-12a:'^10x-f3"^^

8in"*ar-ar
"

Ex.18.
,^

"

-7r-;

"

(smo?)'
-.

Ni-=4;
**'

ar

0.

Ex.19.

"

71 + 0?) log(1
,

"

2;

a?

0.

a-.a?-alogQ
Ex. 20.
tt
=
.

I
a:
=i=

\,
^

1 ;

fl.

a-Jof-^a-xy
Ex.21.
tt
=

I
" "

(l-a?)tan--^ ''
2

-;
If

a?=l.

mx

COt-rr

Ex.22.

ii

(l-a?)log(l-ir)=0; ar=I.

EXAMPLES.

65

Ex.23.

^^^
=

^
=
-"

^.

a?

a.

Ex.24.

M=--5-"

"

2x*

=-^;
O

j?=0.
*

^xtajiirx

Ex.25.

"

1
^
*

+2a?4-2j:*+2."*

--5

;r-a

1=1;
+

"=-l.

a:* 18
" ~

Ex.26.

a:* + 3jr*-7^-27a?"
"
=

-""-"

"

or'

So:*

Ix"
=

27^-18

10;

ifar

3;

=^;
=

ifar

-3.

Ex.27.

"

to c*'-l

-1; 2a'

a?

0.

a^

4aa?' +
or
-

Ex. 28.

_,

7a*^
"

2a*
T"

j'sao?
-

a*

^^

2aa?
a?
=

2a

^2ax

"

ixr

s=

5a ;
"r

a.

Ex.29.

"=;;n-l3^=i' *=!"

Ex.31. Ex. 32.

"

-r-*tan-4x
-

"

; 8

"

0.

If M* xf^

+ 96a"tt"

100a

a?*

0,

0;

*iv^3-

W^ QA ^^"^^-

" "

log tan a? logtan2^

^'

'^^^"

Ex.35.

"^v?::p^cot(|y/jHj)=
^^ a"

"p

Ex.

0/3 36.

Jx-Ja^
^

J
;
,

ax

a?

"=
,"
-

"

;-

=r"l;
-

ar

a.

,y"" ^a'
Ex.37.
"
=

^2a*

Sax

or

";^^l5^"^
V 2a
"

lj

".

Jx
+

Jx

T. Ex. 38.
"o

tt=^^-87===

J^

-a'

a"

J^ax
7,

a?"

=^0;
,

a?

a.

n
CHAPTER
VIL

Maxima

and

Minima.

If u=f(a) express the relation between the function and the variable then if make a? a u, x, /(a) greater than both J' (a+ h) and f(a h); u:=f(a)is said to be a maximum be less than both f{a + K) and ; but iff f{a''h),it is called a minimum.
=
"

86.

(a)
a

Hence
or

the value of

function is said

to be

maximum

the particular value is greater or as minimumy according

lessthan the values which

and follow it. immediately precede this definition it appears, that if a quantity either From increase i t does not or decrease, continually constantly sess posthe propertyof a maximum words maximum or minimum
or are

minimum.
a

used in

in
or

an

absolute sense, functions may

we

Also as the relativeand not possess many maxima

minima. For

conceive that a quantity after having may easily decrease to a minimum reached a maximum value may afterwards and and thus many maxima value, increase, again and minima may exist in the same but which it is function, obvious must succeed in order.
of the waves Thus the alternateelevationand depression of the sea will with regard maxima to a horizontal line give and minima altitudes.

87- In the circlethe sine* which

increases
sine
=

as

the

arc

0, when the arc =0, till the arc =90", when the increases,
= a

this value it decreases, tillat the end of it the second quadrant becomes o. from radius,

At drawn

it is 90^9 therefore,

maximum

for any

two

sines

sides of the sin 90",and equidistant from on opposite will be both less than the radius. it,

In the parabola, the line drawn from the focus to the vertex, is less than either of two focal distances which can be drawn to the curve sides of it;it is therefore on opposite
a

minimum.
*

By the sine is here meant angleis proportional.

the semichord to which the sine of the

MAXIMA

AND

MINIMA*

67
tliat

By

reference
NP

to

1 and 2, we figures perceive in Bg. 1^ is a maximum^

NP

Q, is a minimum.

(0

(2)

chief applications of the Differential which of affords i s rules the discovery for that Calculus, 88.
One these values. But If the j^ the
=

of the

must following proposition

firstbe established.

Aih

A^''+ ^3^*+ "c.

"'*''
-

^,A" + ^,+iA"+^+ "c.,

one

where

ratio of any

coefficientto the is

immediately
be
so

i.e. is finite^ preceding

k may finite,

assumed

of all the shall be greater than the sum terms that fol)pw it. ratio between the cofficients Let r be " the greatest ;

that any

one

term

*
'

"r.

or

A,

A2"Ayr^ A^"Aif^,

dl
A,
"r;

.".

"c.
.-. + "c. Aik + AJi'+ AJi""
"

+ Afi + A^rie + A^r^h^

"c.

"^iA{l +

rA

r"A" +

"c.}

1-rA*
Let
"".

rA

i,

or

A=:

"

""

1-rA
"

2;

+ A^^ AJi,
.'.

A^^

"c.
"

2^iA

^2**+ J3A" +
shewn

"c.
"

^1^ ;
+
+ "c. -^4^*

similarly may AJi^be

to be

A^

68
We

MAXIMA

AND

MINIMA.
: if it proceedto infinity

have
to
n

supposed the

series to

extend

that any d fortiori terms^ it is evident, it of all that follow is greater than the sum
In two

one

tenn

it is not^

series following applicable. of the

X

the theorem

is"and

in

one

+ + +

2"'+

3j?'+ 4x*
2
.

5j:*+ "c
.

(1),
...

a:

1 .2jj' +

Soj'+ 2
+

4jf*+ "c.

(2), (3).

2".a?'+ 3". J^ If Then

+

4'.ar* + "c
be
a

89. when
Let Now
jf
=

Prop.
a.

u=f{x)
on

maximum

or

minimum
~

the

same

supposition^ 2J
-

^*

u^

=/("
a

A), and

iij
or

=/("

h). u^f(x) /(x h\

-

at

maximum

minimum^

must
or

be

greater or less than both /(j?+ A), and less than both ", ancl Wj, and hence^ or
must

greater
ii,
-

u^^u

and

ii

both

have

the

same

sign. algebraical

and

.-.

",-u

-._A

du^
+

d'u

A"
_"__

d"w

A"
+
^ "c.

by writing
-

Hence,
does
not

since the first term

sum

A for A in the value of "" ". of the expansioncan

-

be made
=

greater than the

make

any

a, it of the differential coefiicients innnite,)

of all the terms

that follow

it,(if a;

is dear

that whilst
a

the

term

^h dx
u.
-

exists,".-"
i.e.
f/i and

and

".-"

will have be both

maximum

different
or

algebraical sign:
less than du
^

tt, cannot
a

greater
or

both

Therefore^ if there be

mmimum,

-r-

0, and

ax

d'u

Now

if

or

does not make

-r-^

0^ the

sign of

tii

--

"

and

"2

"

M, since h' is

will depend upon positive^

_

that of
;

-^-j

d*u
-

If

.%

T-j

be

+,

ttj-ii and

w,-

are

both

+,

70
91. If

MAXIMA

AND

MINIMA.

tt

maximum,

minimum^
*
"

and

conversely.

Forlett" e^w
2

l=

i*f
"
,

/ftt' 1

(fM

i"M

Therefore, if
be
a

-7-5

be

negative, ^-,

is

or positive^

if

tt

maximum^
In the

is

minimum.

92.

results the following succeedingexamples^

then circle^
=

will be found

useful.
a
=

(1"), Let

radius of
=

Area Area

ira'; circumference
of
a

2wfl.

of sector

circle

radxarc.

of sphere |ira'. Solidity

=

The
Convex

surface

of

sphere
=

4wo*.
; x

surface of segment

Zwax
axes

being altitude. ellipse ;

(2^). Let 2a, and

.*.

25 be the
area

of
="

an

of

ellipse ^ab.
ordinate
of parabola;

(3"). Let

axis^25 greatest double

.*. area
=

|ax25

|a5.

of paraboloid ^ wb'a, Solidity

=

(4"). Let

altitude ; 5

radius

of base

of

cylinder.

of cylinder Solidity
=

vb'a.
2ira5. 2w5" 5
=

Ck"nvex Whole

surface
surface

"

2wab.
cone.

(5"). Let
Convex

and altitude^
cone
=

radius of base of

of Solidity

^ irb'a.
wb wb^

surface* surface

Jb' +
+

a".

Whole
*

vb

Jb'+

a\

The

surface

of

cone

when

unwiapped becomes

the

sector

of

EXAMPLES.
!

71

i I

Examples.
(1)
which
Let
M u
=

ar'-6d:*+llxa

6;

find the

values

of

make

maximum

or

minimum.
+

3ar'- 12jr

ll=0;

Let

"

2 +

-^

'.'.

3J^

^3

indicates

minimum,

*"

"3~*

"'"

3i"

""2^3

maximum.

(2)
maximum

Let
or

j:

tan

-r

5-^;

find

that ^

may

be

minimum.

^ tana^ .^ "i"~**"^"2Acos*a' djc""

=

".:

..

2Acos"a' 2A8in^cos^:

From

-r^
=

0,

a:

2AtanOco8'^

also

is -7^

negative;
a 6
. '

.*.

is

maximum^

4.A'sin"aco8"a andJ
^L.

2A tan

sm

cos

4Acos'a sin' ^
the
=

-7

=-5

"

2A 8in"^-A

A sin" ^. of
a

This
maximum

is the value

equationto

of y is the

and the projectile^ zontal greatest heightabove the hori-

path

plane. (3)
maximum
"
=

(sin J?)*, {sin (a-")}*; find

or

that

may

be

minimum.

drde,of
and Bide, But

which
arc

the centre

is the vertex

of the cone,
cone.

and

radius the slant

the circumference
s

of the base of the and radius

= s

sector

J rad

arc

V6'+a*;
V6*+a*.

arc

"

2vh

.'.

Convex

surface

"-6

1
.72
du
-J=

BXAHPLBS.

cos a?)**"* ein(a a?)", m(sin

-

.".

")""* cos(a ") 0 ; f7ism(a :r).cos:r~n8in;rcos(a ar) 0;

"

(sin j:)". sm(a

"

"

"

"=

"

sinfa
sin (a
cos a?) cos sin(a jp)
" "

"

a?).co8d;
"

n
*

cos(a
x
"

J?) sin j:
. "

ni

sin j? cos(a jp) sin

x

"
"

"

"i
^

j; +

cos(a d?)
"

'

sinffl 2jr)
"

n n

"

iw

sin
a-2x

tn'

and

.*. x

may
"

be found

from

the tables. be maximum.

(4)

=:

find

d?

that

ti

may

-7-=

"^

:j^-=0;
.*. x
"

.-.

logar l=loge;
=

Ci

and

"

-.

(5)
Let

Find

that fraction which

exceeds its second power

number. by the greatest possible

X

be

the fraction
"

;
a

"*. u^x

x^ is
^ ^

maximum;
,

du
^

d^u ^-^
=
"

2,

or

0;=:^^IS

maximum,

Find the distance of P is a maximum. A, when z CP^

(6)

from

AB

a,

AP=x,
zCPB^e;

AC==b,
.-.

e^zCPA^zBPA

EXAMPLES.

73
.'.

.'.
/.

{a b)X*
-

(fb

"

ab' ;

x=Jah;

the a PBC. circumscribing the same base, and having (7) Of all triangles upon the isosceles has the greatest area; the same perimeter^ and a the given base^ 2P the perimeter X and y the remaining sides ;
.-.

AP

touches

the circle

Bxe2k

JP,{P

--

a).{P -x).{P -y);

ii

*."

P
a

and

are

constant^ and

Ju

be

maximum^

is

also

maximum.
M
=

Let

(P-d:).(P-.y)
=

(P-ar).(a+a?-P);
=

.".

-3ax

-(a ^
=

a?-

P) ^
+

P~ar

0;

.-.

a?-P--.
2

.-.

5(

2P-(a

x)=.2P-(p |)=P~|
+
=

jr,

or

the

is isosceles ; triangle
a

area

JP{JP^a).
parts^ that the
n^

(8) Divide product of the

the other may
;r

number power maximum.

a
"

into

two
one

such

m^ be
a

of the

into the

power

of

one

part;
=

a?

the other
x'^n

af*.{a xy
"
-

.\

-J-

Tnaf^^.(a x)*
"

(a

or)"-*
.

oT"*.

("
a?
=

+ n) Of} xy^^{ma" ("i

=

0,

whence

ma

0,

"

""

and

m-hn'
-

{(w {ma

1)

a;-^. (a
-

ar)-" ("
-

1)

a?*"-^(a
"

ar)-*}

"

^m

n),x}--(m+ n)
x
=

a:'^*.^(a
=

ar)"~\
a:
=

which

vanishes

when

0 and
^^

a,

but if
wa

"

^-.
,". a?

/ N'*"'

\"-\

gives

maximum.

0 and

a;

will

give no

results unless

and

are

even.

And

then

+ 0(x), .(a-a:)" T-;;;="m.("i-l)(j7i-2)...2.1

".(7i-l)(7i-2)...2.1.a;**+^(a-a;).

74

BXAHPLES.

and

-7-;s,

m.(wi-I)(m-2)...2.1.a*, when

ar

0,

and
daf

".("-l)(n-2)...2.1 .a", "whenaysa;

minima.
j?

both

of which tt'
-

correspondto
^attor + j;^=

(9)

0 ; find

when

"

is

maximum.

(ZJC

du
-^

a!*
.

But

-=-

0;

.'.

jr-a"

0,

or

"

"

cue

Substitute

in the
=

original equation,
j^
=

-5-3a:'+ fr' 0...(l); .-.

2a*;

/.

a.^.

a second Differentiating time,

d^u
, ^
^

du
..

du
.

"/"
jdx
+

"i:r"

.(2m-j--fl)-a (tt*-aj?)+-^dx dx
and
w'-flj?
=

2j?

0.

But;T-=0, CLX

^-cM:=-a(aj'-a')
CL Qi

"x;

d^u
da^

_-2x
_

2
'

ax

whence

x-a^^

gives u^a^,
.-.

maximum.

From(l)*=0;
Treatingthe
-2
s=

"=0;
as
a

^=-y_-=-;
vanishing one,
=

if

,=

0.

fraction
2
-

if
,

a?

/.

Jo:"
2m dx
-J
"

is 0, '

minimum.

a
a

(10)
ABC the CP
=

Bisect
the

triangle by

the shortest
shortest
a, ar'J

line.
and PQ triangle, line.

5, c the three sides

of the C triangle, thezJBC^.

CQ,=y\
PQ.=

u)
v

Then

a^5C
^

2aCPQ;
XM

"

flj sin C

sin C

".

tt* 0?'+y
=

"

2^3^cos

C^a^-^

-T-j

"

a6

cos

mimimum

EXAMPLES.

76
a'b'

du

a^h'
...

lab
or x
=

ah

*"

_,

^-,
^ C=

and

5,

-=^-;
C)
^^
=

fab

ah
,

ah
+"

.'. ft

----

ab

cos

a6.

,, (1

cos

c*-(a-5y ^-

/(c-a + bXc +
.

a-b)

.,_

(11)
drcle

Describe

about

given

ABCy
the

angle. the least isosceles tri-

DPQ

triangle.
.\

DO=x;
Now

OA=a;
P5="

DA=J^^^.

OJ

=^^if^=

.-.

aDPQ

PBxDB
.

a(x

a)
+

(x
^
=

a)i
^
=
"

mmimum.

Jx
Whence, (12)
included
Let
a,

if

tt

^
=

-,

x^Za^
area

and

a\3j3.

Find

the

greatest

by

four

b, c,
z ^

lines. straight d be the four lines, included

0 the

by

a,
Cf

b,

"p
D

"""

df

the
=

diagonal ;
ab
.

sin 0
2

.*. tt

areas

cd
.

sin 0

.'.

j3

"

(^^
"

cos

cd,

COS

ip.

0.

But

c' + d*-2crfco8
,

2)' =
,

a*+6*-2a6.cos^;
sin^.
"

dd)
"""

cd.^'^ab."
d0
sm

-";

76

EXAMPLES.

.*.

this value"and dividing hj-^, substituting

8in6
cos

d +

cos

"b
^

=
, .

8in0

.'.

sin 0

cos

sin ^

cos

sin

(0 + 0)
in
to
a

sin

""

or

the

be inscribed quadrilateral may (IS) Through a given point D

circle.
draw the

shortest

line

PQ

terminated A

by
a

two

lines AB, AC; given straight the

angle angle.
JQ
AP
"""
=

being

right
=

a?;

AE^a; ED=b;
a

PQ,

y;

minimum w^^yx'+y,
-

..(1),
is
A"

and

1 ; which

the
From

to PQ...(2). equation

(1)xdx+ydy^O;
J

frcMn
^

(2)
^

~+

*A

"""

j^

V^("*+ ^^) ;
Cut
a

.-.""=

+ 6*) (a* + A")" (a^ ;

(14)
ABD the

the

greatest
cone.

from ellipse
cone.

given
P5the

tic ellip-

section.

AC=^a,

CN^x,

BC^P,
PB

NP^y,
=

the
and

axis-major
axis-minor
of
= =

2a, 2b, irab.

Now And

area

ellipse
=

26

JpQTbJD
=

^J2xx2/3 2j^,

78

EXAMPLES.

.*.

fraf

whence

because

-,-

0 ;

a^-2a^-

2a* V**+

""' ^

ax

"""'=^'

^=7=2'
^2
V
A

"'^^Tl'
"

and

tt =-7=.

4a" +

-7;-

2ira".

Examples.
(1)
x
jr
=

Let

11

jr*- 7af* + 8ar minimum

a

-f

32.
;

4i;

tf=l6a
tt
=

|;
""
-

34g
-

maximum.
30.

(2)

tt

3j!*

9x

'^l,

gives i/
=

35
a

maximum;

Sj

gives tf

minimum.
tt
=

(3)

sin'ir.cos4P; x^^GO;
into
two

maximum.

(4) Divide a number by the product multiplied

be
a

such

parts, that
squares

theii;
shall

difference

of their

maximum. the number^

M
=

2a
/.

"

and
=

"

the parts ; whence

x
=
"

(a* "*)
"

4aa?

maximum^
into two
a
1

pr

(5)
sum

Divide

number

such factors^that the

;
or
"=

of their squares
1

shall be

minimum maximum.

Ja^

(6)
(7)
divided

3^;x
how

e;u^ifa.
many

Into

that their

equal parts must a number product may be the greatest?

a "
= "

be

-;

ti

C.

r
EXAMPLES.

79
be
a

(8) Let a-.6-^=c;

"

(mx
or.

n) (ny + m)
,

maximum,

and

find

log(a*-) (9) tf^e^-e"**, a

minimum. minimum:

'

a"ft, and

shew

it is

(10) (11) (12)

"

maximum

if

ar

45\

'T'

can

tC

(tan ^"J*
"
=

^^^
sec dr
.

minimum

if

or

22"" 30'.
.

"

(a
a?
=

"

6 tan

a maximum a?)*

or

minimum.

tan

^ (fl 7"*
"

246'),
a

the upper

signgivesa
tt
=

maximum

;
-

the lower

minimum.

(13)

3a?*
-

28fla?" + 84a V
u ti
=

Q^a^x + 486*; ;

x=za;
x
ss

4Sb* 486* 486*

"

37a* a minimum
32a* 64a*
a
a

2a ; 4a ;

maximum minimum.

"

"

(14)

"

a:(a-ar)"(2a-")".

a?

g(5 JlS);

tt

is a maximum; is a minimum is a maximum. minimum find x.

;

xssa;

"

d?

^
-

(5+ a/13) ; tc
ttV +ar*
=

(15)

att'

0;

tt

x==^aj^;
(16)
"
=

"

4a.

a4P

"

a:* sin
.

cos

maximum

if

icx

2a.

(17) Inscribe the greatestrectangle in a given triangle.

AD^a, BC^b, AN=x;

^ '*

.-.

Pi"=^"B

80

BXAHPLBS.

(18)
circle.
Let
area= a

Inscribe

the greatest isosceles

in triangle

given
a

is equilateral, side radius^ the triangle

3,

"

^^

within a given (19) Inscribe the greatestparallelogram A being one of the angles of the paraUeloABC, triangle AE ^ ABy then AE is one of the sides. gram.
=

(20)

Of

the

equiangularand isoperimetrical grams^ parallelohas the equilateral greatest area.

all

the same on base, and having (21) Of all triangles the isosceles has the greatestperimeter. equalvertical angles,

(22)
shew

Given

the

base

and

vertical
area

angle
is
a

of

triangle,

that when

it is isosceles its
on triangles

maximum.
and

(23)
same

Of

all

the

same

base

having the
^

area,

the isosceles has the least

perimeter.

(24) Inscribe the greatest rectangle in a semicircle.

CN^Xy

CA^a,

NP:^J^rr^i

S'
to applies
"
=

(25)
AC=^h,

The

same

construction
.-.

any

curve.

AM^x;
If BAD

and Pilf=/(jr),
"
=

2(6-a-)./(ar).

be

parabola ;
a

(6

Jmx. ar)
;

(26)

If BAD
.*.

be
tt
a=

circular segment

(6

"

x) J^ax

"

0?'.

(27)
the radius

Given
of the

the difference of the inscribed

angles at

the base

and

find when circle,

the

perimeter point in
when

is greatest.

(28) If A find parabola,

be the vertex, S the focus and the value of the ratio of AP :

=

SP^

it isf

greatest. Ratio

-7=

"

EXAMPLES.

81
a

(29)

Cut

the greatestparabola from

least

given cone.

(30) Required the

which
can

be

TCt triangle described about a given

quadrant.

iCT.Ct;
and if Let
M
ss

CT=^^;Ct^^;
^

!f
ar

t z

J^N
=

maximum,
be
a

=y

and

ACP

45^

(31)

APB

arc parabolic

and

C the focus.

AN^x,

AC

^^
=

a^

]J^, whencea:
ellipse
tt

?.

(32)
in
a

Inscribe isosceles
=

the

greatest

given
Let Da AD
Now

triangle.
\
.*.

2j?,ch^y
a;

"

.yx.

DB

b.

ca'

cN-"^s:
cA
a
"

x*

"

d?

"

But

f^.^jV"=Piv"=^(iVb.2yrz") ^D

w6
.*.

u=swvx="j=,xja

^
"

o "". x^-,

tjj^

2x;

Inscribe the greatestparabola in a Axis fth of altitude of triangle. triangle.

(SS)

given isosceles

given parabola inscribe the greatest the vertex of the latter being at the bisection of parabola, the base of the former. Axis f of given axis. (34)
Within
a
=

(35)

^pse,

about Describe the greatest isosceles triangle the major axis, and altitude being coincident. G

an
'

82

EXAMPLES.

(^36)
back^
so

The

comer

of

leaf is turned
the other

as

just to

reach

edge
the

of the page : find when is a minimum. crease

the

lengthof

siiso Aa.

PQ

2AQ.

AP

2a^
.-.

3a
x
=

tt"=PQ'=
2a: -a'

(37) (38)
a,

The

part turned

down

is

leastsif ^

|".
a

Inscribe the greatest cylinder within

cone

cone.

altitude of

x,

of

cylinder;x

-;

"

"

"

"

(39)

Inscribe

the

greatest cone
cone
=

within
"

sphere.
v(t

altitude of

-^ 3
a

^ 81

(40)
its volume

Given
may Given
=

the surface
be
a

of

find cylinder,

its form

that

maximum.

Altitude

diameter

of base.

(41)
Altitude

the volume, find when diameter of base. the

the surface is least.

(42)
AD
area
=

In
=

BC may

the base trapezium ABCD, to AB, 6, find CD, CD being parallel

a

AB

a,

that the

be

maximum

; 2 CD

Jsb'+

a'

a.

to the dia" (43) PQ is a chord in a semicircle parallel BP in AP that the triangle meter find AB, joinAQ^ cutting O: POQ, may be the greatest possible.AP 38^ 40'*
=
.

(44) Through lines AB^ straight

AP

AC
a

given point D (page 76) : to

u
=

between draw

two

given
so

PQ,

that

-hAQ

may

be

minimum.

{Ja+Jbf.
may
w
=

(45)
(46)
arc,

Draw

PQ,
a?
=

so

that PAQ
^
=

be least.

2a;

26;

2a6.

ACB
is PD

is

radius
and

CP,
Find

zontal quadrant,Cthe centre, CB the horibisected in Z), a point P is taken in the is are joined,shew that the angle CPD
a

greatest when

PD

is vertical.

(47)

the vertical

angleof

the greatest rightcone

r
EXAMPLES.

83

which

can

be described

by

of given right-angled triangle

hjpothenuse.
at the are (radii (48) The centres of two spheres r^rz) extremities of a line 2a, on which circle is described. a from which the greatest in the circumference, Find a point surface is visible. of spherical portion

Ifx

of the

and^ be the distances two spheres,

of the

from point

the centres

whence

j?

"

"

,;

of a line passing of one position through that the of the perpen19mf given points, so rectangle diculars from the other two points maximum be a or may

^^)

Find

the

minimum. There are two the conditions. lines respectively fulfilling perpendicular,
S when

(50)
minimum^

In

find spherical triangle^

sin a
=

is d^(f"

and cosd
^

sin B
0
5
.

sin /
-.

cos

cos

sin B
.

sin /
COS

COS0
^

cos

^
.

-,

dd and d"l", the three equations and eliminating differentiating

sin 6
-:
" -

sina
="

sm

ip
=
"

r-ry Sm / sm

^ 8 + 1 ;
,

whence

sin 8

This is the problem of P the north be the zenith, when it ends, 6 * verted ZPS, "p ZPs ; ,\ 6 "p conbegins, into time is the duration ; B is the sun's declination, / the latitude of the place, of S below the a is the depression
= =
"

(^a). the shortest twilight, and if Z when S the sun pole, twilight
.

sin /

tan

taken horizon, generally

18" ;
sun

.". on

sin B

"

negativesign shews
equator.

the

is

the south

sin I tan 9" ; the side of the

o2

^^

84

THB

CELLS

OF

BEES.

The
93. The

Cells of Bees.
of the comb the upper cells^ of the bee-hive surface

first examination
waxen

presents a collection of
to parallel

being surfaces being sepaparallel form ; its base rated" each cell is found to be of a prismatic and other end of Uie prism the being a regularhexagon, of three equalrhombuses^ composing the solid angle formed
the lower
:

but

these

S. which

And

it is remarkable their cell of

that

the two

collections of

cells^

by

junctionform
one

the axis of any one of the line of collection. That

the comb^ are so united that collection is in the continuation three other cells of the other

of junction should be
;
can

the bases

of the economy squares, and of

of nature

hexagons

the these,including

same

hexagons is an instance regular for only three figures, triangles, completelyoccupy space; and area, the hexagon has the least
of

perimeter.
Prop. Join A
a

and C the extremities

A'A^ CC

of two

equal edges of planethroughCA

meet

the

axis
to the

inclined
cut

prism, and let a to the base parallel in P; and let a plane base, also through CA
BB in b. Then

the axis in S and SP

=

Bb,

AAOP^AAOB;
=

.*.

pyramid
SOP

^CiS'P

pyramid

ACBb,

Hence base

whatever of of the

tion be the inclinamay the plane SCb to the

of cell,the solid content the cell remains unaltered, but the surface To varies with
/

SOP.

find z SOP when of the cell is a minimum.

Let

the surface

z^OP=^,
Then

A'B=AB=a,

AA'=b.

BO^l; 2'

Ob

OS=^==^^. 6 ^
cos

cos

Bb^SP^OBtane^^tanB;
a"
.-.

trapezium AAB'b
Note, JBP in the

BA'

ABb

6a

"

""

tan

Q ;

figure ought

to

pass

through

O.

86

MAXIMA

AND

MINIMA.

Now the If

if

be

made
will should

very

small^
on

the
that

algebraical
of
or

sign
first
term.

of

developements
therefore there

depend
be
a

their

maximum

minimum^
the
same

since

f{a
PA*

h)'-f{a)i
and

aiidf(a'-h)"J'(a)
and
be
.".

must

have have

signs, sign,
with
an

P(-A)*;
either for

A*

and

(-A)*must
number
or

the

same

or

must

an

even

fraction

even

number

its

numerator.

(1)
or

If

be

an

even

number^
existent power of

it
term

shews
of
a

that the

at

maximum

'minimum

the
an

first
even

developement
lye

must

involve
come

h,
pages.

conclusion

have

already

to

in

the

preceding
it

(2)

If

be

fraction,

must

be

o"

the

form
.

Ex.

Let

6
=

(x

fl)5.
"

Here

-r=

which
-7i

dx

(x-a)i

is

mnnite.

if

j?

a.

But

x=:a,

gives
a

u=:b,
"

J?

gives

ft
=

cA',
cA',
both

x^a

h
"

tt

6
=

and

f{a-\-

h)

and

f(a^h)

are

"f{a\

if if

be be

positive^ negative.

"y(a),
If
.*. c

be
be

positive, negative,

makes

b b

sl

minimum,
maximum.

x"a

CHAPTER

VIII.

Functions

of two

or

more

Variables,

"

Implicit

Functions.

95.

Aa

yet

we

have
next

only
are

treated
to

of

functions
case

of

single yariable; we
u

proceed
new

the

in

which

^'J^xy),where
of
u

and y

independent of each
values
and and
a?

the value
of
X

and Now

y, is when

correspondingto required.
t"

other^ and and y + k^ //,

is

function

of

three

suppositions; Ist^ x
vary^ vary and
x

2nd^ y. may
y may Thus remain both

may vary^ remain constant

vary on y, u may remain constant; y and 3rd, x and ;

suppose

together. u xy^, and

s

let

.become

or

A,

and

constant;

therefore tt'= {x
-i-

\f u' be

the

value

of u,

h)y'= xy^+ y'h.

a

Next the value

let y become

k, and

be constant^ and

let

Ui

be

ofu;
.'.

"j

s=

j:

(y + ^)*= xi^+ 2xyk +

write
or
x

xk*. h for jr,and

+

Again, in
for y, and
.*.

the

equationu =xy^
the

let u^ be

value

of u,

w,

=/(x

A, y

y+k ^) ;
k'h,

"g=
same

+ y'h + gx^A+ 2ykh + (x + h) {y-^ky=:xy'

xk^+
we

the

result y
+

as

would
in

have

been
a

obtained
h for
j?

had in
a

put

for y

u\

or

u,.

96. of view. Let

"
u

Next

consideringthe questionin

generalpoint
while
x

constant =f{x, y)y then if y remain A, Theorem^ + we have, by Taylor's

comes be-

/(^+A,j^)
or^

"

3^A-f3p" +^
while
du
,

"

"C.;

if X remain
^,
,.

constant

y becomes k* cPu

k,
k'
^

d^u

Suppose
and y become

now

that
y
+

and y both vary

not
we

or

become both

k^

k; it is
+

possibleto
use

make

these

at once : but assumptions for f(x + h, y) or f{x, y

if

either in

of the two

series,
+

k\

and

the former

put y

88
for yy or in the have f{x-\rh, y

DIFFERENTIATION

OF

latter
+

a? +

A for

jr, we

shall in either

case

Assuming

the

k),and its true developement. first expansion^

But

u=f(xy),
X

and

therefore

X'

5^' y
+

"^

^^^

^""^"

tions of
"c.

and

y, if therefore ^ become functions

x

k;

m, be

-3^, ^ ;
"

will become

of ^ y
+

^, and

may

expanded

Theorem, by Taylor's

being considered
k ;

constant

Let therefore y become

.".
"

becomes

t^.^
dy dy'

"^ t-i +

dir dy* 1.2

-r,

+ ^";r-^ 7^ T72^ 27$ dv^ 2.3 df'

"c

(a), ^ '
write
-r-

and
d^u
-7-j

to

obtain the values of

dx "c, for
,

dar

3-5,

"c.

we

must

dx

in the series

(a);

du
,

du becomes
-j- +
"

\dx)
r"

'\dx)
"

k^
+

/.

-Jaj;

-^+

dx

dy

drf

TT"'T-7;

"c.

1.2

d^u dx'

d'u dx'

'Kdx'J
^^^^^^^
, o

dy
d

("\

P, da^
But which it has

5^_^.it^"c. dy
dn^ been

agreed

to

write
-"

?L. for

dy.dx
expresses that the function has
as

dy

been

differentiated

twice, ] St considering x^ and then y

variable ;

and

IS

written

"

--

dy
'
'

and

dydj^

dy*
,

is

written

^,

denotingthe regard to

differential coefficientwhen
m

the function
Xy

has been times with

differentiated
y.

times

with

regard to

and

FUNCTIONS

OF

TWO

VARIABLES.

89
sion expan-

Making
of
-r-

and these substitutions,

the multiplying
"c.
,

by A, that of
du
7v J

-j-r

hy

"

-r

we

shall have

d?u

1^

^u

H"
^

J,,

"^ ^

'^

dy
du
J

rfyi.2
d^u
jj

di/^2.3
d^u
W
Q

'"Tx^^^:dx^^^d^M'i72'-^''
'^dx'1.2'^ di/.dx''l.2'^

"C

+"C.

97*
nave
X

But
X,

this

was developement

obtained, by first supposing

we manifestly

and
an
x

then

to

vary;

but

should then

had

become
-,

equal result,had y first become i/+ k^ and have On this supposition we + h.

du
,.
,

d^u

k'

d^u

P
^

"'^'"^

^
,

dy
du
.

dy^ 1.2
d^u A
+
-j-^
"

df2.3
h'
-

put

A
,

for

X,

^u
+
-7-^
-"

h^
-

.'.

becomes

"

-5-

"c.,

dx

da^ 1.2 d^u

-

dx^2.3 I?
"

du

du

d?u

dy dy'

dy

dxdy

1,2 da^dy'

dxdy'l'^^^'' dy''^
+

"c.

whence
;.,
,

by

substitution the total

du
,.

developement becomes
d^u h^
t"

d^u
j^

k'

du
.

"?"
,

cPu
,

h'k
-"

dy

J-

k+-j--j-kk+

o +"C.
.

dxdy

dardy

dfyi.2
+

dxdy' 1.2
^u
-j-a

k"
;r-7:

^ "C.

dy^2.3
+

"C.

90
Cor.
1.

DIFFERKNTIATION

OF

Since

the

series k

the

same

powers

of h and

equal,the coefficients ought to be equal;

are

of

"

dydx

dxdy*

"C. dr^\u
,

"c. dr^^u

Hence

the order
^

of differentiation is indifferent.
^u d^u du
"".

Cor. 2.

r,

Agam,

"."

j^=

5^;

wntiiig g^ for

",

dydx
or

dxdy
'

dyda^ dxdydx

dydx
dS'.u

dxdy
cP.u
'

dydxdy
98. Since
t-,

dxdy*
"c.

^-^, of
x

^-j,

have

been

obtained

by

the consideration
such

alone

being the independentvariable,

been
reason

difflerential coefficients have

and coefficients, for the
same

called
-7-

ential differpartial
.

-r-z

"c.
,

are

also

dy and differential coefficients, called partial

included frequently

dif

these within

partial
ets, brackspect re-

differentialcoefficientsare thus

(;?- ) is

the

differential coefficient partial

with

to X, and

f-7and
",

j is the

differential coefficientwith partial the

respect

to

y,

yr-)^^*ai^d \-^)dyy are

regardto
x

partial

differentialsof

with

and

respectively.

FUNCTIONS

OF

TWO

VARIABLES.

91

99. firstpowers
and

The
of dx

term

'j-h+-j-L
^

which
the total

involves

only
"^

the
of

ax

ay
is called differential
written
; u^

h and for

h and

putting

A,

dy

for

h^ is

thus

rf"=(^)."u+Qrfj,,
or

the

total

differential

of

"

=^f{xy)

is the

sum

of the

partial

differentials.
From

100.

the
the

first

differential

of

w,

we

differentiation

successive

differeifbialsd^u,

may d^u

form
;

by

"c.

F"*..^)^.^)4,
And
tions of

(".

differentiating, considering
X

(;p) and (;"-]

as

func-

and

y,

and

c"r and

dy

constant,
u

we

have,

by

writing successively, (

^-j and

\-r~) for

in

(/S),

Then

substituting these

values, since

Again,

to

find

d^u^ substituting as
/d!'u\
,

before
d^u
,

fd*u\

"(:. jixdy)

d^u

d^u

d^u
,

do^dy*

dydxdy*

^*

92
101. numerical The
law

DIFFERENTIATION

OF

of

is continuity

almost those

obvious; for the

of the terms of the prove

coefficients appear to be the binomial (Ji + ky expansionof

but

to

this^let

the Differentiating du
J J.

successive
du
J

terms

by

means

of

^"Kd^rd^^-^-'d^-^y

(')"

^-{d^dyJ'dr^-^^di'W^^
/
J

^^'
^^^'
...

d'u

"i**'i"
,

d'*^u
J

'^"Kd^FW)'"d^^^' d^^^-^^
"c.
=

"c.

Multiply(1)by doT, (2)by

dx'^Hy, (3)by
and

dj^^di^i ""(V)-

adding

"

z--d^F^''^
for the index it is
.*.

'^^*^'''
for
n

or

if the formula it is true when

be true
n
=

n,

it is
true.

true

1,

but

3;

always

Cor.
,

If instead du
du
J =

of da and du
,

di/we

write h and

k,

-j-h + -y-k.
dx

dy
'

ax'

dyflta?

ay*

ao?*

ajrtfy

a^^

a^

"c.

94

FUNCTIONS

OF

TWO

VARIABLES.

But

v"

0(y, z);
du du
,

.-.

^"

^^^
du
dn

35"^^;
.

dn
.

dn
dz

ax

dn

dy
,

"^

du
^
^

dn

du

du

dn

du

du
,

du
J
.

du
J
*^

ax

ay
may be

az

and

the

same

method whence

extended

to

any

number
a

of tion functhe

variables
of

any

that the differential of it appears of variables number equals the sum

of

partial differentials.
104.
For
Xy

From
of
a

the

preceding reasoning
of two

we

may

find variable

the
x.

differentials

function
u u

functions
y and of ^; of

of the
z are

and

suppose therefore of
u. m

=/(^,
is also

where jsr),
a

functions

of

function

to' find

the

total

differential
Let
^

h and

be

the

increments

and

z^

if

become

A;
m

"c.

But

-^A4-"C + "c.; ^=^A "i=^A

"

fits:"

"

"c.;

...4,.{(*;)i!(+(*!).^l*; J \dzj
(

\dyl

dx

dx

or

since

and -^h^^dy,

-^h^dz,

which

is the total differential of

function
and

of
v

two

functions. functions
v

105.
of
;p

Affain, ifu=f(y,
find the
same
:

z,
n

v),
the

y^ z,

are

to

let

be

increment

of

EXAMPLES.

95
/du\ dv )
,
'

,
_ "

J fdu\ dy \ \dy)dx

(du\dz
\dzj dx

\dv)

dx )

-(l)**(i)**(s)*Similarly may
functions be the total differential of
a

function

of

found.

Examples.
(1)
Let find tt=a?"*^"; du.

+ nx^'i/^^dy fmfx*^^dx

r=

ar-^y^\mydx+
-_i -._i

nj Jj^),^|

^^

d^u

(2) (3)

"=:^; d^^'^X^y^^-n'dy)^
d?u
"
=

8in"y);
~

find

^^.
-

2*(co8"y aV
au=" ~, "

sin i^y).

L' /

(4)

"

8in'-:

^
.

(5) (6) u^a^;

"

du

a?'

,dy\ \^dx-"\ogx

;r"Y-^1
\x
X

ar^rz-^
J
shew

dfycb

dxdy' that,

(7)

*"

-,

find c?m,and

dxdy

a*

"

5*

ci^^cia?

'

96

EXAMPLES.

^yz
dxdz
d^u
__

(a* 2*)"
-

dzdx cPm

'

^a^z
__ ~

"^

dydz
d^u

(a' js*)' (/rrf^

-

'

^z

d^u

d^u

dxdydz
(8)
Let
u=
"

(a' ^f
-

dzdydx

dydxdz
"

'

shew

that

J(a^xy-^(b^yy + {c-zy'
cPu
da^ d^u d^u
__

d\f

ds^~

Here

^. (a-*)*
=

(i-y)' + (c-xr)'j

0)

g
an

S"'(c-r)'-"';
^M
ajT

^u

d^u
^
.

1
"

rfy*

dz*

w*

of great importancein physical science. equation

106.
and let
n

Let

2"

be
sum

homogenous
of the du
" +
-7-

function

be the

exponents
du ^+
"M?,

of x, y, z, "c in each term^ then

^

du nu=-ydx

dy*^
+

dz

J-

^+"c.

For becomes

iT, ^, -?, "c

put
;

my,

m^,

"c. then

(1 +mYu

(Ztf

d'u

-f-

mz+-r"r

"

^six

"c.

d^u

TwV
"

dy""
+

1.2

"c.,

EXAMPLES.

97
um^ du
o

also

"

num

"

"

"c.

du
ax

du

dy^
d^u d^u
^

dz

"Pu
^ ^

J and

"("_i)"=^,a:.+_/+_3'
2 j-j-ary
+
"^

,\

^ "c.

-="

o^aj?

dzdx

j-

jsror+

-j-t-

dzdy
=

+ "c. jsry ^

(1)

Let

M=(a?4-^ + 5:)";here
rf" rffi du
^,

"

3;
."

rZw

du

du
^,

.,,

(2)

Let

"

:??
=
"

here du

"

2,

du
and
^

du
y + "^
-r= jar

-ya a?

jr

-r-

2".

ay

az

(3) Let

tt

^;
and
T-

here

""2,

a:

J-

2w.

(4) Let

tt=-T

5:

here
du
x+
T-

n=-2,

du
and
J -r-

M "^

=s

"

2w.

CUP

ay
n
=

(5)

Let"

^^^-i^; here
du
^

-i,
,

du

(6)

Let

tt

"

^-T-;here
(ff" du
+
^

l,

du
"
=

and

-r-^

dx

-r-V+-i^

"*"

ay

dz

(7) Let
^

ti

s=

sin"* ^ V
.

!^\
JP-i-y
"f u du

here

"

at

0,

98

IMPUCIT

FUNCTIONS.

(8)

Let

(j?* 4-y)' ;

here

"

4 ;

ImplicitFunctions.
function of ^ and a, it implicit is frequently to solve the equationwith impossible respect but to y, and obtain y =/(j?) ^,) 0 to by considering /(d?, ; be a function of two from the preceding variables, we may for such functions obtain rules easy of application. expansions Let "=/(j?,y) 0, and let ", represent u when comes x betherefore y becomes x + kf and y-^k;

107-

When

there

is

an

But

0, whatever

and

are

; .*. "i

0 ;

But

^A

"c.,

"."

=/(")

ivhence

may

be

found

from

and (;p) l-^j

.

Ex. Let
u

y-3aary
=i
"

""

0;

find

^.

i^ Saxy

"\-a? ;

-j:* "ir
*
*'

dx

t^

"

ax'

Co...

si.c.{^).a.|}".",

IMPLICIT

FUNCTIONS.

99

Cor.
=

2.

Hence^
thus if

since
m
=

if

t/
=

0, cftf^O;
0.

.*.

if du

0,

(Ptt 0 ; and

0, d^u

108.

From

the

equation
means

^^)+(^\.^(1),
=

to

find

-7-5

(where
thence

c?tt

the second total differential of

u), and

to

deduce

^.
=

Since

^ (^)+(^).^ 0; \dx/
=

dx

\dy/

dx

da^

dx'\dxj
for ", and

dx

\\dyj
-j-

'

dx )

^ ^'

Put

in

(1) -J-

then

for m;

d_
'*

(dA^(d^\
~~

dx'

\dx/
_ ^

fdu\ dy\ dx \ \dy/ dx (

d_

^ _^ \dx'J dxdy dx /di^ d^ ^ d_

*

'

/du\

'

\dy/ dx^
*

dx' dx*
d^u

\dy)
^

_(du\ fl^ dy^j

\dy/ dx^ in (2), we "*. substituting dy tPu_fcPu\ ^u
^
'

d^u

dy\^
)

dx

\ dxdy

dx dy^'

have

fdu\ cPy

[d^^\dy*
be

_^

da^''\^)'^^d^''dx^\^)''d^'^\^
and

because

from

{I) -?equation niay

ax

found

in terms

of the

differentialcoefficients(t-) (^)" *^d partial

"

\J^
be termined. de-

and

and (T-i) In

-,-^

found, beingsimilarly
same manner

t~

may

the

^,

and may

"""

j^

and

ferential dif-

coefficients of

higherorders
be
a

be found. of three

109.
'" y*

Next, let
or

ti=0
an

function

^f

let

be

function implicit

variables of {x, y) ; and let

H2

100
2-i-m

IMPLICIT

FUNCTIONS.

he

the value

of

when
+

the
h

independent variables^x
^
+
+

and

if,become
.'.

x respectively

and

k;
ar +

since Mi

=y (x -i-k, y
m

k,

m),
+

"-(D*-(D*Ks)
+

Ak*

-^

BJ(^ + Cm*

"c.

But

"i

0(a?+ A,
"""

^);

"-(s)**(|)***'"'

fdu

DKD-I-"

"^

110.
can

The

be found

orders^ superior the equations by differentiating

differential coefficients of the

^)*(s)-S-"

"

0).

111.

Thus

to

obtain

j-j,

zniz

*"^X"*
and (^)" (;t-)

Consider

equations(1)
of ", tf,z,

and

(2) and

(j-j
x;

as

functions Let
from

(V)
therefore

equation(1)be
be considered
as

differentiated with
a

respect
and
z,

to

it must

function

of

and

(Art.108),putting z

for y.

considered (2"")Differentiate (2), Write ; y for x in equation(3)

function

of

y and

z.

(rfVv
^

"^"

^far

/(fwN

Js*

/du\

d'z
..

102

ELIMINATION

BY

MEANS

OF

DIFFERENTIATION.

Elimination
113.

hy
seen

means

of Differentiation.
a

We
with

have the

that if

function

by

the

the into

differential the

coefficients. Should
or

nected quantitybe confrom ^^ it disappears signs be multiplied it however

constant

function

in the value appear if tt Thus 0 be

a=

of the function, it will any term of the differential coefficient.

a

still

function du^O be
a,

of

a, both these will

two

tt

and

y^ will contain

and

involvinga
a,

stant con-

but
an a

between

arise

equationsit may independent of

Thus,
let

eliminated, and
which
is called

equation

differential

equation.
"^

"

aa^i
'

.*.

-^
dx

2flra? =

-^:
X

an

equation from
Irrational and

which

has

transcendental

disappeared. quantities may

m

also be

minated eli-

by

differentiation.

Thus,

let

(fl" a:")";
+
m

dx If there

'

n(a'
as
a

x')
and b

n{a' + x')
involved
in

be

two

constants

the

equation^=/^a:);
must

then
to

the

equations"=0,
them.
or

rfw^O, and(?M=0

be Ex.

combined,
1.
u

eliminate
"

=y

"

ojr*

6j?

0,

a"*

bx;

x^

d^y

dy

^^y
^

...
"

^-.?.^
da^

x' dx
5
.

"?=o.
aj*""
"

Ex.

2.

sa

cos

f9iar +

sin mx;

eliminate

and

b.

dy
~

-"

"ia

smmx

mb

cos

mx,

T-j=

"

m"a

cos

)wj?

"

nrb

sin

wdf

"

w"

{a cos

mo?

4-

6 sin

mar}

s-

m'y

JBXAMPLES.

103
a

Ex.

3.

y
=

ae** sin
sin

(3x + b); eliminate

+ b) + (So?

and

b*

2ae^ ""=

Sae^

cos

+ b) (Sj?

%+3ycot(3:p +6),
cos

-74= 4ac** sin (3a: + b) + Gae^

+

(Sx + J)

e^c** cos

(3x + Z") 9"e**sin (^Sx+ b)

-

"""S-*l^^^^=^114.
of the
two

If

=f(xyz)
=

0,

or

we =f{xt/);

may
dz
-j-

by

means

dz

partial differential coefficients

*^

t-

and

eliminate
the
se-

dy
2:

ax

from quantities

=f(xy), and by proceedingto

d^z

cPz

have cond differential,

and and
^-^,

three other

for equations -^,

therefore five

quantities may
eliminate

be eliminated.

Ex. function.

4.

Let

=J*(ax + J^);
"ix
=

the

arbitrary

Let
dz
.

by
^

v;

.".

=/("),
rfw
.

dz

dv
^

dz
,,,
,

or

b.-r-

abf\v),
dz b
^
"

and

a,j--ab .f\v);
.

dz
a
-7=

"'-

-J

0,
=

or

op

"

a^

0.

As

an

+ 6y); example. Let jsr sin (aa? b cos (a^r + by); .". jp + by), q a cos (flrar 0, .". bp aq
= =
"

Ex.

5.

Let

eliminate 2'=^(x+y)'^"t"(a^"y');

the function.

+ Q{x-hy)'^"p\a^--f).x...(l), p=^m.(x-^y)^'"p(x'^y')

m.(x+y)^'^(a^^y^^2(X'^y)^"p\x'-f).y,"(^).

n
104
BXAHPLES.

and (2)by (1)by (y), Multiply

x,

and

add;

or

py

qx=ms.
orz
=

Ex.6.

Let

l./(^); *ar=/(^);
9
=

-7-4)^
"".

pjj + g[y +

0.

Ex.

7.

Let

z-f(y-^ax)-""p{y "ue),
"

rfy
a*.
-5-"
=

0.

The
Ex.

chords. to vibrating equation

8.

If

5:*^(a)+^0(a) + \Ka) + "^'W O + ^0'(") ^/(fl)

=

(1),

(2).

where

/'(a)
=

^ ''^

to

eliminate the

functions. arbitrary
x

Differentiate

considering
a

as

with respect to (1) successively a function of j? andy;

and

y,

therefore from

(8), ^

/(")J

J *(")

-s-^G^)^

EXAMPLES.

105

"'"

rf;c"""

\dy)'dxdy
\dyj d^

^^^'

dydx
whence

'

multiplying

crossways,

the

equation
Ex. 9. y

to

developable
xd^;
eliminate

surfaces.

"

c,

xdy -ydx
Ex.
Ex. 10.
11.

-=y(logy -log x)dx.

a

Eliminate If
sin

and 6

from

y^^ax-hbx'.
that

^=

or

sin^j*^ shew

rf*!/

d'v

Ex.12.

If

--+/(^

logj:); pdr-^rrrar*.

Ex.

13.

If

z^f(^-^^; Qxyp^ix'
+

f)q^O.

Ex.

14.

a^+y'-hs^'=^f(ax+by
(y
"

2).
bx "ay, a,

bz)p'' {x
+

"

az)qr

Ex.

15.

z^ax

by

c;

eliminate

6,

c.

Ex.

16.

I"

z^xf('^
+

"l"(xy%
^z
9
_

shew

that

d^z
,

'''d?''^"df'

CHAPTER

IX.

Maxima

and

Minima

of Functions

of two

Variables.

115.
u,

If and
some

may make

be

the be an n=f(x,y) equation between the two independent variables^ x and y" value ofx, and also of y, which particular

tion functhere will

the

function

greater

or

less

than It the

the

values
a

which

immediately precede or follow We minimum. or proceed to

differential coefficients^ when 116.
are

it.
find

is then

maximum the

relation

between
takes

this circumstance
of
u,

place.
^ y + of u,

Let for h and A

Wi
x

be and
"

the
y
are

value

when and

and value

written
x
"

respectively ;
substituted for

", the
same

when Also

^
^-5

for the

quantities.
Then
.

put ^

for

B
,

dx*^

-y-r-^

and

C for

dtfdx

-;--

dy

and
Now

tt,-tt-(^;i+^A i{^A'
+

2BM
be

Cifc"}-"c
so

since

the values
as

of

h and

may

assumed
and
-j"
"

small remain

that, (as long

the differential coefficients

of
u^-u

the algebraical finite) sign

upon

and

u^

will

depend

that of the

term

\-t"

it h-^-j-kS^
w,
"

is be

manifest, that if
both
or

this term

exist,Mi

"

and

cannot
a

positiveor
maximum A
+

both
of
must
M.

negative, or
Therefore
=

there
at
a

cannot

be

minimum minimum be

maximum which
can

or

-r-

-r-

it h

dx 0.

ay

condition

only

since fulfilled,
da

and

are

independent quantities, by making

Hence
ttj
"
=

-r-^O,

and

0.

at

maximum 2Bhk

or

minimum,

i^Ah"" +

Ck^

"c.

FUNCTIONS

OF

TWO

VARIABLES,

107
Ug-^u,

Therefore

the

sign

of

Ui-^u^

and

also of
A'
--,

will

depend
A be
+

upon
+

that of the

coefficient of
term must

that is, upon

^Bn

Cn^.

Hence, this
of
n

not

change its sign

do, if it
squares^
can as

whatever

be the value the

; which

put under

form

of

the

it will not of two sum

Now

.fT + 2J5ii + C""

1
-

{C^

2J5C"

CV}

4{c^-B-^C'("^"y},
which
to

is of the
a

form, if requisite
or

CA
of
a

be not

less than of two

J5' :

or

have
we

maximum
must

minimum
=

function
t==

ables, vari-

first have

t-

and

0 ; and

secondly,

^x^
11 7*

not

less than

(^^j.
cPu
d*u and
-r-i

It is obvious
and

that

-7-,

must

have

the

same

sign ; algebraical
maximum^
If the the third if both

also if

they be
a

both

t^ negative^

is

uis positive,
not

minimum.
m
=

second

differential coefficient of be
a

0, when

the unless
ther nei-

firstdoes, there will vanishes

of
A. nor

maximum

or

minimum,
be

differentialcoefficient vanishes, and whatever changes its sign,

the fourth

the value

Ex. du

1.

Let
.^
^

tt

"* +
-

y*

"

Saxy,
a^

^~3J^-Say^0;
du
^

.'-If--,
X

,4

.'. J?

0, and

"*

fl"
=

0 ; whence

a"

a;
=

the other two

roots

are

impossible ;
d^u

and

y=.

"

a;

or

0. cP"

d^u
^ r% 1

Also

.,

and ^=6*, -^^Gy. ^

"

3".
-Sa.

Ifx^O,

A~0,

C=0,

and

108

EXAMPLES.

.'. x

"

a,

A
a

and JB"=9a"; AC^S6a\ is +, gives a minimum, and maximum

nor

"="

"

"";

j:.= 0

neither gives
Ex.
2.
tt

minimum.

"y (a-^x

"

^).

"""

Sa"

S"

"

2j?*=ar,

or

x"-.

2/1

Sy

2j(
=

j^,
a

ory
a

-;
a

-|\ 2{^.|-2.^.|} ^-2*'(fl-"~^)-4*'jr

= =

5^
C^"^
.'.

12

-4C""
a" a*

and
,

^5* =
a'

-"

.%

AC

is "-B';

and
Ex.

"

~x^x5=
8

-^
432

is

maximum.

".*

is

-.

3.

Inscribe

the
a

ivithin greatest triangle

given
R
a,

circle.

the radius,

b,

the sides.

But

"

sin ^
.

-.sin(^
2/2. sin

0),

and

6
c

"

6;
;

""

sin ^ 2i2[.

1
110
Ex.
""

EXAMPLBS.

5.

If

"*

+y

"

Aaxy*;

find

and

y,

when

maximum

or

minimum.

and Ex.

j;"0;

"

0;

give minima*

6.

+ siny + sin(4?+^)}. a{8inj:

Ex.
area

7.

Given

the

is greatest when

shew perimeterof a triangle, it is equilateral.

that its

Ex.
that
u
="

8.

Divide and

a quantity

aTy':^ may
not
tna
m

be
a

maximum

into three such parts x^ y, z, that it is a shew ; and

maximum

minimum.
tia

pa
wi

"^

fw

n+p
of
a a

i^+jp

Ex.

9*

Given

the surface
its content

rectangular parallelo-

pipedon; find when

If X, y,
z

is

maximum;

be
"

the

edges of
+
a

the solid :

Surface
and
u

Zxy
j?yz

2x2

Zyz

60",

maximum,
and
of the

whence Ex. don

be
10.

x^y^z^a;
If the content its form in the
u^ax

solid is

cube.

rectangular parallelopipethe surface is a minimum.

given,find
a

when

It is

cube,

as

precedingquestion.
+

Ex.

11.

Let
and

hy -^-cz
2*
=

maximum,
2-

ar*+y
+

1 ;

find a?, y,

.*. u^CLX

hy +
ex
=

cJl-a^-^y^;
0 ;
.\

du
.'.
T=

azsicx^

^^b-f^O; .'.hz^cy;
.'.
c

+ c')z'^c'{a^-^y'-^z')^c'; ia*'^h*
a

EXAMPLES.

Ill

Ex.

12.

ii a

+ l)(z + l); (a?+l)(j^

maximum
"

where

A^tfh^c^

__

2 loga log Abe Sloga 13.

(log Ahcdf
^
__

'

~27loga.log6.logc*
of the
a

Ex.
a

Given

the radius when

of the

circle described
a

about

triangle ; find its form

If Q and
two

perimeteris
if
r

maximum.

^ be of the circle,
M
=

and angles,

be the radius

2r

^ {sin

sin ^

sin

{Q + 0)};
of

whence
Ex.
14.

"

60
the

;
sum

and

the

is equilateral. triangle
axes an

Given

of the three of the

ellipsoid;

find them

when

the volume be

is ellipsoid

greatest.

If 2jr, 2^" ^z

the three
4
a

axes,

u^-T

vxyz,
=

maximum,

and

2j? +

2^

+ 2"

6a, the given length ; whence

becomes ellipsoid
a

x^y^z^a^
Ex.
15.

and

sphere.
which

Find drawn

that
to

pointwithin

from triangle,

if lines be the the

angular points,
sum

of

their
a

squares minimum.

shall be ABC
be

Let

triangle,nnd P a pointwithin it, a, 6,c,

the sides of the

angle. tri-

Draw

P'Ny AD

to CB; perpendicular

join AP^ BP,

=

CP.

IietCN=x;
Then

then -4D i sin C ; CD NP^y; CP'^a'+f; BP'^y'-^{a-ay^y'-^a^ AP' (b cos C-xy + ib sin C-yY
= =

6cosC.
+

a^-2ax,

A"

""

+y
o'
+

26

cos (jc

C +^

sin

(7) ;
C;

.*.

"

3;c'+

+ 3y'
=

6*-2aic-2i(a?cosC+y sinC);
6
cos

""" "

J (a +
=

C) ;
=

"

16
+

sin

/.

CP

^/?+7

iV2?
of

26"-c". the

The

pointP

is the centre

of gravity

triangle*

112
Ex.

EXAMPLES.

16.

Find

pointwithin

from triangle,
sum

which

if

be perpendiculars squares ABC shall be the

a

let fall upon

minimum.

the sides^the

of their

PN, PM,

the pointwithin it,draw as before^ P triangle PQ respectively to CB, CA, AB. perpendicular Let

CN^x;

PM

p;

NP^y;
then
Now
a

PQ
+

q;

if B be
=

the

i/'+p* ^. from perpendicular

u
=

point(a,13)on

line 1/

mx

6, P^h^
ma

(1^

If

8=p;
y
.'.

/3=^;
"

ar;
V
^

0;
X

fii"tanC;
.

xtanC
sec

p=^^
=

7^

"

cos

^ C"

sm

(2")
"'"

If8
g=
+

5f;

m--tanjB;

b^atanB;

sec^
(y cos
2

=5fCos5-(ii-x)8mB;
sin
a

.". tt

=y
^
__ ""

or

C)*+ {^cos
sin ^
.

5
.

sin B]\ (a j?)

-

sin ^
.

sin C
cos

(1

cos* B,co"'

sinB

sinC.

JB.

cos

C)

a6csin^
_

ahc sin B
J

ahc

sin

Ex.

17.

Find

point P

within

figure quadrilateral angularpoints,

ABCDf
the
sum

fi'om which

if lines be drawn

to the

of their squares

shall be the least

possible.

EXAMPLES,

113

AB^a;
.'. u
=

BC^b;
+

AD^c;
-

AN=^x\
B ^

NP^y;
-

3i^+y

(a (a
+
or

xf

+ +

(6sin
(c sin

-^)'+ (a
"

x^h
"

cosBf
cos

^)' + (j?
5
+

4^

2d;*+ 2
+

or)" 26 {^ sin
"

(a

cos a:)

Ay B}

6'

c*
=

2c

(y sin
^

a? cos

^)
cos

whence ^
Also
"/
=

^ (2a +
1

c cos

"

-B),

(c sin
;

6 sin

B),
"

-r-i

ajr

dy*
all

:r-"

T-y-

is

minimum.

dxdy
a

Ex.

18.

Of

triangular pyramids of

given base

and

to find altitude,

that which

has the least surface.

b, c be the sides of the base,h the altitude of the the inclination of the faces to the base. pyramid,6, (p,yf/^
Let
ay

Then

because

if p

be

side

a,
.".

psind

k, and
cosec

from vertex perpendicular of face area cosec ^ap i^ak

= =

on

the

6;

u^i^h(a

cosec

cosec

"//") (1).
into

Also

since the base

three triangles, whose

h cot m' from which
or
=

pyramid may be divided altitudes are respectively

cot

of the

6, h

cot

"p, k
+

"//" ; if wi' be
+ cot(t"
c

its area,

^h(acotd
with

cot

x//-)
we

(2),
=

combined
are

a minimum, (1)

have d

"p=\lr,

the faces Ex.

equallyinclined

to

the base.
are

19-

Two

find

point 22 in
the

pointsP and Q a plane,such

given above
+

plane;
be
a

that PR

RQ

may

minimum.

given planebe that of xy ; from P and Q draw lines perpendicular to it,let the axis of z pass through P, and the axis of x pass through the foot of the perpendicular
Let

from

Q.
if
c
=

Then
X

the

co-ordinate

of

P,

and

b that

of

Q,
,

and

y of
.-.

R;
=

u=PR+QR
X
^

Ja^+y'+ (f-\-Jf + (a'-xy +

a"x
_

b';

du
. "

du

y c'

"y

Ja^+y'+

0...(2).
xy
+

^/

(a

6"

114

EXAMPLES.

From axis of
X,

(2),

0,

and

therefore

the

point

i2

is

in

the

From

(1),
PR

-wt"^~qW"

^^

^^

cosines

of

the

angles

which

and

CiR

make

with

the

axis

of

are

equal,
ac

a
=

"

X : x= 7

also

"/
,

,
,

118.

When

u=f{xyz)
0; 0;

is

maximum

or

minimum,

we

must

put
is

;7-

^-

0;

and

the

equation

or

dition con-

(.4C

B^AD
^u

"")

"

(AF
d^u

BEy*,
-

d^u

where

^A
=

j^ S

5p;

^;

C=^^^,

'

dz'

dzdx

dzdy x'y^z^
2a
a

Ex.

20.

aa^y^z*
1

"yz*

a^y^z*

maximum.

"

3a

^=5"'

^=10'

"=T-

Ex.

21.

"

^/
=

maximum.
r=
w

(x

aXx+yXy-^zXz+e)

TT

x^i^We;
"

tlo^^l
=

2-^^a^'

Lacroix,

Calcul.

Diff.

Vol.

i.

Art.

166.

CHAPTER

X.

Equations to

Curves.

119.
other

Wet

proceed
the

to

treat

of briefly conic

the

equationsto
some

line^ to straight
curves,

circle^the
will be for

sections^and

which
;

succeeding pages of the properties

must

but

frequentlyreferred to in of complete investigations

and
curves

the the

conic

sections

in

general,we

: expresslywritten on these subjects the since the object of this Chapter is merely to furnish student with of certain such a knowledge of the nature the applications make of the Differential as curves, may and Calculus to them obvious interesting.

refer

to

works

The
120. Find

Straight Line.
the
^

the

equation to
axes

line. straight Ax^ Ay the

AN=x^

two

of

and

y,

Bn
AB

"

to

PN.

NP=y},
^PCA=d)
=

b.

or

tan6

m,
.*.

by writing m y^mx^h.
be

for

tan^;

Cob.

"

If the

line

drawn

let

and

/? be
.'.

the co-ordinates

of the

through a given point; point; .*. if or a,

=

/3^ma
"*"

b,
=

and

ys^mx
"

b;

"

1^ vn(x a).
line

Cor.
"*.

2.

If the line be drawn the

y-mxi^

equationto
lines

i through the origin, drawn through A,

0 ;

121. section.

If two

intersect^find the point of inter12

116
Let
two

THE

STRAIGHT

LINE.

y lines ;

mx

b, and
at
are

wiiO? +

61 be the

of equations

the

then,

the

the point of intersection,

same

values of

the co-ordinates

the
,

for both
-

lines ;

hi tnbi
"

"

tnht
-

"

mb
+

and

tn-fi

122.

Find

the

equationto

line

passingthrough two
the line where
m

given points.
Let b
are
a

the + b be mx y to be determined.
"

equation to

and

and

/?,tti and ^i

the co-ordinates

of the two

points ;

a^Oi

But

y
,*.

mx-\-b, and
y
"

/3 ma-^b;
=

/3 m,{x"a)'r:Ll
=

^
.

(j. a),
_

123.
with

To

find the
at the

angle which
point of
by and
lines.
^

two

lines straight

make

each other
y

intersection. y
=

mx+

miX

5i,

the

to equations

the two

PQR
From A and
/.

and draw -4m

z

PiORi
^"

the lines.

to Pi2, parallel to P'J?'; parallel

L

fiAm^

PQPi;
tan~^ mi
tan

"

tan"^

"

"

m
*

and CoR. and

,\

PQP'=
1 + iwwii

1.
=

If the lines be

PQP'= parallel,

0;

"

iiii"0;

mi

m;
mx

+
+

b b

)
, .

and

v=^mx

(^

^^^

equations

to

two

unes. parallel

,,

,.

Cor.

2.

If the lines be
tan

perpendicular,

PQP'

4
0

m
=

"

mi
*

1 +

mmi

118
Cor.
1.

THE

STRAIGHT

LINE.

If the

pointbe
h
^

the

then origin^
y"
mx

0 ;

/3 0;
"

Jm*
=y
cos

1
"

Jm?
J?

sin

6,
1
=

since
Cor.
2.

wi

tan(?, and

^wi* +

sec

B.
=

If the line pass

^

6 through the origin^

^

0;

fi
=

"

ma

.'. ^

-^==:l=/3C08d-a

sm^.

Vm*+
Cor. h'ne pass
3.

If neither the

pointbe
wia"

in the

nor origin,

the

through it,
j^

/3
"

wa:

(/3 "y)

cos
a

"

(a

"

sin Q. J?)
cuts

126.

Find

the
a
a

equation to
b from

line^which straight
the and origin,
a.

the axis of ^ at at a distance X

distance from

the axis of

the the

y^mx-^h
when and
y

in terras of 6 and origin^ equationto the line^

x^O,
=

^-6,
x==a;
,\ ma

0,

"

O;

.".!"

"

.*.

b ;

or

1" is the

equation.

The
127that every
centre.
a

Circle.
curve

The

circle is

of which

the property is,

point in
and and

its circumference

is

"rom equidistant

the

Let

/?be the co-ordinates

^ of
a

of the centre,
; a
"

pointin
between

the
two

curve

radius.
x, y

Then

the distance

and pointsa, 13,

is the Cor.

equationto
1.
X

the

circle.

If the

axis of

pass
o
=

/3

0,

be in the circumference, and the origin through the centre, "". y + a;*-2aj: a; 0, or y*=^2ax-a^.
=

THE

CIRCLE.

119
centre,

Cor.

2.

If the

originbe

in the

128.
to

l" She

find the

point in equationbetween
"

the SP

circumference
and
a

of

circle,

on perpendicular

^e

tangent, SY.
Join OP and draw

SNl^

PO

produced,
then SY^PN.

SP=^r;
Now

SY=p;
+

OP^a;
+

SP'^SO'+0P'
/.

9.0P.

ON;

r'^2a' r*

2a(p~a)^2ap; equationrequired.

.*.

"

the

The
129.
If from
a

Parabola.

QP,

be

drawn,

lines,as QDq perpendicular lines intersecting

fixed line drawn from P
a

but equalin length, fixed point S, the

locus

is the

parabola.
Draw then the SD
curve

"

Qq, bisect
passes
=

in A, through A* SD

Let

SA

AD^a,

AN^Xy

NP^ff.

120
Now

THE

PARABOLA.

QP

or

DN=
.'. a or

SP;
+
x
=

AN^JNP'+SN'; Jy'+(a:-ay;
.%

DA

.'.

(a+ xy

(x-ay .-. iy

4ax

=y

(a? a)*;
-

4fax.

130.

The Then

polarequation.
r
=

Let

SP^r,
+
r

^5'P

6.

DN=
2a
^r

2a
cos

SN^2a

cos

PSN

6;
a
*

2a
.".
r
= "^

1 +

cos

0 cos",

2%^
131.
If from
two

Ellipse.
points /S
and H
two

fixed

lines ^P

and

PH

be drawn

and

and intersect,

SP

PH="

constant

line,the locus of P is the ellipse.

Let SP
a,
+

PH=2a.
curve

Bisect

^SH

in

C,
and

and M.

take

CA

CM"
draw B

the

5C6

to

passes SH. With and

through A
centre

and S

Through
radius
=

cut

this line in the

and let CiS CA

B points

by since HJB
: ::

will pass through each C" and Hb a ; make b, and CS is called the .: 1; ae, which

6, the
=

curve

eccentricity.
Let

CN^x;

.-.

D"+

HP^Dr, SP^D; NP=y; .\ iy=^SN'-^NP'^{ae + a!y-^y\ D,'^HN' + NP'=^(ae-xy + i^'; A" D^' 2(aV + jr"+/), and D*
=
--

4"aex.

But

Di^2a;

.\

D-A

2ear;

THE

ELLIPSE.

121

.".

D^a-^

ex,

and

Di^a^-ex;

."./ "".(! (1-e")-(l -O -.e")-"".

=

(a"-ar").
a"

But

l-r=la" 6"
=

a' tt* J?"

=

a*'

+ -, """y -"(fl"-^); and|3

l.

Cob. 1.

If ^ be the
.".

origin. Make
or af
=

AN^x^

d?i="fl+ j?,

jr,-a;

132.
.'.

If iS be the
=

and pole,
=

ASP
JVrp"
=

^, and SP
6;

r;

(2"-r)"
4a*4ar

IfP" SN

HiV"
=

(2ae-iSA0"+r"sin"a,
cos

and
.'.

cos
r

PSH^^r
cos

r*=
=

(2ae +
4aV
+

+ ^)'
cos

r* sin'd
+

AfOer

r* ;

1 +

C COS

d
-

133.

If C be the

pole,CP

r, and PCM

0.

Then

j?=srcos6,and^^rsind;

a"
.*.

^6"cos"0 + o*sin*a

Vl-^cos"0'

7%^
134.

Hyperbola.
PH
be
stant, con-

If the difference between aSP and the locus of P is the hyperbola.

122
Let CA
=

THB

HYPERBOLA.

the
=

in difference be 2a ; bisect SH CMy the curve passes through A.

X

C,

Take

CN
T,m

I
c
"

Let

CS

CJ

ea,

where

"

1.

Then
.

HP"

+ a:)"+/ AS IfiV"+JVP"=(ea
=

iSP'^
.-.

iS'2Sr"+ -a:/+y iV^P"=(ea

=

D".;
ly
=^

A'+

!"'

(oV
D
+
=

a?*+y) ;
.".

D,'
+

4aex.

Also
.*.

DiDi^a
=

2a;
ex,

A
=

D
"

2ea?;

andZ)

e:F

a;

.-.

2a*+2e"j:'

2(aV+a?*+^*);

ft*
=

-5

(a;*" a'); making

"

ft* a* (e*
=
"

l);

'Z"

"

"

6'

Cor. 1.

If -4 be the
+ a
=

and origin,

AN
=

ari;

.*. a?

jr, + a.

.'. x

Xi +

2a;
=

a?*
-

a*

x,'+ 2aar, ;

ft*

and. ^'

-5

+ "!*). (2aa:i

135.

To find the

S being the pole. equation^ polar

SP^r,
Then

zJSP
=

e.

(2a+ r)'
=

If P*

PN'

iJiV*

s=

PN'-h(2CS^SN)^ r* sin*^ + (2ae r cos ^)*;

"

.'.

4"a*+ 4ar

r*

r* + 4aV

"

4aer

cos

^;

a(c*-l)
r=

1 +

cos

136.

Let C be the
.". J?
=

pole;

CP

r;
=

ACP

0.

cos

6, and y

sin ^ ;

^'
.

y_^/^cos'asin*g\
ft'^^'^V a"
aft
-

""

a*

ft"

/""
ft

'

"

""

cos*0 ^ft*

a* sin*a

co8*a ^c*.

THE

HYPERBOLA*

123

137.
tlieaxes,
find The

The
and

asymptotes being
the
centre

gin^ the ori-

the

equation to
are

the

hjrperbola.
asymptotes lines"as
CO
and

Co, drawn

through the angle

s

centre^

making

an

tan'^

with the axis of the

hyperbola.

and

OCA

oCA--B,

NP^y,
Draw Since Mn MP

MP^y,.
CAN^ and Pm X is parallel to Co, and Pm
to
+

"

"

to Mn^
to

CN,
=

.". jl

MPtn^d,

Now

x=Cn
y
=

nN

ar,cos

^ +yi
"

cos

Mn

"Mm^Xi
a'

sin 6

yi sin ^

(jJi +^i) cos 6, (j?,^j)sin B ;

"

a'

6*"

But

tan^--;
a

/.

i + tan"6

-^
cos*^ cos'^
a

"
___^

a'

.2

'

cos*^_^
"a

sin*^

A*+a"'

i.e. 4ar,^i a*+ 6*, x,^,

=

Cob.

If the

hyperbolabe rectangular.
a'

h=^a^ anda?,^i
=

"

The
138. semicircle.
and Join in P. BM AR

Cissoid.

^QB
Take

is a ^iV

the ordinates The

equal. Draw NQ^MR. cuttingNQ

locus of P

is the cissoid.

AN^x,
AB
-

NP=^y,
2a.

124
AN^ AM^

THE

CISSOID.

AM*

AM

Now

NP'"

MR'"

AM.

MB"
"/*

MB'

or

-,=
X

"

2a

"

139. AP

To
=

find r^

the

Polar

Equation.
x
=

^PAN=6f
sin '^
__ ~~ _ "

rcos6,
r

i/^rslnB,
%

y*
a?
"".

cos

cos' 6
2a

2a-x
=

Za"rcosd'
6 6 (sin'
+

sin'^

cos

cos*^) ;
^
"

sind
A

ra:2o
.

sin 0
COS0

2a

tan

sin 6.

The
-140.
round

Conchoid
line CP
volves re-

of Nicomedes.
h

The
a

fixed

point C,
RP

cuttingthe line ARN: always of the same then the point P

out

is

length;
will
trace

the conchoid. CA RP
MP' CM'
=

Let
"

a,

AM=x,
=

AB AR'

h, MP^y.
RN'
"

CA'

NP"

RP'-^NP'
NP"

y
or

_b'-x'
a^
'

(a+x)'

CoR.

Let

CP=r,

zPCM=d,
a

r^CP^PR+CR:=h-{^

cosO*

126

EQUATIONS

TO

CURVES,

2a

Cob.

When
the

a;

y=Cb

"

which
,

is

third pro-

to portional

quadrant and
move as

radius.
a

144.

If jR^

before,and

line
so

QPM that Q
as

from AC, to AC move parallel moves uniformly through AQ, P of RN and

the

intersection the

QM

will

trace

Quadratrix
Here

of Tschirnhausen.

AQ

AQB
,\

::

a;
wa
.

wx
=

AQ,

.^

-r-

2
frx
,

-;r

2
,

fAQ\
I
"

.'.

"

a*

sm

a
.

sm

"

is

the

equation-

The
145.
be
a

Lemniscata.

If

SH

line straight

bisected in C, and and HP if SP revolve

and

round
and
so

H,

sect inter-

in P, SPxHP=^

that

CS^,
of P is

the locus

the Lemniscata.

CN:=^x;

NP^y;

CS=^a,
+

SP^JPN'-^SN'^Jy'+{a
HP
.-. """
"

x)',

JPN'VHN'=^
X

sjf + {a-xy;
-

^/y" + (a + a?)" Jy' + (a a;)' a' ;

=

+ "' {(j^'

*')+ 2flw?} {(/

+ + 2j:*/

o*

a:") Saw?}
-

a* ;

.-.

y
.-.

a;*

2aV

2ay

(y^-^^y^^a'ix'^y^.
and ^
=

Cor. Then
.\

If
a?
=

CP"r; rcos^;

zPCH^d.

rsin^;

a^

y^sst^;
=

r*

2aV(cos"^-8in"^);

.". r'

2a*cos2^.

r
EQUATIONS
TO

CURVES.

127

The
146. The
of

Cycloid.
described
rolls

Cycloidis
a

-which circle,

cumferenc by a point in the ciralong a horizontal line.

Let

BQiD
is which Ah

be

the

0 the circle,
the

centre

; and

when

ameter its di-

to perpendicular

pointP,
Then

horizontal line at A, let the generates the curve, also be at A,

=;arc

must

P6,

since

each

been

in

contact

with

each

successive BD
=

point of point of Ab.

Pb

has

147.

luet

AN=^x,
Ab" bm Nb ad
o

2a,

."-

"

-a ver.

sinO
sin ^

.\
an a

="

a(d a (1

"

sin
"

cos

6); 6);
x

cannot equation algebraic differentialequation may

x==a ver.

be found
; for

between

and

y, but

sin"*

"J^ay-y';
a^y

dx

ly
148.
To Let find the from equation

the

vertex
=

D.
d.

JDM=a?;

MP^yi

j:DOQ

Join Pb

and

QB, then these being equaland parallel,

=

PQ
Then

Bb=AB--Ab=^AB-'Pb^DQ,
=

y^PM

MQ

PQ^a8in0
sin 6

ad

a(d + sine),
-

x-DM=aver.

=o(l
.\

cos

6),

149.

Since

ver.

sin

6;

ver.

sin-*

and
,

.'.

^J2ax-a^+

ver.

sin"*

128

EQUATIONS

TO

CURVES.

dy

"

a?

J2ax
the

"

j^ used.

equationmost
150. From

commonly

(2^ may be derived a mechanical method the cycloid; for the point P is found of describing by MP the of and to sum t o DB, equal drawing perpendicular
the ordinate QM
151. of P is
a

and
take

the
MP

arc

Dft of the circle.

If
curve

we

called the

equal to DQ Companion

only, then the : to the Cycloid

locus

and

y^aQ\

a?=a(l-cos^);

-^ ^

J^ax-al''

The
152. The

Trochoid.
curve

trochoid is the the circumference of the inner circle AQ

P
a

traced

by

point B
the

in

circle

BRh,

whilst

outer

rolls upon

horizontal line.

point ip

the trochoid.

Through

draw

zontal hori-

line MRPm.
circles. Draw

Take

and

the

centres

of

the

ORQ

and

oP.

r
EQUATIONS
TO

CURVES.

129
^

Then
Let

Pot=

RM,
a,

and

AOQ=
zAOR
arc

A,oP.
=

OA

AN=j:\

OB=b,
Then
/.

NP=i^r
that
=

e.

it is obvious
X
=

AQ-AAi;
o
"

AAi
^P

"

y
b

NAi + o-4i
*

aB'-h sin 6^
om
=

^
=

cos

0.

Let
If
e

-; 1 ;

/.

x=^a(B-eAn");

a(l-eco8^).

the trochoid becomes

the

cycloid.

The
153. If

and Hypocychid. Epicycloid

one

circle revolve upon

another

circleand in

the same planewith in the circumference

it,the
of the

curve

described

by

anv

point

circle is called the revolving circle move within the but if the revolving Epicycloid; the described is the curve by point called the other circle^

Hypocydoid.

130

EQUATIONS

TO

CURVES.

the

describing point of ispicycloid.

CJ"fl;

CB^h;

zACQ zPBQ

di "p;
aad

CN=x;
/.

NF^y;
Nn
=

x=Cn-h PBm

z=(a+ b)cosd ^b
-

sin PBm.

But

PBQ
.\

(90 0)
-

^ "P
=

90.

Now

AQ^PQ;
.'. j?
=

ae=b(p;

.\

-^;

(a +
=

6)cos0-6cosf-^.0j;
(a + 6)sin
0
-

BnIf b be

Bm

6 sin

(
"

r"

"

154.

the negative,

curve

is the

h3rpocycloid.
.

.".

ip

(a (a
=
-

6)cosa 6) sin 0

cos

f~T

"

aj
,

and

5 sin

-y-

^
"

"

Or

thus PjBm

PJ5C-n5C=180-y-(90-a)

90-^.a,
"

J?

(o (a

5)cos 5)cos

0 6

5 sin PBm ftcos

f
"

J"

a
.

"

EQUATIONS

TO

CURVES.

131

(a 5) sin 6
-

"

cos

PBm

(a

"

6) sin 6

"

6 sin

dj

155.
from

If the but

describing pointP be not within the revolving circle and

described
are

ference, in the circumat a distance b^ and

the centre, the curves called the Epitrochoid and

then respectively

Hypotrochoid:
0
"

^=(a

cos 2")

5icos

(')"
^
s

(a + 6) sin 0 (a 5) cos
-

6i sin f

0
.

jj

or

ijcos

(
" "

r"

^
"

)
(2).

(a

^) sin ^

6j sin f
"

"

6\\
.

156.

If in the
a?

a epicycloid
=

h,

a a

(2 cos

6 0

cos

20),
20);
+

(2 sin y-a'
fl

"

sin

a?" +
.*.

y=a*(4-4co80
=

l);
1);

x*
j:

+
=

4fl'(l-cos0).
0
-

But

(2 cos
cos

2 cos'0 +
-

Cob.

0); 2a sin 0 (1 cos "); ^ 4a'(l-cos0)". .-. (^-a)'+y But l6a" (I cos ey + y aj ; {x^ + y.-. '4a" {/+ (x-fl)^} (j:" a')". If a?-fl rsin^, rco8^, and^ 4aV + 2ar cos ^)* ; (r*
.'. a: -flr
=

2a

(1
-

cos

.".

2fl

(1

cos

0) ;
the Cardioid.

the curve

is called from

its form

157.
CY.

To

find the CP

the radius vector Produce

the

in terms of to the epicycloid equation the tangent and the perpendicular on

CB

to q ;

joihPQ, Pa,
on

then

since

for

an

stant in-

circle turns revolving

Q, the motion
and

of the

point
4 "

must

be

to QP, perpendicular

tion therefore in the direc-

Pqi

hence

qP produced is a tangent to

the

curve

k2

132
Produce

EQUATIONS

TO

CURVES.

qP,
CY

and
=

draw p;

CY
then

A.
"/

to

it,and make
is
=

CP=^r;

CY

paraUelto PQ,
a

PY'

qY'

~CQ'^ C^'

^^^^' Cq

2b;

.-.

r'c*

p^c*
=

a'(^

--

ay

Cor.

For

the

c hypocycloid,

fl-26

is "";

I5S.

Spirals.
The radius

the In this spiral of Archimedes. spiral the angle described, varies directly as vector r^ad is the equation. r, rood; or Let a line revolve uniformly round S^ while a point P moves uniformly from S along it, then medes. of Archithe spiral P will trace

(1)

Let
.

zASP=e,
r

SP

r;

and

let

be the value of

when
r
: c

B^^w;
::

.\

2w;

"'-

^y ^^-^^^^^

putting

a^^.
=

logarithmic spiral.Here the a re described a'. of the radius vector ; its equationis r is the logarithm will be It is also called the equiangular as since, spiral, shewn, it cuts the radius at a constant angle.

(2)

The

(3)
a

The

increases the

the angle as spiral.In this spiral hyperbolic radius vector and its equation is decreases,

so (4) The Utuus^

called "rom

its form ; where

="

-i

"

(5)

The

and tlie of Archimedes, the hyperbolic^ spiral

CHAPTER

XL

Tangents to

Curves.

160. which
if of has

DfiF.
a

TANGENT common

to

curve

is
curve^

line straight
but

point in produced, does not the point.

Let

with the and

P
curve

the in

which,

cut

the

neighbourhood through
as

PPi
and

be

the

curve,

let the

pointsP
Pi
when line,

P^, and

then

revolve
;

line pass round P, so

a

the

to

make

continually approach to
Pi coincides

of position

the

revolving

with

P, will be that of the tangent.

Let

AN=x,
NP y y^ =^,

Ax, Ay the
QPT
the

axes

of

jr

and

y. the

the last

of position the
curve.

line.

=f(x)
^axi
=

equationto
AN,

b that of the line

through
=

and

P.

NN,
Then

h;

N,P,=y';
the line passes
w'"

x'

x+k,

because

through

and

P^,

yi-y^
X

T~^
^

y
.

(^1 ")
-

is its equation.

But

y=/(*

A)

J? +

^A
+

PA" ;

^h
a!"
X

Pk'
dx

h revolution

Now pass

since

by

the and

of

the

line

(supposed to
therefore
k

through Pi

P), Pi

approaches P;

TANGENTS

TO

CURVES.

135
of the
tinually conequation

and decreases,

the

member right-hand

approaches-j-y
with
a

and

when

P,

coincides actually the line becomes

Py A

0, and

^
^
J?
"

=
"

-^;
tt J?
^

but then

d?

tangent,
rf
and CoR.

^1" ^
1.

(^1 ;t^

"

required. ") is the equation

the tangent may
du be written

The

to equation

dy
with the

which

compared
="

to generalequation

the

straight

line, y

mx

b, gives dy

dy
the axis of off from

which
an

shew

that the tangent is inch'ned

to

at

anglewhose
a

tangent is
""

-^

and

it cuts

the axis the

of ^

line =y

T^

ftova the former

"

circumstance Method

Differential Calculus

has

been

called the

gents. of Tan-

Con.

2.

Hence

AD

"

ar

^^^and
,

CoR.

3.

We

may

deduce

AD

and

AT

from

the

general

equation;
letj?i 0;
=

.\

y^-=

AD^y"x
dx
Mwrt

"

yi
or

0;

.-.

'-x,

AT=y^'-x;
dx

if these values be called yo and Xq,

dy

which

are

the parts find

-~

cut

off from the

the

axes

by

the tangent. AD
and

Hence^
^7 may
be

from

then given equation^

found; join TD, it produced is the tangent.

136
Cob. 4.

TANGBNTS

TO

CURVES.

If the

axes

be

we oblique,

shall obtain similar

results,but
ratio of the
axes.

-^will

not

be

the tangent of

PTN^
makes

but

the the

sines of the

anglesthe tangent
is called the

with

Cor.

5.

The

line NT

and subtangent,

is

useful in

drawing

the tangent,
^ ^

and
Hence
to
we

NT^AN+AT^x+y^^x^^y^.
dy dy
Join
draw have The

P, T, and
Cor.

tangent, find the value of NT, the tangent required.

a

6.

lengthPT

of the

tangent

161.

Dbf.

line PG the
+

drawn

from

the

P,
axis in

to perpendicularly

the

tangent, and
a

tact point of conmeeting the

G, is caUed
ii y
"*"
=

normal.

Since

mx

h is the
Jp +

equationto
a

line;
it ;

"i is that of
dv
" "

to perpendicular

dy
.'. smce

yi

-j-ooi+y
dx

X'^

18

equation

to

tangent ;

.%

y^

s=

"

-T-

or,+

6, is that of the normal

ay
.",

"

__

a?

^1 since it passes through P

dx
.".

yi

"

T-

(^i ^) is the equationrequired ;

-^

dx

and

J-

being

found be

from

the

given equationto

the

curve,

the normal
Cor.
1.

may

drawn.
tan

Hence

PGx

dy
*

j-

and dv

.".

tan

PGN^

dy'

-=-;

alsoifyi
.".

0;

Xi^AG=y-j--^xi
=

NGi
NG

called the subnormal be found from

i4G

"

AN=y

-p.

But

may

the

NTP, triangles

PON.

TANGENTS

TO

CURVES.

137

Hence

to

draw The

normal^ find NG,

and

join PG,

Cob.

2.

lengthPG

of the normal

162. he drawn

The
from

normal
a

is the shortest
a

or

line longest

that

can

given pointto

curve.

For

if Xi and
a:

and
"

i/ibe the co-ordinates of the y of a pointin.the curve^

given pointy

distance between
"

the
a

points ;
or

.".

tt'=

+ {yi^yf (xi x)'

maximum

minimum

dx
. .

which

is^as

we

have
the

justseen^ length of
and
contact

the
the the

to equation

the normal.

163.

Find

from perpendicular

the

the tangent, origin upon the origin to the pointof

angle
makes

which with

the line from the

tangent.
on origin

(1**)Since
a

if B be

the

from perpendicular

the

line
^

Vm"+1

y^Na

(2")
and

Join
a

AP, then
the
i

if 6 be

the

angle between
^

the

gent tan-

line from

origin^
APT=^
tan~*
a

or

^APT;
ox

PAN^

PTN,

^
-

tan~^

-^;
dx

xdx

138
164.
It may ^1 y
*

TANGENTS

TO

CURVES.

be useful to collect these values

in

table.

(1)

^
"-^

to tangent. (-^^i ^)" equation

-

dot

(2)

yi-y

"

to (^1 ^),equation
-

normal.

dx

(3) Subtangent NT^y-^.

(4)
Subnormal

NG^y

-r-.

(6)

Normal

PG

-5,^1+5.
tangent
=

on (7) Perpendicular

-y=^"

(8) Tangent APT=^^^^

x+py

(9) (10)

^D=^,=^-*|.
dx

AT*--x,^y-^-x;
are

the firstfour of these formulas 165. makes The the Find To find the

the most

important
the
curve

tangent of the angle which

x.

with

the axis of which

^'
with the
the

angle

the tangent makes

same

axis

at

point of

section will be the

that

curve

makes.

therefore

the co-ordinates of the

and pointof section,

substitute them
value

in the

for expression

-^,and

the

resulting

will be the tangent of the

X

anglerequired.
to equation

Ex.

Let y
=

be the and the

the

curve.

Here

if

a?

0, y
^^

0\

.*.

is the pointof section^ origin

-T-^^TT
or

(1

a:)'

r"=T"

whenar^O;
1
/.

.-.

tan0

l=tan45^

45"".

TANOBNTS

TO

CURVES.

139

"x.

2.

Let the

curve

be the

cydoid.

which
Ex. A

18

if ^ infinite Let

0;

or

the

curve

cuts

the axis and

at

^.

3.

the

curve

be

find AY the circle,

APT,

being the

centre.

?!
.-.

f!
tani4PT
'
=

^F=-=a;
a

'^=co;
0
'

.-.

z^Pr=90".
"^

166. l^et
a

To and
X

draw

tangent through a given point

of the

be the co-ordinates y be the co-ordinates

given point ;
curve

and

of the

(yj y)
"

J=

ig the equation to (jpj a:)

"

the

tangent

But it passes

through a point^i

/3 and

x^^a\

from
to

which,

and

the

to given equation to

the

curve,

the

point

which

the tangent is
To draw
=-

be drawn

may
a

be found.

167.
Let

to tangent parallel

given line.
with
x;

tan"^ A

the

anglethe

line makes
line
are

"*.

-^s^Ay
y^"
be y
^

since tangent and A

"

parallel ;

and

{Xx" St)is the equation required.

co-ordinates of the

If it pass

through a given point,the

point may equationto pointto which

168.
from

put for j;, and y^^ and then from the given and from that of the tangent, the the curve,
the tangent is
to

be drawn

may

be found.

To

find the locus of the intersections of

culars perpendi-

Let y

on origin "Six) be the equationto

the

the tangent, with

the tangent
;

the

curve

140

TANGENTS

TO

CURVES,

"*"

yi^y"'j"
dx

Q^i *) is
""

the

equationto

the tangent

yi

".-7-

a?i is that of

from origin. perpendicular

Between

these

and equations

-j-

='f\x) eliminate
x^

y, x,

and

-J-

the

resulting equation^ containing ^i,

be that of the
curve

and

constant

will quantities^ Pros.

required.
from perpendicular
=

If S be the

lengthof

the

the

origin upon
For
V

the tangent, shew

that S

^XiX+^^i.
(1), (2),

5^i-J^

^(ari-")

andtf.^-'-^x,
are

simultaneous
"""

for equations

the
=

pointof
-

intersection

(1) ^ (2),^i'-5(^1

(^i" ^^i);
-

169.

Two

curves

whose

^
Let

find the intersect, {a/) Q be the

y =f{^) \ angle of intersection.

equationsare
the

ai^d

anglebetween

tangents

at

the

pointof

it will intersection,

therefore be the

anglerequired ;
ax

also a

tan-^f^--tan-^^.
dx
J
=

But Since
at

g =/'(*) %

"p\x')="p'{x).
=

point of

intersection of

x;

Prob.

The

vertex

of

parabolais
the

in the

centre

of

circle,and
intersection Here
to

its focus

bisects

radius, find the angle of

the

of circle and
=

y*

2ax

(1),and

parabola. are y' a'-x^ (2),

=

equations

the

parabolaand

the circle.
=

2; (2)| From(l)|=/'(.)

0'(x)
=

-|j

1^3
171*
and
the If

ASYMPTOTES.

This

method
is
more

is

following

possible,
v==^J?
X

let 5

the
O

frequently difficult generally useful. equation to the curve

D F
+
or

of

application,
put
under.

be

the
that
X

form

"

+-s+-a
X X

"c.
B

then
decrease

it is

obvious,
when

as

increases, the

terms

after

and

becomes

the

axis with of

they vanish, and the equation to Ax of the curve infinite branch + B. i8^ But this is the equation to a straight line cutting the of taxr^A, at B^ and making angle an a point v ^ infinitelygreat,
= = "=

the
the

axis
curve

of is

x.

Efence

it

appears

that
line

the

infinite

branch

coincident

with

the

determined

by

the

equation y^Ax-"B\
CD
.*.

if ^

^or

"

-3

"c.

be

the

equation
asymptote.
will
axis of
not

to

curve,

y^Ax-\rBi8
We may observe that

the

equation
this

to

the

that
are

method the

apply
y
:

to

find then coverable disample Ex-

the
A

asymptotes
would be

parallel to
but of

of this

since
are

infinite:

asymptotes
the

kind

by simple 9.)
Cob.
1. If

inspection

equation.

(See

the

form

of

the

expanded
+
x

y (a?) be
"c.

v="-4a?'
"^

JBjp

C/+

"

-i

jr

the. asymptote

is

parabolic
y
"

curve,
+

of

which

the

equation

is

Ax' every C

Bx+C. finite value differs

of
a

CoR. of the

2.

Since

for

of

x,

the that

ordinate
of the

curve

y=:Ax
"^

^, X

less

from

original
between

curve,

than

the
we

ordinate
may and the be

thq

rectilinear

tote, asymp-

it is obvious

that

have

the with

asymptote

curve,

hyperbolic curve and ultimately

a

lyiog
dent coinci-

either;

this may

called

hyperbolic asymptote.

EXAMPLES.

143

Examples.
The Parabola.

(1)

Here

y"

4(70:;

.*.

y;

ay

2a

Take

.-.

AT^AN,
=

joinPT,
or

FT
=

is the

tangent,

i^" 2a;
Take
/.

NG

2AS.

NG*^2

AS;

joinPG,
is ^j
;
-

it is th6 normal
2a

equationto tangent
"'"

"

(a?iar) ;
-

^^i

^*

2flari 2ax
-

.-.

j/r^i 2a
=

+ or). (a?i

CoR.

Since yi/i
^'
".ac
"

2a

is equation to tangent ; + a;) (a?i

2ax
,

2a
0?. +

2a
"

; make

=m:

y
2ax
"".

y
or

^
2

a
=
"

y
/"

m'
a

y,

s=

TWO?.

"

an

to equation

the tangent which the normal

is

is often very

convenient.

The

to equation

y
^^

yx
^

2a

2a

144

EXAMPLES.

Make

-~-^m^;

.*.

-^

wi.':

/.

y^

jwj

(jTj2a
-

"

aw,*) ;
x.

the

in equation

terms

of its inclination to the axis of

to
a

Ex.

Two

normals

parabolaintersect (a: am*)

"

at

right

find angles;

the locus of their intersection.

.'.

2aiit =

wi

(1),

(2); .ndj,-?5!=-i(,-"L)

.'. jr-Sa

afm

(3).

But

from

(2) fwy-2a

-ar

-^,

(1) "y-"9.a^x

"

am*;

.-.

a(a?-Sa), j^=a*^--mj
=

the

to equation

(2)

Find the

parabola. to equation

the tangent in the

; ellipse

BXAMPLES.

145

The

centre

being the origin,

ti^
a^
^

dy
6* a:,

b'

"""

yi-!/

"

?^(^"""^)"
"

Cob.

1.

NT^-v^^n^ dy
^ dx

b^

a^

Cob.

2.

+ j"5^i-/=-^a-"ar, ^a:* --,a?jr,+

=

6*-/;

6*
/ a

be?"
X

xx%

Letyi
.-.

0;

4?,= Cr

"

J!

"CiST

CTxCN^CA*,
and

(See
Cr-

Co""c

Sections.)

iV^r=

CN^^^^,
X

or

NTxCN^(a-\-x)(a''x)^AiNxAN.
b'x

h'
orj+
"

Cob,

3.

Since

+ 6'a:aria'b* ; a*^^i
=

.".

^i

="

j-

Let

wi

="

"

/.

mV

-v^

"^

oy

y
angle it makes pairs of
gents tan-

an

equation to
the axis of
Find
an

the tangent in terms

x.

of the

with

Ex.
to

the locus of the intersection

at to

of

ellipse rightangles
y-mx-\-

each

other.
;

Jm'a'+

A", one

tangent

.""

y-'fnx

Jm'a'+ b',

146

EXAMPLES,

squaring and

adding,

the

to equation

radius circle,
a,

Jc^+

h*.
a

Cob.
=

If 6

the
of
a

J^, the
(3)
In

chord the

becomes ellipse quadrant.

circle and

radius

hyperbola of ay-bV
the

which
"

the

equationis

d'b',

the

equationto

tangent is

'^

f^y
"

y
+

tnxi

Jm'a'

"

A*

if

-^.

Ex. the

Find

the locus

of the intersections

of

tangents

to

from and perpendiculars hyperbola, yi ^1

=

the centre.

mxi

JmW"b*f (1) is
(2) is
the

the tangent,

Xiy

perpendicular;

/.

m-

"

in (l), and omitting the suffix, ^; substituting or"

/aV

"

CoR.

Let 6

a,

or

the

be h3rperbola

the

rectangular ;

In fact,the Lemniscata is to the Leraniscata. equation commonly defined to be the locus of the intersection of tiie with the perpendicular hyperbola, tangent to a rectangular

the

from

the centre

on

the

tangent.
the

and

(4) In the Cissoid,find equationto tangent.

Here

subtangentand subnormal,

y=
,

du
.*.

a^ (3a
=
"

"

subnormal

-^^
dx

-^

-^:
a 9

x)

{2a -xj

EXAMPLES,

147
dx
X
"

(9,a
^^ 3a

"

x\

.*.

subtanffent "

v ^

-7-=

-^.

dy

^x

The

equationto

the tangent is

hyperbolareferred (5) Rectangular

a'
TT

to

the asymptotes.

a'

dx'"^2''?~"'x''

xyi -a^i/
^1
=

-yai
=

i^x;

xi/i+ yx^ 5^1

=

2^a: a'
=

0,^0

^^

^;
X
=

0,

Xo^AT==^.
y

The

aDAT-=

"

^=a%

which

is constant.

Then

$^^^^^^11;
ax
X

dx
__

y.x

^^-^^
or

vr

NT
and
z

NP is

::

^iST

NQ;
to
as

common
...

jiNQ,
"".

TPN;

they

are

and similar,
to

z PTN=^ QAN; the tangent TP is parallel the chord JQ.

Also

since z^^QjB is Draw

an

(7)

to BQ. always 90, PG is parallel asymptote to the hyperbola.

=

+ a--.^+ *-.{ar 2
"
X

or

+"C.}, ''
l2

148
b

EXAMPLES.

and

therefore ^

+ a) (op

is the

to equation

two

asympx
=

Cv

totes;
both

arid since ifd:

0,

y==^b;

and be

if y

0,

-a,

will pass to the axis of x.

through the centre, and

the asymptote
to

equally inclined

(8)

Draw

the

curve.

a
=

A
"

4?+-^+

+-5

"c. ;

.*.

j; +

"-

is the

equationto
45^ and
=

the asymptote which

cuts

the

axis of

j;

at an

at a

pointx

'--,

(9)

Let

1/

(ax + 6") a^, draw the asymptotes.

Fa
=

"^

ax-^b^

ax+c

hy puttmir ^ *^ "
+

"

-.

"

-j:*{1-a
*

-----

+
or

"C.}
*

fl

(?

or

1+-

a?"
=

car

c*
+
a

c^
+
ax

"c.

.".

ay

a:*
"

cor +

c* is the

equationto
=

the

curve. asymptotic

Since

"y-fc'

*'-ca:H.^ (.-|J.
is axis ^1
a
=

or

(*-|)="(5,-f").
curve
a

it shews

that the

the parabola^
and

axis of which determined

=

is

to perpendicular
c

the

of x, c*

the vertex latus rectum

by making
The
curve

a?i=

and

"

; the

a.

has also

rectilinear asymptote
b'
c
=

to parallel
, ,

the

axis of ^ therefore

; for

making

a?="

and

dy
-#
are

infinite;
from

an

infinite ordinate be
a

at

distance
a

the

will origin,

tangent

to

the

curve.

150

EXAMPLES.

the oval^ since the interior

spaces The
are axes are as

when the triangular leasts in the preceding problemare greatest.

area

must

be

the same^

but

supposed rectangular ; area ^^^yo^ sine of

"

if oblique^ the results

inclination.

Examples.
(1)
If
n
=

Let

^"

a"-'dr; NT^nx;
is the be

NG

^.
nx

2, the
Let

curve

parabola ;
the

NT^

2x^ NG

="

-.

(2)

the

curve

Witch:

ar

(3)

The
.

focus

of

is in parabola

its vertex circle,

bisects the

radius;

the centre of a and find the point

given angle

of intersection of circle and

parabola.
defined
4
=

(4)
sects

Shew
curve

that

the

curve

by y
-

inter4flj?,
at
,

the
x
=

defined
find

by y*
the

xx-

(j? 2fly

point Angle

where
=i

%a^ and
.

angle of

intersection.

tan"'

-Ts.

the to a parabola, + a) be the equation (5) If y* 4a(ar originin the focus, shew that the pointsof intersection of the tangents, and perpendiculars from the focus, are determined by the equations
=
.

a?i=

-a,

and

yi=|drawn perpendicular shew

a.
=

intersections of tangents to the from the vertex, is the cissoid. parabola with perpendiculars

(6)
(7)

The

locus

of the

Find of
an

the

the focus

length of ellipse upon

is
a

the

from

the tangent, and

radius circle, and

that the

locus of their intersection

the

(8) Given angleFBA (9)

Draw

two

A points

J?,find the
P.
curve

locus

of P

when
an

is double
curve

of

the

angle PAB,

and

draw

asymptote

to the
an

traced
to

by

asymptote
the

the

defined

by y* +

Jt*

Saxy, and

to parallel (10) Find the point and angle at which the curve 2)"cuts the axis. At the origin, Si^ x{x-\angle 90.
= =

determine the two axes.

pointswhere

the tangents

are

EXAMPLES,

151

(11)

Find
x

the and

same

when

y-2
3.

(x^\')Jx-%
is
=

and

the values of

y when
=

the tangent
a?
=

to perpendicular
or
=

the axis of

or.

(1) ^ y
=

0 ;

(2)^

2 ;

2.
curve

an asymptote to the find its greatest ordinate ; and the anglesthe curve with the axis of x at the points^x and 2 0, x

(12)

If

Sor"
"

3^ draw

makes
x
=

"

3.

Asymptote y^-x+l; (IS) (2) when (14)

makes
Draw

abscissa

2 ;

anglesare
y=
=

90, 0, 90.

the asymptotes,
ax*
+

(1)when
y

j-

"

"

^*

mx^, and
d^z ellipse,

(3)when
CPG,
tan

a*.

If in the

and
"x

the

angle PG
"

with the axis Shew

"

major
"*

"

"

or

0^ tan' /

,,

~,

(15)
where

that the
+

curve

whose

equationis
x

sin

tf

Zrx

jr*
=

0 ;
n

intersects the axis of

at

points

2tf

determined

by
The

;r

"

being any
the
curve

whole

number.

(16)
tangent
to

normal
curve

to

defined
=
"

by y*
-

"

4aa?, is

the Draw

in which
to

^
a

-.

{x

2fl)'.
4?

(17)
at 30**.

tangent

circle, cuttingthe axis of

(18)

In the

conchoid, where

j^y

(a + xy (6' x^,
"

shew tangent to a?*+^* fl*; between tibe axes part of the tangent intercepted

(19)

Draw

that
=

the

a,

and

that

on perpendicular tangent

Jaxy.

(20)
the of

The

centre

major and parabola, that major axis : (21)

sponding
arcs

axis

the

of a parais the vertex ellipse bola, is to the axis ellipse perpendicular intersect at rightangles, curves prove
an

of

of

minor

axis
be

::

J^

1.

If PFand of
a

QF

cycloidand
angle
of

respectively tangents to correthe generatingcircle, the

intersection
same

f^

locus of Y is the involute of the circle.

(22) Find hyperbolaand

the
a

of

rectangular
"

circle

having the
=

centre, radius

2a ;

^^'

angle sin~^iyr5.

!t
152
f

EXAMPLES.
"

r23)
be
tne

If TP and 'TQ be tangents focus, shew that

to

and parabola,

"/(24)
If

SP.SQ^Sr.

2^

+ to (ee (theequation e~*"),

the

catenary),

the normal

v""
a

(25)

If

"

"

be

the

to equation

curve,

(26)
curve,

If

+ ^* logJa!*

"

fl

tan"'

^ be

the

equationto

the

anglein which it intersects the line drawn of intersection is constant. to the point origin
the
If AD

from

(27)
and shew

tj^ fja Jx^

=
-

find

equationto

the tangent

-hAT^^a.

defined by the equation (28) In the curve AN :: : AT : NP. j^(l+ logar) j?; NT to a (29) U y-a log("* a*)be the equation
=
-

curve

PT+NT^^.
a

(30)
from the

Find
vertex

that

point in
the

makes

at parabola, with greatestangle

a

which
the Ans.

line

curve.

a;"2a.
a

(31)
PT
a

If ^

be the
an

of extremity

the diameter
a

of

circle,

tangent,PN
-

and AP ordinate,

chord,prove Uiat
-

angleTPN. + (c+ ea? + fa^) j/""* "c. 0, (32) If j(" {a -h hx)5^"-' of n dimensions, prove that the be the equation to a curve of ordinate each divided sum subtangent, by its respective is a constant quantity. If C be the centre of a circle, AQi a chord, and let (SS) CNR be drawn cuttingAQ in N, draw A^P perpendicular
=

AP

bisects the

to

^Q

and of

NR;

find the locus of P and

"

draw of

its asymptote.

If 2c be the
centre

lengthof chord,a

radius

circle, origin

chord, and the chord

is

be the axis of x, then

(34)
EF V^
is
a

ABD chord

centre C, and diameter A D, semicircle, EF in radius CQR to a cutting parallel AD^

a

of Q, bisect QR in P ; find the locus of P and the position the is The conchoid. the asymptote. curve

CHAPTER

XII.

The

of the Areas DifiFerentials Curves

:

and

Lengths of
of

of the Surfaces

and
:

Volumes

Solids of Revolution

Spirals.

173.
is to

Oke of the find the areas of

of the Integral Calculus applications the lengths of their arcs^ and curves^ of solids.
we

the surfaces and

contents

The

solids of which

shall treat

are

called solids of

since they are supposed to be generated revolution, by the revolution of a planefigure round line,termed an axis. a Hence section to the axis will be a perpendicular every t he is and of radius the which ordinate, circle, revolving section will the original axis the through reproduce every
area.

the Considering
contents

areas

and

lengthsof

curves^
one

and

the

and

surfaces of solids, to be functions of

of the

x or y, we quantities can, by the Differential Calculus,find the b etween differentialcoefficientsof these functions, equations and expressions which shall or x we containing y, by

hereafter obtain the values of the functions

We shall find it useful first to

themselves.

establish the truth of the

following Proposition.
174.
If -4 +

Bx, Ai
the

B^Xy

and

A of

B^

be

three

braical alge-

taken expressions
first greater than the

in order

magnitude,viz.,the
greater than

second, and
is "
=

the second
"

third,whatever
For

be the value of
+ B^) (i4

; then shall
+
-

J,

A.

(^ + Bx)
if

(^
0,

-Bo?) {A, + B,x);

=

...

(^

5;r)-(J + B^)
cL fortioriwill

or^"g
o"
=

l;

"".

1.

But

as

decreases

-^

"

^"

approaches -^

or

1 ;

and

when
and

is diminished

without

limit it actually unity, equals

154

DIFFERENTIAL

OF

THE

AREA.

A
"""

4+

Bx

A
which
,
.

Ai

-A

J5jj7
of jr, also is

r5"

becomes

-r

Ai

, '

by

the continued

diminution

equal

to

unity ;

"*"

"J"

1*

or

-^1

A,
of

and

since

Ai and
are

are

independent
so.

x,

if

they

are

once

equal they

always

Area
175.
^ AN Let AP be
a

of

Curve*

curve,

=/(ar),the
=

x,

equation to it,where let A =area NP=y ; and

ANP.

Let

^^1
the

h.

Complete
and

the

parallelograms QN^
Then
area

PN^,
is

P^PNN^

^
x

"niiPN,,
Now
.-.

":C3aNi
A A
=

(1).
upon
x

depends
ANP
=

; for

as

changes, A changes
=

^{x);

and

.'.

AN^P^

^{x-^h);

and

CZ]PA^i=^A.

therefore, dividing by
dA

h,

we

have

by

(l),
_

d*A

h
^
_,,

^-'^
I.e.

^-^

^
A 1

y+ph-^Ph,
of

-ma

-^-^-j^YT^+^^'^^^y
;

are

in order

magnitude

whence, by the Lemma,

dA

LENGTH

OF

CURVE.

155

Length of
176.
the
curve

Curve.

If

length rfy

of

AP

ds

r~
=

5^
Draw

V^-*-

tangent PAf, and chord PPi.

arc

Then

PPi

"

chord

But

arc

VFx

AF^

-"

AT

"C.

chord

TF^

^Fm^

{P^rrCf* 7^' + (pA + PA")"

= =

7(1 + pO

2PpA

P"A",

whence^
+

dividingby A,
+

"c."Vl+p'+2P/iA+P'A'"VTT^-PA ^ J,.Y7^
"

Ji+p'
=

Pp
+

tr^ A+"c."V

1 +

p'

Ph

"/^^ """^

a/i^-

Volume
] 77-

of Solid.
of
a

If ^ be the volume dF

solid of revolution

APp^

x:==^/dx

3fm

Pm.

tan

JIfPm

A. tanPrjVs

.^
.

156

VOLUME

OF

SOLID.

Let

AN=x NP= dx Then dx*

1.2

tbe solid PppiP^ is

"

cylinderPMntip^ cylinderRPiPiv;
vyh,

"

1. e.

-7-

A +

dx

-r-s-

dx'

i:

"

r-

"C.

"

1.2

v(tf+pk
dF
d'F h
^ , ,

Phyh,
,

-,,^,

or

"

+ + 2irp^^ 9ry* iry*

"

"c.

whence

^ry*
cone^
are

Prob. radii of the side

s,

The

surface

of

truncated ends

of

which
the

the
slant

greater and

smaller

a,

b, and

=ws(a +b).
/
=

Let

length of

cone,

radius

of the base

a,

h=
therefore, surface
=

=6;
of wla but
"

frustum

irlib
=

+ /j {jfl (a
:

"

b)],
:

or

li+
.\

/j :: li ::

b;
b
:

"

b ;

.". .".

sb

li(a-^b);
=

surface

of frustum

tt*

(a + i).

158

SURFACE

OF

SOLID.

"

ir(2tf+ph)Jl +/?"-

vNk

"2iry^l+p'+3fA+term8 involving^,
"

ZiryJlT^ + irphjx
2 iry

p'
+

vNh

"

JTTp^

IT

"c

"-^

Cor.

1.

Hence of

if J
area,

area

of 8" of

ANP;
the

and

3^4 be

the

differential
very

the

and

abscissa; hw

being

small,
lA dA
^A^

or

the

differential the If

of

the

area

ordinate^ and
CoR.
2.
to

increment the

of

equals the rectangle of the the corresponding abscissa.

of of lif

Is be

increment
Ix and

the
x

arc

AP;
y ;

sponding corre-

the increments Is
ds

and

5y*

/,

8v*

.'.

ls

j6y*Thi?;
the
arc

or

the

increment

of

is the

hypothenuse
two

of

right-

angled

Ix and triangle,

Zy being
=

the

other

sides.

Hence
Cor.
3.

the chord
If
a

PPi
the

arc

PPi

ultimately.
the

be

angle

which

tangent

makes

with

x;

.*.

T-

8eco;

hs^Zx.aeca.

Cor.

4.

In

the

same

manner,

if BFand
of the surface

hS

be
a

the

ferential dif-

of the ZV

volume

F",and
.'.

"S of

solid,

iry";

hF=my'.hx,

SPIRALS.

159
a

hence base surface

It appears
and vry'j is the of whose

that the differential of

altitude Bar: and surface is of that
a

solid is

cylinder^

convex

differential of a the circumference cylinder^

the

base

Stt^,and

altitude hs.

Spirals.
just obtained, and those of the expressions the equation when to Chapter^are only applicable, preceding co-ordinates ; of the rectangular is known in terms the curve for the perpenshall now find corresponding expressions we dicular of a curve, and the the area length tangent^ upon when r =/(^), when referred to polarco-ordinates ; that is, the on or tangent^ r the p=/(r), p being the perpendicular radius vector, and Q the angle traced out by r.
179.
The 180. the
area

To of
sxGBL
a

find the differential of

Spiral.
ASP^ A ;

Jjet

SP=r,

zASP^^d;
Draw

SY=p.
to

SQ
and

very

near

SP^

dr"w
area

PT

" JSQ,
=

Then

PSQ

hA,

^PSQ:=^e;
now

QT:=^Zr;
=

PT

is

ultimately
.-.

circular

arc;

lA=::^SQxPT
-iir
+

very

nearly

Zr).rld very nearly;

But

as

Q approachesP, tr continually diminishes, and

; but

vanishes ultimately

then
dA

-^
ou

-75

ad

and dQ

""

^^' lengthof
=

181.

To

find the differential of the Let AP

=

spiral

s;

.-.

PQ
=

Is,
r".16^ +
; (Br)'

and

(chord PQ)' =PT'-h

QT'

160

SPIRALS.

(chord PQY
^

?J*
_

/SrV

ds
,

l.dr'

182.

When

a=/(r),

to

find

^.
and

From

similar pr

STY triangles,
SY l^

PQr,
p

(1).

183.

When

*=/(r),
J.
,

to

find

^.
or

PQ

Is

SP

184.

To

find

an

for expression

the

on perpendicular

the tangent^
..

^~_"__.
dr^
_^

r'

"

p*

r*

i _i

1 ^

T f l.et

-^

rfM_
A

rfr

"^-.-;
1

3g--;5
du

JJ^

whence

given an equation between

p and
r

or

and

0,

an

tion equay

between

may

be

found.

SPIRALS.

161

185,
P be the PT

To

draw

tangent

to a

spiral. pose SupSYJ^

pointto
S the
to be

which

the tangent is to

drawn.

pole. Join
tangent.

SP,
Draw

the

PTy and

STJL

PS, then /ST is called the

sub-tangent.
And

^r=^P.5J=-^J"=-=alsor'".^.
PY

Jr^-^p^
the

dr pr

Find

therefore from

the

to equation

spiral

or

r*. ^, Draw

according as

the

equationis

=f(r), or

=/(r).

ST perpendicular and equalto either of these to SP Join TP, it is the tangent. values.
Cob.

Since^r

=.r'.5^ .^;
=

.".^=y;
"^

*'"

"

/!"T'"

"^

Wy
SP
the

""

6^P"

SI""'

186.
If ST be drawn lines distant those

Asymptotes to Spirals.
remain finite when will touch is
curve
a infinite^ tangent may

which
from
are

at

point infinitely
And

S, and is therefore an asymptote. said to be parallel which coincide

must

since

infinite distance ; the asymptote the infinite line SP* Hence Draw
and TP SP
to construct at ; find Q and

be

drawn

only at an to parallel
is infinite.

r*.-r-

when

dr

to SP^ anglethus found, ST perpendicular to the infiniteradius vector^ TP parallel produced

the

is the asymptote.

187"
If in

Asymptotic circle.
the

infinite when equation0=f(r)y 0 bepocnes if r be "a; tfifen if we describe a r a; but impossible will make circle with radius a, the spiral infinite number an within the circle, and constantly of revolutions approach the without circumference, exactlyreachingit. In this case, the circle is called an exterior asymptotic circle. But if make B infinite^ and r " a, make 6 impossible, the r ==a
=

without
an

the

circle

to

which

Irde is

interior

asymptote.

nation the the

be ced

to

the

curve

which
the

ils

tangent
locus
the of

and

perpen-

Y. from S

perpendicular
Y,

by
See

fig.Art.

185;

"

COS"'
.

2
:

pdr

rdp" pdr

rdp
_

r-

-r

Pi

IS

required.
where /)
=

equiangular
r,'

mr

wr,*
=

mr"

EXAMPLES.

163

Examples.
Example. Find

the value of p in the Conic

_.

Sections.

y=

where
'

A latus
*

rectum:
'

1 +

c cos

1
.*.

du
.

tt

"

"

cos

d;

c m

mm

ad

Ta=

.sin

a:

.-.

tt* +

;;^ -5{l dB"

=

2"COS^

c"}

^_ J2m-r(l-g")|
""i''l
^r
=
"

]'

2m-r(l-c")'
mr

(1)

In

e=l; parabola,

/.

p'=---,

and

m"2*S-/i;

(2)

In

e " ellipse^

1;

"i

"

1"

e*

-i;

2
a

s.r

a'

(3)

In

c*"l; hyperbola^
m^r
,

e*-l"-5;
h*r
2a + r'

2m

r(c*-l)

and

therefore in

SY' and hyperbola, ellipse

"

Wp
0

"

a"

(4)

Find

the

between equation
a*
=
"

p and r, when
0

--^,

: =

a"f**:

.'.

tt"=s--?

r*

a"' r*"*
=3
*

Jti
'""

1
" "

"33

-XJT

^7 substitution;
m2

164

EXAMPLES.
.S"-"

(b'^

r^

}^

h*.r
"""

P^-n

JWT?^
asymptote
"""

(5)
d
=

Draw
.'.
'

tangent and
ad
.

to

the
or

spiral ; where
the locus of T

-=:au;
r

-Z777t=

ST

js

-;
a

STt^a;

is

circle radius Since ST

r
=

""

when

is constant^ Produce oo.

and SA

indefinitely.Draw
and
=

ST"SA
line from
T

a.

Then

to iS2* will parallel required.

be the asymptote

(6)

Let

to the logarithmic a^ the equation spiral;

dd

dr

rji^-p'

^r'

.".

i=

sin SPY

^"j===r"m;

.*.

Jl-^A'
iSPF is conatant^

p ^

mr.

Since

the

is called spiral

the

angular. equi-

CoR.

1.

The

radii

includingequal angles
an

are

portionals. pro-

Let

SP

and and
=

SP^ include

za,
same

and
Let
z

SQ
ASP

SQi include the

0, and
z

angle.

ASQ="p;
SQ
=

.-.

SP

a",

a1",

^"Q
.5P
"
"

^Q
^"^

^SF"W'

^'^

'

^^' "^^

"

^^''

CHAPTER

Xin.

SingularPoints

in Curves.

189. where
as a

If in the

equationto
x

curve

expressedby y^f(x),
Talue
~.

y is the ordinate^ and makes

any

the

abscissa;some

of

a;

of the

differential coefficients 0. is called

a

or

-,

the

point so

determined the values

singular point.

(1^)
Since

Let

of the firstdifferential coefficient be

considered.

-?-represents
with
axis

the tangent of the

i"

angle which
the

the

tangent makes
to parallel

the axis of

x,

0, --^^

tangent

is

the
maximum

indicates If

of x, and this circumstance generally minimum value of the ordinate. or

to perpendicular

-^=-,
te

the tangent is

the axis ofx.

If ^ the
curve

0 when at the 0 when

-j- -0,

then

the axis of

a;

is

tangent

to

origin.

If

07

;r^ p:
-

then the
,

tangent passes

through

the

and origin^ When

is coincident

with

the axis of y.
may

;; =^we

Many
see

branches

pass

through the

"

point,as
(2")
^ ^

shall

in the

succeedingpages.
when
-r*

If

-r^have
dor
or

real value
as

0, the ordinate
'

ax

is

maximum

minimum,

in the annexed

figures.

Before

we

proceed
must

to

the investigate

values

of

-^ at

these

we points,

establish the

proposition. following

SINGULAR

POINTS

IN

CURVES.
a positive^

167
curve

190.
convex or

Prop.
concave

If the ordinate
to the

y be

is

axis^ according as

is -7^

positive

or

negative.
In the annexed

let figures,

AN=
NP
=

x')
,

and y

=f{x) be

the the

i/"

equation to
curve.

NNi

h)
the

Draw

tangent PMy

its

equationis^

Now
to

at the

point P,, the

becomes

tion equa-

the

curve

JV;P.-/("+ A), or
NP-v
+

^h^^-V

**
2

and for the tangent, puttingjr

A for Xi, and

NiM

for yi,

^"^=^"*"S-^^*
therefore the deflexion from in
=

the tangent, or
=

MPi
--"C.

iyr.P. figure (l) iyr.itf-

-g ^^-g ^-^
+

in
and

figure (2) i^.P. iyr.3f

-

g J^ g ^f
+
so

"c.; small,
greater

be taken since A' is positive, and that k may that the first term be made of the expansion may

than the

sum

of all the terms

that follow that of

is

it, the algebraical

signof MPi
Therefore

will

depend
the

upon
curve

^.
concave

when

to to

the

axis,

MPi
+

"

"

-^ "---"C.;
"*"^^'

and

when

convex

the

axis,it
is

T^ T~i
or

^^^^^"
to

curve a iy being positive,)

convex

concave

the axis, accordingas

-^4 is positive

168

POINTS

OF

CONTRARY

FLEXURE.

or

negative^or
or

generally according as

and

have -r^

the

same

signs. different
If
we

CoR.

suppose

PT
.

to

be

drawn

"
h

to
.

F^N^y PT=k,

MP"
,

cPy

d^'y
the

and
MP"

if A be
:

diminished^ constantly
will be

limit of the ratio of

Pr

^i^;^.
deflexion
from

the Hence, ultimately,

or

the tangent,

MPjOc^.
curve

191.
axis

Sometimes

the

after

being

convex

to

the

and becomes suddenly changes its curvature, concave, the change takes place is called a point the point at which of contrary jiexure. of inflexion, or If the tangent at this point be produced,'one of branch
curve

the

will
on one

be

above,
of

and

the

other
in

below

it, consewill
at

quently

side
on

the

point

question j^
Hence

be

and positive,

the
must
=

other

side, negative.
oo

the

dJ'u

point itself
its

-^

0,

or

for
,

no

quantitycan
or

change

sign
There

without is not

passingthrough zero however a point of

d^y
x,

infinity. inflexion corresponding

=

to

every

value

of

that makes

-^

0, for

not

only must sign after

d^y
this but equationbe satisfied, the
-y"

must

change
d^y

its

having passed through

Also
if the
same

point under
x

consideration.
-t"

value of

that makes

=0,

also makes

-1"

0, there may d^y

since

not

be

point of contrary
of x, write
x

flexure.

For

"

is

function

and

x-^h

for

Xy

and
*

d?y
then
OiX

j"

becomes,

on

these

two

suppositions,

either

POINTS

OF

CONTRARY

FLEXURE.

169

or

But
from the

at

point of
at

inflexion
+

j^"^'
and
x
"

"'*

^^" deflexions

tangent

points x

are

respectively

to proportional

dx^

lir* 2

""a?^
do -7^
not
=

do?" 2
0 ; but

which

have

if contrary signs
not

if

-7^
=

0,

and

^
both And

does

vanish, the deflexions before

the
or same

and

after the

point will have

are

algebraical sign,and
convex,
to the axis.

the branches

concave,

both

hence
is of
to

when flexure,
vanish

be a pointof contrary may does not the first diflerential coefficient which in

general there
order.
a

an

odd

And,
put

find whether
or
-

curve

has
one

point of inflexion,
values
j?

0,

and
,

if

be and

of the
"

of

so

determined, substitute a-hh,

sion for
dr
=

h for

in the expresdifferent

d^y

d'y
"

-j^

Then

if

be affected with flexure.

signs,

fl

gives a point of contrary

The cubical

"x. 1.

parabola

a'^-x\
^
=

-5
a

and

if

or

0, ^

0,

dy
dx"

Sa^ a^
'

d^y
__

6*

If

be

or negative, positive y

and

^y
-^

are

or positive

negative ;

the

curve

is therefore
a

always convex

to

the axis.

if,=o,g
=

It

a?

",

-7^

"

IS

positive.

170
If

POINTS

OF

INFLEXION.

a?

"

A,

j3

^s

negative.
;
a;

The
since
^
=

is origin

therefore

pointof contrary flexure

and
y
=

also,
is
a

0, makes
to

""
=

0;

the

axis of

tangent
Ex.2.

the The

curve.

Witch.

y^^J^ax-a^,
-

dy
_

2a*

xJ^ax-'O^*
s a 2a*

^y
^=
^
Sic

(3fl-2jf)

ar.(2ajr-ar*)*
"

""

which

=0

if

a:

and
2
,

when sign, changes its algebraical

"

and
2

are

for successively put ^ ^

two

x.

There

are

therefore
Sa
,
=

of contrary points
2a

flexure

when

-,

andJ

5, =

*-^.
flexure in the
choid. tro-

Ex.

3.

Find

the

point of contrary
j?
=

a(l

"

ecos^);
-j^
=

a(^" esin^);
-

.".

"^ aesin^;
=

a(l

ecos0);

esin Q
dx
1
-

cos

'

d^y 5?"

e cos
__

6(1

0) (1-ccosOf
"e cos
"

c* sin*^

dO

'dx
1

ecos^

"

e"
X

(l-ecos0)'
e(cos^-e)
a

a(l" ecos0)
_

.-

(1

cos

Oy
"

and
.*. cos

cos

(0 + h)
=

is

e, and

cos

(0

"

A)

"

e;

givesa pointof contrary flexure^ a(l'-e")

=

and

j^

a(l-^ ?!-^.
=

SPIRALS.

171

192.

Points of contrary flexure in

spirals.

Let there be
to

two

spirals^ one
two

concave

and

the other
in each

vex con-

the

pole.

Take draw

each
and

other^ and Pj.

SY

and

near pointsP and P, the to SYi J. tangents at

*

to

and ^'Pj-r + A, and p=-f(r); the difference between therefore if a be SYi and SY^ we where is the to the pole^ have in figure concave curve (1)"
Let

SY^p,

SP=r,

and

in

figure (2)"where

the

is convex spiral

to

S,

and

as

h may

be

taken that

so

small that
see

-^ h

may

be

greater

than all the

or convex

terms to

we follow,

that the

is concave spiral

is positive or Sy according as -/negative. flexure

Hence its

at

point of contrary

0, and

changes

sign immediatelybefore
CoR.

and

after the

point
a

Since

-^

v*

it follows
,

that at

point of

contrary flexure

**+

jS^^*

JSosample.
Let Here
r
=

of contrary flexure. aO', find the point

'

Ms=-sa:-^;
r a

Note.

PiVi

in the

Figure should

be

line. straight

172

SPIRALS.

dd"

a"

'

dS'

Hence
member.

6 will be

unless n(n + 1) is a negative impossible,

Let
.".
n
=
-

"*

-p;
*

.%

"

\/i-i';
exceed the

^ " s/i""?
"
=

"'"

P must
or

never

i. equation

If p
to

l,

-i,

and

-=,

the lituus.

Multiple Points.
193.
a

When

two

or

more

branches

of

curve

pass

through

double^ triple, a multiple point; four branches or as two, three^ or quadruplepointy according pass through it.

pointyit is caviled a

and

If the

branches

as intersect,

in

which represents a double figure (l)" gents^ pointythere will be at P two taninch'ned at different anglesto the

axis^and
Should

thus

-^ will
ax one

have

two
a

values

to corresponding
nowever as

of xory*

the
in
S fig.

branches
and

pass each

through P,

touch

be only other^ and the contact of the first order^ there will be but
one

value

of

but -f^;
ax

as

there

are

two

deflexions
be two Problem.

from

the

tangent^
da?'

there wiU 194.

a

values of
If
u

=f(x,^)
tnere at

0
a

be

the

equationto
two
or

curve,

cleared of surds, and

be

pointwhere

more

branches

intersect,

;^

7;

that

point.

174
This

MULTIPLE

POINTS.

example will be useful in shewing another method found. Thus, if there be points may be by which multiple from the equation y =f{x) which disappears a surd quantity the in wliich found is equation ", but by making x
=

-^
=

0 ("),then
and there

-^ will
is
a

have

two

values^while
For

has but the last

one^

double

point

resuming
y^
X

it with respect to and solving equation^

"
J
r

dy
.

Jx

Ja
Make Ex. 2.
4P
=

ax

Ja
=

2jaJxTb
==

0.

Then the

0, and the
a'

-r^

\/

"

as

before.

Find

pointat
=

of origin

the Lemniscata.

(""+/)"
Here
a*4P
.*. ^ p
=

(a:"-y").
0

2{x+py),(j^-hy')==a'(x'-py);
"

2*r

__

"

a'y+ ^y^x'-hy^ + 2yp) a*~ 2 (j'+y*) 2j? (2j? a'p+ 2p ("*+y) + 2y(x + 2yp)
-

-5

(x* + v") ^-^ ^

"

=s

^,

if ix

j: a;

and ouu

v jf

0* v,

a'
=

-5-,

if
.".

j:

0, and
and

fl^p jf^l,
'

y "^

0 ; *
st

p
tan

"s

1,
tan

^'^

"

or

S Find

^
"

45, and
x^
"

135.

Exk

S.

the same, ^
"

when

oyx"+ 6y*
=

0.

Here

ax^p

2ayx-\-3bi^p=0;
"^^^"^
"^

"'"

and

P^Sbf^aa^^O'
"

j(

0,

66p^-2aa?
2gp
+

""o*
-

*-

"

2axq

2ap

24j?
__

rf"y
'

""

dbp'+dbyq-^

^""^'

_4flp^
66p"-2fl'
.*.
=

^^*-^'
or

6bp*-~2ap 4ap,
.*.

p
a

{6p"-fl}
=

0;

0, and p

MULTIPLE

POINTS.

175
the axis of
"

there is

and triple pointat the origin,

is

one

of the tangents. The point at triple

^i
of

is

represented in figure;TAt is
ATi and AT^
of the

'the

annexed axis
x,

the

are

the tangents

angles.
tan

and Ex. 4.

tan'

-"^^v^
the same,

Find

when
"

y*
+

"

Saxy
=

a^-0.

y'p
ay
...
"

axp
a^
=

ay if
."

0?*
0

0 ;

0
-, a?
=

-J
ap^9,x

and

0:

.*.

p=r^^yp

ap
=;:
" "

if
,

.-

a:

0:
*

"

9,yp--a

"'"
or

^yp^--ap

ap,

p{yp-a)^0;

0,

andp--=g=:00.
=

The

is origin

therefore
two
curve
axes

double
are

point, and
in the

the

the

tangents. The

is

ed represent-

figure.
If the branches

195.

touch,then

-p dx

will have
0

but

one

value,and yet
For
two

at the

same

time be of the form

to be

supposingthe
of the

contact

of the n'**order

between

branches

curve as same

far as coefficients, the will be and V ^,

=

tial ; then the values of the differenwhen the {n+Vf^ coefficient, a: a,

=

for both

branches;

but

after the

"^

they will be
Let

different.
N
-0

M-j^
+

be

the

after equation

the firstdifferentiation, from have

surd

freed equationbeing previously original quantities. the the differentiation (n) times,we Then, repeating
M

^^'^
\

=0

176
M

CONJUGATE

POINTS.

being the
of

same

as

before,and N^ being the

the

sum

of the

differential functions But

coefficients below
x

(n + 1)***, togetherwith
and
=

or

y.
two

-j-^ has

values^ as
.""

while /?,
.*.

M
=

and

N^

remain
But

unchanged ;
ax

Jlf
.

(a /S)
"

0 ;

M"

0.

J*f^+2Sr=0; Ar=0;
/.

and

^=5.
dx 0

The

character analytical
-,-=
-

of double
one

of points

this

tion descripalso

is,that when
has two.
,

has but

which value,-r^,

Conjugateor
196.
a

Isolated

Points.

Conjugateor
are

isolated

real

and existence, from ; but

pointsare those which have determined by the equationto the

branches extend.
a

curve

which
a

no
=

Hence and

if ;z;

and

give such
dy

then x=sa+k^ point, the other differential

x^a-h,

will

make

y,

-^, and

coefficients^ impossible.
Also

vy,=/(^

;i)=y +

gA4.gj^
+ +

"c.

1^ \

*c.

is

and impossible, that when

some

that y and
one

are

it is possible quantities,

evident

x^Oy
a

of the differential coefficients is possible, imand y"h.

Prof. of surds, -idx

At
"
-

conjugate point,if
.

the

equationbe

freed

0
a

For

the equation, u -f{xy) differentiating

o^

we

have

^|+^-"'
and if be g*^
not

0)"
be -j^

let impossible,

impossible;

.'.

continue

the differentiation of

(1), ("-l) times;

N
CONJUGATE

POINTS.

177

Let

^^a^,3^1;
from(l)iV^=0;
^ ^

.-.

ilf

0;

.-.

.%

^=-,
dx
0

and

the values of
used

^
for

may

in

generalbe founds if

any,

by

the method Ex.1.

finding multiple points.

.'.

ai^^af^+ha^-0\
So^-9,bx
0

Qa^p-Sx'+^bjs^O;
^
=

0' """^"""2^^;^ 607-26

=" =

.^ ^f

and

.-.

^
./, if

a?

0;

2flp
.'.

ap

p"

"

and

.-.

j^/

Now

givesy
if a?
=

0, while p

^11.

Also

since

y='\/
and

"

0"^,

the values of y

are

impossible,

the

is origin

result may

therefore a conjugate point. The same be obtained by differentiating the equation

197-

The the

of comparison
serve

will points multiple

to

1. in example with Ex.^ of the origin conjugate explain this

=

points. In

the through

pass and 6, an meet a: at forming a point origin appears^ disoval oval, while in the curve af x^ -^ ba^ 0, the the values of jr=0, exists between and no curve and X in the annexed b ; these cases are represented
curve
=
" -

af-a^-bx^

0;

two

branches

figures.
'
"

' '

N"

178

CONJUGATE

POINTS.

of this kind examples will shew that points arise from the vanishingof certain portions of the curve, owing to the chapge in die value of the constants.
two

These

Ex.2.
If
so
or
=

^ "b
a,
+

(x- ay
but
c

Jof
-

;
"

a"c.

y-h;
"

if

a?

A, h being very small,

mines y=^h, deter-

that
a

fl

A is

; .\ x=^ay ^ is impossible

conjugate pomt.
this

In
if the

example

if

ar

fl;

-J:=0; butifg
0

^;
^
=

and

be equation

freed

of

surds^

4(a?-a)'+6(a?-fly(a?-c)
^-18
""

y^h (J?
-

-=0' (j? g) (j? c)

-

'-^^^

*'

+ fl)'

12

jp

"~0

48(jr-g) + 12(jr-c) 12(a~c)

q

r~'
=

.-.

Js (c a) J^
-

whence

we

see

that yi

=f(x

st

k) is impossible.
surd
but
a

In generalwe 198. remark, if there be a may which vanishes from the equationy =/(^) if x=:a, which
becomes

in impossible

-^

"

dor

"p(x),there

will be

conjugate point

Cusps.
199.
at
a

When

two

pointthrough pointis called a Cusp.

The branches
have

touch each other branches df a curve which the branches do not extend, the
at

this point but

one

tangent^ and

CUSPS.

179

when the branches the cusp is said to be of the firstspecies lie on tangent, and of the oppositesides of the common side. when second species they lie upon the same Hence
at

such

pointif
a

a;

a,

-^ will
be

have

but

one

value;
have
K
two

but

if either

A,

or

a-k

put for

x,

will -j^

values.

the values of

j^ be

both

or positive

both

negative,

if one value be posithe cusp is of the second species tive ; but is the of first the other and the species, negative, cusp is measured for the deflexion of the tangent from the curve

by^
Since

by

the definition the branches

"

suddenlystop at

the

h, put for x, will make the ordinate cusp, either a-^h, or a and the differentialcoefficients impossible. Figures(1) and (2)exhibit cusps of the firstand second

species.

(1) 18

called

ceratoid cusp

Sometimes

the cusp is of the

(2) a ramphoid cusp. form below,

in

which
These

(a + A) and
are

(a

"

k) put

for

give real
if
x

values

for
and

the ordinate. discoverable the that by observing,

that y
=

5f

5
we

give the point P,

may transform

h'-k

makes

impossible.

Or

equationto the axis of y

making

180

CUSPS.

Jp=/"*(v);and
near

find the values of a?,

Ex.
-

-r-,

and
=

-7-^

at

and

the
Ex.

pointwhere y=^h.
The semi-cubical

(^ 2)" (jr"1)'.

1.

parabola.

^5^-5 Jao?

If

J?

0, y

and

-^ dj;

"fy
=

0, if and

ar

"

^, they
have
axis the and
two

are

both

im-

But possible. and positive

and but the other the
curve

i"

x=h,

^.y
-~

values^

one

the other
are

negative;the
branches
axis extend
to

of

is therefore
one convex

tangent: there

two

curve,

above
to

below
does of the

the
not

of x,

both
the

it,
the

negativeaxi?
cusp.

abscissas.

through originto The origin is a ceratoid

Ex. which

2.

Find

the

point, when
=

or

"

in the

curve

of

the

equationis ^
2car +

cjj*+

(a? ")" ;
-

.-.

:" dx
=

|(ar-a)*.
5.3,
.1

and

d^y
^

dx"

2.2

Let

a;

,\

ca*,

"^
=

dx l{

2cfl ;

dx"

j^

2c.

"

"bL

X'^a+h;

y^b
+

cia

Kf

h^,
=

g-2c(" *)

i.A";

2c +

^AJ;

182

TO

TRACE

CURVE,

(1)

If it be
one

let possible,

respect to put under

Then tion

of the unknown form

to
x

equationbe solved with and let it be as y^ quantities

the
equa* and in the all its

the

y=/(j?).
allthe possible values the positive
so

give
axis

admits
the Next

of, and
of

determine in the

the branches

above

below

abscissas. positive
x

put

(- a) for

equation y =/(x), and

thus transformed, agam substitute for x equation^ values, and the branches above and positive possible abscissas will be determined. the axis of negative

below

(2) (3)
to

Find Find

whether whether
the

the

curve

has asymptotes.
be
concave or convex

the branches
nature

the axis, and

These remarks

and

situation of the

singular

points.
ordinates, cohaving rectangular but equationbe between r and 6, give to 0, ^ values from the corresponding 0 to 6 27r, and draw values of r ; the positive values of r at the angles denoted values, in a directly by 6 ; the negative oppositedirection, from the the Sometimes or separated positive angle by be necessary to take the negative it may values of 0.

refer

to

curves

if the
=

w.

Ex.

1.

Let and

trace

the

curve.

Ax A, the origin.

Ay

the two

axes.

EXAMPLES.

183 0,

Let

jf

0 ;

,\ .".

y y

x":a;

is

positive, negative,

jr " a?

"

2a, y
"

is

2a, y
y y

0,

x"2a,
or
=

is is

positive,
00.

00,

Again, let
.".

-ar

be

put for
or

";

2ii

y^-^x

IS

always negative.

To

draw

the asymptote:

x'
.-.

3^

a:{l---.-^-"c.}
0?
"

a
X

"c.;
the asymptote.

.'"

y^x^a
/.

is the
=

equationto
and
-9,a.

Take
when

AB

AD^
AC

the line jBD

Then
cuts

produced is the
=

asymptote.
jr
"

Also
j?

take

0 and

Between ordinate
y is

=2a, the curve and B the curve

to

since y the axis at A the axis

be

0, both
and

C. the

is above C the

; at B

is infinite ; from B C to infinity it is above Ax.

on

curve

is below, from

Again,

since if

negative; the branch the axis.

di/
, Also
.

the left of A is
^ax

negative, below entirely

x

a^

"

+ Tj

2a'
"

-^
ax
=

(J?

"

ay

Let

d?

a;

"*"

^;

An"l the infinite ordinate

through
the

J? is

an

asymptote
cuts

; if jp

0;

^9

or

angle at
=

which

curve

the axis at A is tan"* (2) ; if the

curve

j?

2fl,
"

-v-

again 2,
=

or

at

which

cuts
"

the axis at C is
a'
=

at A.

If

("*
"

2aj? +
no

20*) or
maximum

(x a)*+
or

0,

is

impossible;

hence

there is

minimum

ordinate.

184

EXAMPLES.

(ar-fl)
"'"

'

j^
CUT

is

if

a: "

fl, and
a? "

is

"

if
; and to

But
y

x":a,

is

and
^

is

+ ;

therefore from
and be
-,

A to
concave

is convex, If
0?

from

C
=

2/i, ^ is -B, and from B to the axis.

a
"

"

"

2a,

C the

curve

T^
A ""=
^

Ta

is +,

but is

is

"

therefore

the branch
Ex.2.

from Let

to the

lefl hand
=

concave

to the axis.

or-l

-(j:*-a?+ 1); -^ ar-1^

/-=

/xTT

If

"

0, y

is
y
"
j:= or " Jp
"

impossible, impossible, possible ",

00
=fc

1, 5( is
is y

1, y is sfcoo,
1, y
00
,

is

"

EXAMPLES.

185

therefore there
and below
For

are

two

infinite branches abscissas. positive IX 1

"

extending above

the axis of

put

"x'y
a?

.\

y=dfc;A/
=0,

(""+
if
a?
=

"

1), which

is

if impossible, If which
0? "

be

"

1 ; and
to

1,

1, and

increase

" infinity, y is possible

and

increases to
meet

infinity ; therefore
the axis Axi in the asymptote:
a

there

are

two

infinite branches
1.

pointC, if ^C=

To

find

1 +

--

"c.

2x
1

'T-""'-h^i^'''-^
+

"

"c.

+ =fc{l

"c.}a;(l-l+"c.)

,'.

d=

+ ^) gives the (j*

two

asymptotes.
and

Take

AD
are

ADi

^,

and

Ac

lines the
will

be

the asymptotes, and drawn, two branches

spaces

^. Join cD if through B
of the
curve

cDi, these

an

nate infinite ordi-

will lie within

angular
and

formed
the

by

with cD

cDi produced.
above

the intersections of this line of the curve branches These of the ordinate
of the

always lie
For

asymptotes, since the ordinate

curve.

the asjrmptote is

always less than

let yi be the ordinate of the asymptote ;

.-.

y^-^-y, andf/i'=x'
^

\;

^.

,^j:"+l-(jr-l).(j:'^a?+i)

But

tf+yi

is +;

.-.

^-5^,

is +;

or

y"y^. which
ex-

it may Similarly

be shewn

that the branches

186
tend from lines

EXAMPLES.

C, above
Dc

and

below

the axis

Cx^,lie between

the

DiC, and

produced. (asymptotes)
of

To

find the values

-^.
ax

2logy
.

log(a:"+l)-log(ar-l);
1

^-^

/ 3j?'

20^-30^-1

which

is 00, if a:s=l,

or

"="

1.

Hence
at an
curve

the infinite ordinate

from
0
"

through B
or

touches

the

curve

infinite distance
at

Ax,
"

is

an

asymptote
when
ar
=

; and

the Also
=

C where

cuts

the axis

at 2

rightangles.
1 and

since the numerator

20?"
some

3*"

l^is
=

"

1, and is
2

when

2, there is

value of
s,

between

which

will make

-^^OyOr y
and
3.

minimum.

Take

AM

this value,

and

MP
Ex.

Mp
Let
r

will be minimum

ordinates. Trace the

curve.

(1+

cos

d).

Let and

^=2
r
=

a:

.*.

cos

"

sin a,

a(I-8ina), or
2
'

r"a,

Let
and and Let

0
r

+ a); (ir
a

.*.

COS

COS

a,
as
a

(1
-

cos

which a),
a
"=

increases

increases,
^

when
+
a :

90.
cos

-r-

.*.

(^_+"j=.
+

sm";

^l^

EXAMPLES.

187
as
a

.*. r

a(l +
,

sin a),which
=

increases

and when increases^

IT
a
=
-

or

2ir,r

2fl,

quadrantsare the and also those in the second and third quadrants. same^ the same If ^ be put for 6^ "." cos(~ 6) cos6: precisely and AB will Take be curve 2a, AC^AD^a, produced. This it cuts the axes determined. the points at which are
The
curves

in the first and

fourth

"

curve

is the CardioicL

Examples.
(1)
if
or
=
"
"-

1^

y
.

ax

-{-ha^+ cj^ ; there is

point of

inflexion

Sc

(2)

If y

"

a/ -5

"

-5,

trace the curve,

find its greatest the axis of

x

ordinates,and
x
=

the

anglesat

which
45* and

it cuts

'JJi-l; the anglesare

Trace

90^
the three

(3)

the

curves

defined

by

equations
n?T^

/jc^~^^
In

iwvi?

rectilinear asymptwo point, conjugate totes and two infinite branches meet pass throughthe origin, the axis of x at ^a: a. also two In (2) there are rectilinear to the axis of x : and the branches asymptotes perpendicular included within the asymptotes. In {3) of the curve are the axis, tne there are to only asymptotes perpendicular and do not branches of the curve pass throughthe origin extend beyond the asymptotes.

(1) originis

(4)

If y

there e*^*,
=

are

two

of points
'

inflexion

corre-

spondingto

a?

f cos""*
^; trace

0"^^)
the
curve:

(5) y
if
"
=

-5

there

are

inflexions

ar* "*=-7=.: also when

y*

72
and find the
IV

-T ^

"

-^^

5:

draw

the asymptote

pointof

flexure.

188

EXAMPLES.

(6)

(a: 2) a/
-

; trace

the

curve

there
S

is

conjugate pointif x^^; (7) y*

an
"

and y is a minimum

if

jr

flw:*
-

a cusp OP*,

of the first species at the

origiii,

inflexion if ;r

; a

maximum

ordinate if a;

"

"

a'x

(8)
j?
=

If

-^

"

~a

there
,

are

two

of points

flexure when

0, and
X

the xrs^ajs;
is
an

curve

cuts two

the axis
infinite

axis of
are

asymptote
ax*

to

the

45",and the branches; there

at

maximum

ordinates when the

x^^a.

(9)
the

If y

-g
a

"

-J
"T"

curve

touches

the axis of
xi

at

Jf

there origin^

is

an

asymptote
:

to parallel
x
=

and

two

pointsof contrary flexure

=

where

"^"f^*
curve;

(10) If f^ x^-^a*, trace when pointsof inflexion^ x^O, (11)

to

the
and

there
x^^a,

are

two

when

pointsof contrary flexure, in the the cycloid^ when cos d? a (1 6); y ad. Two pointswhen x "^i to. a; y
Find the
=
"

panion com-

(12)

Find

the

pointof contrary

flexure in the Htuus.

(IS)
inflexion

The
at

curve

defined

by a*p=f^

has

point of

the

origin.
the
nature

(14) Determine
If

of the points^ when

a.

(1) (2^-by^(x-a)\ (2) (y-6)' (a:-a)%

=

(3){y-xy^ix-af,
=

and

the inclination of the

(4) (y-a:)" (;r-a)", to the axis. tangents at the points

=s

(15)

If

0?*
-

+ i ay a"*y aa?y*
"

0, there

is

ram-

phoid cusp.
(16)
when
If
3a
r=^---;
r
=

ng"

"

there

is

pointof contrary

flexure

there

are

two

rectilinear asymptotes and

an

radius circle^ asymptotic

"

a.

190

EXAMPLES.

(31) equal
base^
the
to

Given three
the draw

the
times

base the
to

of

triangle
and
curve^

and

the

exterior

angle
at

interior the

opposite
which
is

angle
the

the of
dinate. or-

find

equation
its

locus

vertex,

asymptote,

and

find

its

maximum

(32)
draw
to
a

In chord

the

diameter AP,
NP

AB
an

of

circle,
PN,
curve

take
and

point

C;

and in

ordinate
trace

CQ
is

parallel
the locus

AP,
a

meeting

Q:

the

which

of

{33)
the the
curve.

rod
to

PQ
the
curve

passes

through
described

fixed

point
Q
and

A,
moves

find
in

equation
circumference

by given

P,

when

of

circle

of

radius,

trace

the

(34)
the
are

Two
of and of the

points
a

start

from

the
same

opposite
direction,

extremities
the velocities of

of

diameter

circle
in the

in

the
of

uniform,

ratio which

find

the
of

locus

the

bisection
and

chord

joins

the

position

the

points,

its

polar

subtangent.

CHAPTER

XIV.

Curvature

and

Curves. Osculating

202.
of ^
curves

When
manner are

two

curves,

as

QPQi,
the

BPPi,

cut

each values

other in the and

at
X

represented in
the
same

the figure^

for

both

the

point of
the and

intersection ;

i. e.

if ^
curve

=/(jf)be
EPPi,
to

the and
for h
=

equation to "p{x)the y
=

equation
NP
X

QPQi"

and
a

AN
and

a,

szh;
b
=

the values

b put

and

y will make
=

the

f{a)and

"p(a)true

equations equations,

ana

"""/(") ^ (a)203. But

if for x, a + k, he written, (or as we of the two values of the ordinates

shall put

it, a

curves no h,) the longer bec^e equal, and their difference, which is represented in fliefigureby PiQi, is equal to the difference between /(a?+ A) and "p(x-^k), and will therefore be some tions 'ofk, and its value will depend upon the relafunction the differentiid coefficients o"f(x) existingbetween and 4^(x), N^Qi, z =/(a?),and t; ^ (a?) For, let yi JVjPj,y^ ;
+
= = =

dz
,
*

d'z
'

h'
'

^z

A"
+

3i

"C.

dx" dv,

dx* d'v

1.2

da^2.3
dl'v
"

A"

h^
+

and3r.=y+^A

5^3^-H^

"C.;

or

putting ^" A" A^, "c. A^

distance
the
of
+
a

for the coefficients of

A, h% A^,
cending as-

"c,, the
between

between that

the

curves,

or a

the

difference

ordinates,is representedby

series with

powers
A
=

A, so
+

Afi

A^*

AJi^ + A^k* + "c.

dv dz
=

A^h"" + "c.
^^

204.

First, let ^,

0;

"'"

X'^X'

*"

^'"*

^^-

ferential coefficients are

equal.

But

and

-r-

represent

192
the
of the

THE

CONTACT

OF

CURVES.

trigonometrical tangents
of the two
X. curves

at the

Hence
are

at

tangents
205. Let

such a coincident.

gents angleswhich the tanP point make with the axis point the ordinates are equal,and

of the

This

is called

contact

of the

Jirstorder.
not

only Ai

0,

but

A^

0, then

This And the "* for

as
A

is called in

contact
curves

of the second order.

are

generalthe
when
the when

said to

have

contact

of

order

is h**^; i. e.

of k, in the expression first power all the differential coefficients as far both

the

equalin {n + 1)^ are respectively

of

series.
a

206.
curve

degree of has with given species

To

find the

contact
a

which
curve

proposed
of known

given

dimensions. Let ^1
=

y
to

=/("^)be
contain
to
n

the ^ (xi)

equation to the given curve, to the proposed curve, which is equation

constants. arbitrary

the

and

posed supthe

Then,
n

determine

these

constants,

we

must

have

equations,

or

the

contact

must

be of the

Thus,
which
observe
a

let it be

(n requiredto

"

have line may straight that the equation to the

two

iy^ order. find the degree of contact with a given curye; we

line is t^i axi + 6, and be of the the contact may
=

contains
And

constants

a,

b,

or

first order.
to

determine with
=

the
a

of the firstorder

line which straight curve, ^ =/(j?).

a!
=

has

contact

Here

^ 3f|
=

";

2/^!/i" and

af,;

.\

y^ax-^h,

or

6=^
a

"

05?=^

"

-^";
=

therefore

for substituting

and

6,

yi

;T^*i+y-^*;p;
or' the

or

yi-^=

to -p("i-")the equation
a

the tangent; with the

curve

tangent has
it touches.

contact

of the firstorder

which
.

OSCULATING

CIRCLE.

193
be drawn
nearer

Cor.

Hence
to the

no

line straight

can

than

the tangent

curve.

207*

In the circle of which

the

is equation

there
have

are

three

constants^ arbitrary
a

the radius B

and the

ordinates co-

of the centre
a

and

/3, The

circle therefore may

the constants may

contact

of the

second

order, and

be determined

by

means

of the

equations

^^^
^-^

and-*^-^
circle
of any in the
as

The

circle so found

is called the
curvature

radius the radius of

For while and that

of curvature, and its pointin a given curve.

circle is

since the
it varies
curves

curvature

same

uniform,

and

circles^ inversely said to have the same ture^ curvageometrically when at a common they have the same points tangent, deflexion from the the same ultimately tangent, which
are are

the

radius

in different

conditions the second

measure or are

of fulfilled by the circle that has a contact order ; this circle is assumed to be the proper and
curves are

of curvature, different curvature,

said to have

the

same

the

same

or

as the radii of these circles according in general and the curvature different,

1
oc

radius

of curvature

The

circle of 208.
To

curvature

is also called the

circle. osculating

of the centre Let y

of curvature, and co-ordinates circle to any proposedcurve. of the osculating find the radius the
+

be =/(a')
=

to equation
"

the

given curve,
the circle ;

IP

(xi^ ay
.'.

(yi ^y

the

to equatioji

twice, we differentiating
+

have

.-.

(*.-a)

andO

Buty
.%

y.,

(yi-/9).g(1), (.). l.|:.(,.-/3).g |=g, andg=g;

*
=

*..

changing Xi

into x,

and

yi into y;

194

RADIUS

OF

CURVATURE.

(5^-/8)'.

{l+g}
dy
1 +

from

(0

dx'J

(2)

(-ID'
s
"

(
i2
=

"fc

das' where
This

and

g.
two

has expression the curve when positive,

signs;but
is
concave

to

if we call the radius the axis, or when q

or

is convex, when the curve is negative ; and if^ the radius be reckoned we negative, positive,

when

q is

shall

always

havei?
The

(i"Pl*.
=

co-ordinates

and

/3

may

be

found

from

the

equations

and

the circle is

determined. completely

209. In the annexed figure, FO be the given curve, let AV

the radius therefore of

curvature, and
of the

O
culating os-

the centre circle.

Alsolet Then-4"

JiV^=a:; NP=y.
=

a,

nO

"

/3;

THE

EVOLUTB.

195
the semi-chords
a?; for if
we

PM
the

and

OM and

are

called respectively to the axis of parallel the radius

is OP

pendicular per-

of which circle,

and is

centre

describe is 0, PM

half the chord of an arc, since OM and OM is equal to half the chord
to

to it, perpendicular drawn from P parallel

AN. 210. The with point0 changesits position the

change

in the
the

placeof

P, and

traces

out

curve^

which

is called

evotute of
and

the

curve. original

Hence and

evolute to be the locus of the centre

its co-ordinates
are
a

define the we may of the circle of curvature^

be found in terms

/?.

And of ^
or

since from
x,
.%

^ =/(^); p and q may

and
and

froxat^ P
"

"

^;

"

"

^'P;

be eliminated ; therefore there y =f(x); y and x may will arise an equation between quantities, a, /3and constant which will be that of the evolute.

211.

Since

a:-a

0; Cy-./3).^
=

of the original to the normal equation curve^ from a pointy of which the co-ordinates are x^ y^ and drawn and /?. passing through a point whose co-ordinates are Hence the normal passes through the centre of the circle of but this is the
a

curvature^

and

the radius coincides with radius of the

curvature

the normal.

212;

The

is
"

tangent to the evolute.

-

Resuming

(" a)+ (y equation

/3) -^
.

0.

Differentiate it, considering ^,

and

as

functions of or;

Butl

0; g+(,-/3).g
=

da

da

dfi dy
_

'''~Tx~li'di~

'

'*'*_ "^" ^_ '''Tx ^ d^'

dx
or

.-.

(^-3^)-^. (a-*), (x-a)-(j^-/?).0"O;

02

196
which and b the

RADIUS

OF

CURTATURS.

equationto a tangent drawn (y,x). paMing through a point,

But
is

to a

pointy (fi, a],

identical with (fi-y)^^{a--x)

or

with the equation of the original to the normal curve. the Hence radius of curvai.e. the normal to the curve, ture, if the tangent
to

the evolute^

213.

To

find the Since

length{s)of the evolute. -R" (" a)"+ (y ^)".

=
-

R, Differentiate, considering

y^

x,

)9as functions

of a,

{*-"+(j,-^.f} .-(,-a)(l.^}. ButJ?'-(*-")"{l (^f)*}

"

Andi?'45 (*-a)'.(l+g)'.....
=

Divide

(2) by (1);
dR*
,

d^
da^

ds'

da'
.'"

da'*
constant
curve

R'm^

c,

being some
the

length.
be

Hence,

if the

equationto

be found in finite terms, and the may found ; or the evolutes of algebraic curves

R algebraical^ lengthof the evolute

are

rectifiable. itscommencement
;

Cor.

Let j" Sg, be two arcs where to the points

of the

evolute,from
are

the radii
.".

12,and Rg

.'.

RfSissc;

Rg

"

Sgssc;
.'.

Rg

"

Ri^Sg"Sy:

let Sg-Si^a;
cft

a^^R^-R^;

the difference between radii of curvature two equals the of the arc of the evolute intercepted length by them.

198
And
R may be found

THE

BVOLUTB.

from

the

equation

216.
AP

Hence the
and

to

find the radius of curvature

in

spirals.
p

normal^

S the pole. PO a spiral^ 0 the point of ultimate

y
^

intersection of two consecutive normals. 0 is the centre of the circle of

curvature.

j \

'^"^

\w

SP^r.PO^R)
Now
or

^^,

_,^

SO' ^SP'
r" + i2"
-

+
.

PO'-'QPO.PN,
.ST.
and

"

^o

r,"
=

2i2 ;"; for PiVOP

Then

since SO

remain

constant, while
SP and 5'F vary, and since p

^f(r) ;
dp

or

If OM be drawn X the chord of curvature

to

P^,

or

Pis' produced, then PM

throughS^

andPM-POxU-r.|."=^.|.
217*
The Evolutes
to

spirals.
PO
we

and will trace out the evolute, and SN is perpendicular to PO, tangent to it, SN. relation between SO and find the therefore

point 0

is
must

Now and

n*

r" + i2"

2i2jp
dr

(1), (2),

p.^PY^J?^,
and (3), i?-r."

and
between

p^/(r)
these

(4),

and equations p, r and R may be eliminated, will the resulting involve Ti, p,, and constant equation will the be which equation required. quantities,
Ex.

Let
Here

the
p

be spiral
mr;
.".

the
jB

equiangular.
=

-j-

"

dp
-

Pi

Vr"-i""-Jl
r

1"";

BVOLUTES.

199

frr

or

the

evolute
round

is

a same

similar spiral

to

the

and original,

scribed de-

the
two

pole S.
the distance A intersect^ the ordinate
between becomes

218.

If

curves

them, measured

along
+

is, (when

x-hh)
A^Aik
If
a we

+ AJi'' + AJi' + AJJ" + AJi*'

"c.

put (" h) for A, the

x

distance

Aj between

them

at

pointwhere
.-.

becomes

"

k; is
+ + "iQ. AJi!''-AJi,^

A^^-AJi'^AJi?"AJi^

Now
if

since h may be taken so small that any one exceed the sum of all that follow it; we ob^rve
or O9 A and A^ have the same sign, of the firstorder, the curves do but touch,
=

term

shall
contact

Firststhat
a

^1

that in
not

intersect. unless

Thus
or

at a

the tangent does not cut pointof contrary flexure. both

the curve,

A2

0,

If /Secondly,

Ai

and

^,

0,

or

the

contact

be of the second

order.
A-

Then
+ A^h^ + Scc. AJi'^

Ai
which
curve

AJi"" + A^h*

"c.,

have
be

different below the

and therefore if the osculating signs, the at a point where given curve

abscissa
becomes

it at a pointwhere is x-hh, it will be above x h. both cuts Hence the circle of curvature x
"

and

touches

the is

curve. an

There
of curvature shall A
see

is however
a

when to this, exception

or
=

the radius

maximum

minimum

; for then

(as we

in the next

and For

A^ have the
if the contact A
=

A^ article) same sign.

"c. the
cut

0, and

the

for expressions

be of the third

order,
-

+ A^k'' + A^h*^

A,
same

A^h*

Afi" +

"c. ;

that is, A

and
when

A, have
does
the
not

curve osculating

the

sign,and given curve.

an even

therefore

the

Hence,
curve

contact

is of and

order, the

lating oscu-

both

touches is of
an

when

the contact

odd

given curve, it order, merely touches

cuts

the

but

it.

200
219.
or

CONTACT

OF

CURVES.

Prop.

When the

the

radius

of

curvature

is

mum maxior

minimum^

contact

is of the

third

order^

iZ

(ilPl*: ^
"

0:andletr

g.
cur

ax

+p*
a

But

1 +

+ (^ /)"

)S)g
must

0, and

if there this

be

contact

of

the third

order, we

differentiate
curve

and put equation,

the co-ordinates

of the

for those

of the
1 +

circle
0 ;

B^
^
r
=

.".

%pq +pq

Spq {y-p)r'=^

The
circle

same

as

befi^re^ and
curve^
or

therefore
when

when
.contact

^,
a

0 ;

for

the

and

the

the
is

is of

the

third
or

order^ the
minimum.

radius

of

curvature

either

maximum

220.
at
a

If

0 ; and

point of
to

contrary

convex

concave;

i2 oo ; this takes place p is finite^ flexure ; for the curve changes from the circle of curvature becomes a
=

line^ (the tangent),and straight

the radius of curvature
is measured

before
in

and

after the

point

oppositedirections.

Examples.
(1)
common

Find

the

radius

of

curvature

and

evolute

of the

parabola.
,
__

dy _Qa

d^y

dy

4a^
+

4a"
,
,

4a*

f/

4a(a

ar)

(1 +y')* {4a.(a +
-q ^

2(g-l-j;)" 2 jr)}*
Va

"",

Ja

r
EXAMPLES.

201

/a
/.

3jp =

2fl, or

J?

2a\
"

"

But

j/* 4aar;
=

.".

(4fl'/3)3 (a 2a);
=
-" -

4
'^

4
^
'

27a

27o

the

to equation

the semi-cubical R Sections,

+

parabola.
oc

(2)

In the Conic

(normal)'.
.*.

Normal

^=y^l

p*;

^1 +jp"=

"

Now if the axis of Xy

vertex

be

the

and origin,

the

axis the

i^

2mx+na:^;

,\ .*.

yp^m-hnx;

.".

yp+p^=n;
"

fy
+

"/- pY
=
-

+ nx') (w "(2mj7

war)*

wi*;

"

"

XV

"

=-"

mr

(3)

Find

the radius of

curvature

of the

ellipse.

5a

(a"-jr")*
6V
g*
_

J* (g' 5*)
_

g'
"*

eV
^

^^""

"*'aV-^)"

a"(a"-ar")
6g

g"-""

Cob.

radius

at

Let the

Ri

be

the radius
the

extremityof

the vertex, and axis ; minor

at

R^ the

'

202

EXAUPLES.

"

^'~

ba

~7'

^'-b^-T'

of the evolate of the the length

quadrant elliptic

If i2

maximum

Sja'
-

^a^. e*jr 0
=

a'
.*. d?
=

0, and a:"
= =
-

-g ;

but

or

"

is

impossible,

and

-^

+ 3e"ar 7^^37? 3c"7;i^3iv ^=

-Se'a, if a:
x

0;
=

thereforefi is a maximum^ when

0,

or

6.

Hence,
curvature

the extremities of the minor touches the ellipse.

at

of axis the circle

(4)
^

To

find the evolute of the

ellipse,
P
'

-q

"""^-":{^-'}-^(.'-^-^:

^\

b*

)dx^\

b'

J'a'y

(*/3)* But*'+^-l. ("")*

.

(ae)5 ("re)3

EXAMPLES.

203
evolute of

(5)

Radius

of curvature

and

cycloid.
C

NP

Ay tPy

'"a

dy

rf*y

...

B^(^yX iJ^y
=

2RB.

To

find the evolute.

.'.

d? +

2^2ay-y*;

and-^
dx

^=
=

/?fZi;
^
'

dx

Take

Am

j?i=-/S, and

mO
"

=yi

;
"

da
^

dy^
_

l%a

or,
__

J9,axi ^Pj*
J^i be
a cunre.

c?/^ flf^i V
Note
"

a?i

^02)

in the

figureshould

204
The

EXAMPLES.

equation to
of the the of
=

the diameter

of which cycloid^ generatingcircle

a

the
2a.

vertex

is

A^ and

(6)
centre

Find
and

chords
an

of

curvature

drawn

through
p,

the

focus if CP

ellipse.
and

Since

r,

CF,

JL

to

tangent

.%

2log;) loga"6'-log("*+6*-r^;
=

dp

/.

chord

through

centre

-^
c 2r
-,-

"

^~fip~y
+ b'-f^ 2(a' ^^

dr
A' diameter
. = ="

QCiy
=

-nw
irr

"

dp
Cob. The

diameters"

^
r

~cJ~CT\'' the
focus.

(7)
Here

To

find the

chord

through

if i^P

r,

^r=o;
=

p^^J^;
-

.'.

logJ9
_ ""

logi!+ log r
1
r

log(2a
2a

"

r);
^

2df/" pJr
^'^
.-.
I. J chord
.. = =

1
_ ""

2a

"

.(2a

"

r)

2/"^ .^-^"
the form
of

2r(2a-r) ^."
the

2SP.HP

2CD"

jjp

^-^j^.

(8)
which
at
a

Find
a

has

contact

of the second

parabola y^^a-^-hx-hca^, order, with a given curve

given point me given point the origin: then the equation to he the let y =J'(^) the parabola becomes y^bx-\-c3i^ ; and equation to the given curve, from which find p and q.
Make

But

from

above 6

-^
"Lx +

"=

2cx; and

and

-j~

2c ;

ax

.'.

2cx;
0 ;

q
=

=:

2c.

But

at

the

origin a?

.*.

p,

and

|;

206

EXAMPLES.

(6)
lute is

If

yx-a^y

i?

^
=
-

^J

and
,

equation to

evo-

(7)
shew

The

equationto
12
^
"

the catenary is 2^
is

4Z

(c'+e

"/;

that the radius

=

of curvature

but equal"

to opposite^

the normal.

/gar
"

(8)

If

(1+
.

cos

^);

the radius of

curvature

-^

and chord

(9)

In the

of Archimedes^ spiral
r
=

the radius

the chord

of curvature, when

-7=

(10)
tion is

The
=

evolute of the
r*
"

of epicycloid,

which

the equa-

o'
g ,

p'

g*.
a
_

is another

epicycloid.
andfli
=
"

^Pi' c". -^
=

tI

(11)
centre

Find

the chords
of
an

of curvature

drawn

throughthe

and focus

h3rperbola.
=

(!") Ifr-CP;chord
(2") If
If
r

^(''-f^^'".
.

^P

chord

=.?^^^^L"r)
a

/
(12)

S*
+

yi^l
the

^="?"

be

the

equation to
is
"-

curve

; (theTractrix)

to equation

the evolute

"

^^^-^-

(theCatenary). (13)
a

In

the focal distance

8F

of

take SCi parabola,

rN\

find the equation to the locus

of

Q, and the radius

of curvature.

SQl=-t, SA^a,
R

^ASQ=^e;

r-2fltan^.
2 l

(r*-f24gV
__

6a*)*

32a^

(4a"+ Sr")

EXAMPLES.

207
in

(14)
the
curvature

Determine
is the

that

point
:

cubical

parabola,
in

where

greatest

and

the

point

the

common

parabola

where

it is

^^^ of

the

greatest

curvature.

V45

(15)

ad

^Jr^-a^-a
p
=

sec"*

^H, (the
find

involute

of

the

circle),shew
evolute.

that

Jf^^^;
if D

and

the

equation

to

the

(16)
intersects

In

the

parabola
and in

be

the

point
be

where

the
of

axis
responding cor-

the

directrix,

PN^

QM
and

ordinates
prove

points

the

parabola

evolute,

that

(17)
the
axis of

If
x

A.

be

the

in

the

angle which ellipse,then

the

normal

makes

with

'

(1 riS)
is
In

c^

8in"\)*
of

the

curve

(hypocycloid)
to

which is

the

equation

x^+i/^=sa^; the equation

(a
+

the

evolute

/3)*+(a-./3)^=2al
Ri
be

(19)
extremities

Let
of

jR
two

and

the

radii

of of "".

curvature
an

of

the

conjugate

diameters

ellipse,then

(E' + i?i*) (aft)' ""

=

(20)
spiral
and

When the

angle perpendicular

the

between
on

the
the

radius is

vector
a

of

tangent

maximum

(21)
sides in

Two
of

normals

at

two

points

in

parabola, on
as

site oppo-

the

axis^ the

ordinates

being

2, intersect

the

evolute.

CHAPTER

XV.

Envelopes to

Curves,

Caustics.

221. described

When
after
a

curve

touches the

series

of

curves,
to

all
an

given law,

former
a

is said

be

envelope of the latter ; these latter are of the problem is to find the touching curve

given form, or envelope. of this For the better explanation applicationof the that it was Differential Calculus, let us suppose required to find the equation to the of touching any number curve, in a known whose centres are curve. equal circles, if y and be the co-ordinates of the touching Then x and /?those of the centre of one of the circles curve,
a

and

("-/3/
fiat

(ar-a)"=r".
of the known
curve;

jdand

are

the co-ordinates

"""{y-"W}'+(*-")'='^
Now if
we

(!)"
an

suppose is

to

receive

small indefinitely
to to
an

increment, the equation (1) will belong

the
centre

equal circle,
aenoted
a

of which

near indefinitely

that

by

equation
wnich

(1); and the the co-ordinates

to
:

two
are

circles will intersect at

x ultimately

and

y ; and
we

point of similarly
conceive tions intersec-

proceeding with a the touching curve

of these
must

third

and be

other

circles,

formed
to
a

by

the

may continue

circles

and

determine
be

its

equation,which

eliminated between must independent the (x a)* r", and the equation equations {y ^ (")}*+ that we indicates which nave passed from the consideration
be
"

of a,

"

of

one

circle

to

the

other, that is,the

with

differential of the

equation (l),taken
Hence the may may of one equation be found
we

respect to a. conclude, that if V"J{xya)

of

represent

given curves, by eliminating between

a

the

the

the

touching curve equations

r=0,

and

-j-"0.
da,

dV

222.

That

F=0,

and

"^'^O,

are

simultaneous

equa-

CURVES

TOUCHING

CURVES.

209
the

tions"may
the circle.
Let
a

be also thus shewn.

Resuming

equationto
and

Ba, and
circle ;

/3+ h0

be the values of

/3in

the

consecutive

therefore

by subtraction,
=

+ 8a)}" + (j^-/3)"-{5^-(/3 + S/3)}" (^-a)"-.{a:-(a 0,

or

Sa{2.(a?-a)-aa}+B/3{2.(y-.yS)-S^} 0,
=

or

2(ar-a) +
la
=

2.(j^-/3)|^-{S^M Sa}
+
=

0.

Now

make

of the two
curve;

section 0; and S/3 0; then the pointof intercircles becomes a point in the touching
=

J-

becomes

the differential coefficientof

/3with
0, which

re-

spect to

a,

or

and 2(a? a) + 2(^ -P-,

"

"

yS)-^
=

is

r" with respect the differentialcoefficientof (^"a)' +(^ -/?)*= which two equations be eliminated. to a, between a may Pros. I. Find

the

curve

which

shall touch
=

all the

lines defined by the equationi/ ax-{-r Ja'+ 1, r straight of constant length from the origin being a perpendicular upon

the lines.
a

with respectto Differentiating

ra

and y

beingconstant,

x-\

"

-0-

"
'

L
"

J^H"

Ja' +

and

J^Tl^-a^ -j=;
=

.".

=s

a*

^a* +

J?'^^
.*.

^A^^^^""^p^^^
or*
=

^A^^-^;
a

^' +
A

to r*,the equation

circle.

Pros.

line slides between two givenstraight angular rectfind it the is always a tangent to which curve axes, Let c be the lengthof the line, and b the parts of the a
cut

II.

axes

in any off*

of givenposition

the line ;
P

210

EXAMPLES.

-+|=1,
^

and

a"

6"

c": db
a

y
+

db
,

db

"""? Sa5-"'

"^-^'jj-o;
^

"""35"5;

aszr"

"

0"=

"""i-f-#2f^**'!-i;
.*.

(x*+^^*
=
m

c,

and

x^+^*
= n

c%

Prob.

hi.

If a*+6"=c"^ the
m

to equation

the

envelopeis

Pros. defined

IV. y=ma:

Find
+

the

curve

which
a

touches
h

all the Hues

by

Jm^a^+
the
same axes curve

b*;

and

being constant. ellipses

axes^

Prob.

V.
round

Find
the

which
and
a

touches all the

with

described
the

centre

coincident
area

of the rectangle

being
+
ts
=

constant

(^'i')*

Here
.*.

-5

and
"

ab=zm^;

or

o'

Qxy
cuts

ss

to the rectangular m\ the equation hjrperbola.

Prob.

VI. off from

Find the

the
axes

equationto
two

the

curve sum

whose
of which
"

gent tanc.

lines the

Prob.

VII. under

Find

the

curve

which
=

touches all the

"

curves

included

the

equation ^

a:

tan^

-7
v/w

COS

^
V

0
,

being

supposedvariable.
Prob.

VIII.
IX.
two

Find Find

the

curve

when when

AD^ the

c*~* AT.
"

Prob.

the

curve^

tained rectanglecon-

by
one

lines^drawn

from

the

origin,the
the

to the axis of x, perpendicular other from a given point in the

~

axis^to

meet

tangent, is

b^.

EXAMPLES.

211
whose

Pros.

X.
a

Find

the
area;

curve

tangent

cuts

off from

the

axes

constant

the

axes

being first rectangular^

and
area.

secondlyoblique.
Pbob. XL but

Find the

same cos

as

both vary;

m'sA'sin'^.

problem 7" when h 0; n^ being a constant

in

XII. Two diameters of a circle intersect at right find the locus of the intersections of the chords joining angles, the extremities of the diameters, while the diameters Pbob. revolution. perform a complete
Ans. *"

+^*

"

By the same method as the equations to the curves article^

of rays Some

223"

that used formed

in the

preceding

by

the intersection

reflected by a surface, or refracted through a medium These Caustics. be found. caUed curves are may of a be practically exhibited by means of diem may
sun :

ring of metal, placedon

the rays of the lo% thus used. 224. the Pbob. the

sheet of paper and held towards the curved part of the sugar tongs may
a

axis of x, find the

to equation

to Rays of lightfall perpendicularly of the reflected rays, to one equation

curve

the and

of their intersection, or the Caustic.

p2

212 QP
one

CAUSTICS.

of the

incident with

rays, the normal

Pq

reflected ray^

making

PG,

zqPG^z
AN^x, .e^^NPG,
Y and
"

GPN.

NP^yy
.".

the co-ordinates

of

Pq;

But

is the equation to Pq. a?) ^=w(X "i=:tanP^""tan(9O + 20)"-CDt20

F"

"-""("2^")
the

equationto

the reflected ray. X

Now

Y and differentiating,

being constimt, and

9="^;

.".-P=^+i(X-*)g^+i);
.'.

X-x

5; X=a"-2":;

(1),

from

"f(x)
and

the

equationto the
of y may
or

curve

AP,
the

p and

q may

be found y

in terms
x

and be

then

between

(1),(2), and

"/(x), y
Y

eliminated^ and

and

the

equation to

tween equation bethe Caustic, may be

found. If the incident rays proceed from A, the origin of co-ordinates^we shall find by a similar method that the CoR.
1.

equationto

the reflected ray is

Cor.

2.

To find the

lengthPp

of the reflected ray.

Pp'=(X-")'+(r-jr)'

_P',(1-P')V(i+

py.

214

CAUSTICS.

.'.

X="-2

a!+^^/2ay^.

(I),

r=y+i^=i(2ay-^(2);
.-.

^a-J^r^a?.

(3).

From(l)f=|,^^F?=;^^dX

JY
which

the

to equation

of cycloid

circle is a^ and 225.

to

the diameter therefore the base s AB.

a

of the generating

When

the

iSnd the

pole 5 c^ lengdiTq

is spiral

the focus

dence^ of inciand the

6" the reflected ray,

Caustic.
p.

PO

the radius

of curvature

R^

SP^r,

^SPO==e^^OPq,
Pq
a

SY^p,
q

=p;
two

being the pointof

therefore

intersection of

consecutive

reflected
moves

rays^ and Now

pointin
be

the caustic.
to be

S, 0, q may

supposed
arc

fixed while P

throughan

small indefinitely

'^
CAUSTICS,

215

Also SO^^f^
=

Bf^-^Ercoad i2"dv

(1).
a

Og* p"+
dv
.'.
r

2Ep

cos

(2);

-;3

i2

cos

0j3^+i2rsin

0,

dr
.".

^(r-^cos6)
= =

-jBrsin6,
a'aid.

"^(p-E CO80) ^Ep

But
r

+p, for
dr
/. "jS
=

very small variation o"P, is constant;

dp
""

;m

hence
"

,.

by division,we
Er
^ '*'

.,

nave

cos

0-

cos

r^'r-jBcos^'
But ^
cos

^~

2r-i2cosa'
p
t-

chord

throughS=
dr

rfr

dr\^

rp
be found. of g.

whence

the
To

lengthof
find the

the reflected ray may

226.

to the locus equation Join Sq ; draw ^ J- to Pq. Let Sq^Tii Sy^p^;

...

p,=rsin20

(i), 2ryr^."=?"^^H"!

r'^r^+p'- 2rp cos 20 cos'6 (r+ pY 4r/E"

=
-

(r+

p)'-^
given equation p=f{r);
may
be be found and
to equation

(2);
from

whence

from

the

p=^"f"(r), p and p and (I) (2) r may

between

of r; and from in terms found and the equation eliminated,

pi and r^, which is the

the caustic.

216
Ex. circular find the
4.

CAUSTICS,

small reflector is placed in a indefinitely ring. Every other point of the ring is luminous^ An
caustic. r"

Here

|"

5--; 2a
2a

diameter

of

ring; log(4a*) ;

4a

99

,\

log {^ ]

'F\=

logr

"'";=l^-^*'"(?)=7' -'-p'r
Hence Ex. 5. the caustic will be
Let
a

the diameter circle,

be

"

the

curve reflecting

the

equiangular

spiral*
p^mr;

^=im'r;
1 P

log"i*; logf^J=logr
+

1
r

pi

2m

J r*
=

mV
-

2mrji
-

"

m",

n"
the is spiral

4r"

4p" 4r"(l m");

=

.-.

pi

wiri ;

or

similar

equiangularspiral.

fall upon 227. When a plane refracting rays of light surface, find the equationto the caustic.

"

jp

QR
RS

an
a

incident)
refracted BAC the

'^^

'

QA"
A

to

surface;
;
=

the

ACi^a;
"""

originof co-ordinates jlRQA^B; zRqA

+

"p;

5^

-"tan0
JP
=

is

equationto Rq.

But

0;y=i^l2=atan6=C;

THE

CAUSTIC

BY

REFRACTION.

217

.".

-j?tan0
sin^
=

+
971

atan^

(l), (2)"
and refraction
are

also

sin0

since the sines of the* angles of Incidence

in
a

constant
now

ratio.
Q and

If and
X

0 be
be

supposed
the

to

vary

while slightly^
p, of two
a

remain

constant,

intersection

y of the

refracted

rays will

founds and p will be

ad0

point in

the

caustic.
From
T^

(1)
^
^

,^v

xd^
"

cos'^
cos

"

"

,-5 , cos* 6'

m cos

(2)

6dd

"p.d(t";
(p _1
~

/
W

jr
__

cos cos

tan

6
^

fna"

m'

tan^

'

/.

l+tan"0

"

cos'"f" cos*^

?T=l

-itan'^A./"-"
"

m*

"

X*

But

-1^

(1 + tan'a)

"v/^;

1
.-.

Vwa
W
"

/ a;'

tan

-===

r-^J

Make

-7

=/?^

and

97ta=a:

-"'-"'-"
the evolute of the focus
If

hyperbola^of

which

the centre

is il and

Q.
m

be

"

I9 the caustic will be the evolute of

an

ellipse.

CHAPTER

XVI-

Variable. Change of the Independent Theorem. Lagrange's

preceding pages^ we have in generalasand have derived sumef], that x is the independentvariable, the differential coefficients, from the eauation y =/{x). We now proceed to find what values must be put for
228. In the Tf'

5^'A^^^^*

when^
y

is the be and
x

variable; and independent

substituted
are

afterwards^find what both when quantities^

variable 0. 229. Peop.
If

must

for

the
of
a

same new

functions

y=/(j?); and

.%

x=/-*(^);
"c.

find

|, g, "c.intermsof|, ^,
Let y become ,.A
But
=

when y-k-k,
+

becomes

x-\-h;

ALh."c ^A g AL^^ d^ dx lir'

1
.

(I).

since x+h
,

-f''\y + h);
d"x it"
1.2

rfjr
,

cPx

^
o

dy
therefore

dy*
iPx
j^

dy^
d^x

2.3

for substituting

h in

we equation(l)^

have

i_dy

(dx

h^

l^
"

172^ dy^JTs'^^'^} ''"diXd^''-^^' ^i^it. ^ ^ifc" "cl ^ ^da^Xdf'' ^^'dy'^^^^'^'ri.Z

+ + +

"C dx.

_dy

rfor-rfv dy

(dy d^x J?y rfar"\ it* \3i"57'*"5?" \dx'd^ rfar"*rfy/1.2

dx

.S^dy
+

d'y d^ d'x ^

d^\ d^y da^)^ tPy

2.S dy'da^' dy^'^d^'df]

"C.

r
CHANGE
OF

THE

IMDEFENDENT

VARIABLE.

219

""

^-H'dy'
d'x

'"

dx'dx'

'"^-*^l-

dy

d'y dj^_f..

d'x^
^x

^-n-

d^y
.

dp
df

or

putting =/(a?), vrhena=f''(^);

^

when p, q^ r, "c- for the differentialcoefficients

Pi,qi,ri,"c.
1

-^, Pi d'x
+

d^x
.-

dy
dx

Pi .dx

d^u dar

Also,
'

since

-ra':r-+

dy

^-j-*jii"j^

dy

d'lf

da^

tPy da^ T^"T:a

dtf

0;

.\

r^p+Spiqqi + rpi'^O, or
"

0; ^--5l_+rpi"
=

"

"J

Pi

and

similarly may
230. Take
the

other coefficients be found.

for expression

the radius of curvature.

dif

r"

^^v^
2i

(pi'-i-n*
?i

Pi*
Ex. Let

4fiM?:

.*. "

"-";

4m"
2m

^m

1
220
231. mtermsof
^
.

CHANGE

OF

THE

1" 1/=f(e), andx

J,

to express (6), "p

^ ^
"

"c.

J,

dy

dx

^.

5^,^,

d^y

d^x
^ "c

values of + m, and x + h,he corresponding andf j; 0, Theorem, therefore, by Taylor's ; y,

+

Let y

k, 0

dx

d?x

m?

^x

m"
^

But

*-^A ^..-*L+g. /L+"C. dx ctr* da^

+

1.2

2.3

dy

d*y

m*
^

d^y /dx*

dx

d?x

\
m'

(fy rfa?

/rfy rf'x d^y da^

"

dy ^dy

dx

dy

d6

"?y

"iy rf*jr i?y da^

"Py dy
"'"

(Px

d^y dd^^di'd^

d^
dlr

^
cf'y dy
d^x

and

similarly may

-^

be found.

*222

1
CHANGE OF THE

Ex.

2.

Let

r*

to the a*cos2^, the equation

Lem-

niscata;

d"r

fl"
=

dr
.

2a*
"

2^

jj.8m2^.^a* / r*\

^^

_^ .co82a

2a*

rf

"

? V"?y

7"a-'

VrV
.-.

a' 3aV

a"
Sr

ie

Sa*

"x. 3.

Transfonn

the

equation
^j^"l
ft

5L^-_"_
into one where ^
=

cos"*" is the
=
"

variahle. independent ^
=

a?"cos^; .'.-52

sin ^;

-cos6=s

"

",

dx^Jd'di

8ina'35'

^^_d^^

e^y

*"^-5?'
"

J"v

rfg*

rfjr'rfe' d^"

sin ^

"

^^^

dy
(f^
'

^
cos

S?3
^

1
"'"

d*l/

cos

^fy

'* iS?a''35^"Si?0'rfa"^rii?5'5S'*'wn^"'

^r\

INDEPENDENT

VARIABLE.

223

234.

Find

R, the

arc

being the independentvariable.

~da*
But if
X

and

be

functions of

g,

d^
di?

\ds) =^+7|\*=("y((sy+(i)'
\di
,
.

dy

d^x
'

dx ds
'

d?y
ds'
'"

*"^-J
,

d?y

ds

ds'

dy

d^x

dx

d^y by ds%

ds' d^

ds'ds^^ denominator

muldpljingthe

numerator

and

ds" R
=
"

dyd'x dxd^y
where

dy^ dxy ^y,

of ^ and
X

and

d^x

are

the
to
s"

first and

second

entials differ-

with

respect

235 ^'

^_^dx .-i-^ Afirain, Again, 3?-5?^ 22-rf,V^

.

dJ'y
^

"'"i2"~rf/-W/ ds'di'd?'d?'^d^'\is') _(^\\f^'^(dx

""wy
But
""" -j-A

d^x

dy d^y^'

\"ij"ySds'd^'^di'l?]'

rf*'""^' ds'di^^Wd?'^^'
"

224

CHANGE

OF

THB

-i ^/m^""
-

.-.

jR

vm*m'
Cor. and
Let

d^x, and tPy be put for the second

numerator

tials^ differen-

multiplythe

and

denominator

by ds',

Ex.

Find

the radius of

curvature

to

the catenary.

Here

x-J(^-^^; y"^clogf
dx
^"
" ^.^"

"^

),

s
"
" " ^"

d^x
.." __^____"

"f
.^

dy
_^

c
^

d^j^
_

^cs

"'"

"*" Vfi^v \d?)

"

236.
of r, and

Next, let u =f{x, y), to

6, when
"
=

find

j-

and
,

t-

in terms

0 (r,^); y

"//" (r,^),

du

_^du
du

dx

du

dy dy dy dy
dy
da\

dr'~ dx' dr
du dx

dy' dr^
du

Te'^di'dQ'^d^'de'
du
"*"

dy ^du dy ^du

/dx

d?''3e''de'd?''di'\d?'dd'di^'de)
du

dx^du dx^
dd'd?
du

du

Jdx

dy

dx\

dr'dd

dy'-Kdi-'dd^d^'dd)'

du
"

dy du dy 'd?'dd''dd'd?
dx

dx

dy dy dx^ dr'de'"dr''dS

INDEPENDENT

VARIABLE.

225

du

dx

dtt dx

du_

dr'de^dS'dr
dx

dy^
237.
These
values
x^r cos

dy dx' di''dd'"d?'dd

dy

are

much and
du
J.

when simplified,
^
"

0 ;

sin 6.
^

dx
For
_

-r

C08a:

-^
dr
A

sm^,

dr dx

dy

2g

-rsm6;

"

j|

rco86;

",

{fu
^

du

%mB

-5F-'^''-55--7^
du du
,

(^"'

,,.

du
^

cos^

^=^-"""'+^-r
Ex.
1.

(*"
variables
0

.^^

Transform

x-=--y-r-^

to

and

r:

when

jp"rcosd;
(1)
^ ^ /,\

^srsm^.
^^^ ^^
.

jr

-7-

cos

A 6
.

'

sm

a ^

dr

--;

do

til cos'^ ;

(2) x^=r-T-.cosa.sin^"
du du du
.

-5^. sm'^;
du
,-.

g^

Ex. 2.
and y
B

If

dsr
r

j-"

djf

j-a

transform

it when

j:

cos

0,

sin 0" sma jr

. . "
.

From(2),
"

^=3^.
cPm rfr

^.~^
dr

F, suppose;
cos
r

rfy* dy
(Ptt
.

dr' d*"
cos

did'
8

dF
-,

rf" cosd

226
dV tPu drdd d^u
.
"

CHANGE

OF

THE

1
COS
r

du
.

d'u
^

du dB

sin d 7* "/"
'

dd

dr dPu
,^

dOF cos'^ "?"

cos"6

2 8inWcos0

r cPfi

Jw )

or Similarly, by changing 0

into

-"

^.

2 sin 0
r

cos

( d^u

du)

'{dedP'r'dd)'
cPu
^

cPu

(Pu

cPm

du

Transform the double integral 238. fJFdxdvinto -where r and 6 are the variables^ or and y beingthe same before.
"."
.*.

one
as

a?=rcos^;
=

^
"

rsin^;
,

dx

cos

0 .dr
.

raind
r cos

JO,
rfO.

c^
Now since in

sin 0

dr

one integrating^

of the

quantities y or
=

x\s

supposedto

vary^ while
.*. 0
=

the other is constant^ let dr 0

.

0 ;

cos

rfr
.

"

sin 6
.

c?0,

c?y sin 0 rfr + r cos 0,d0; .*. am.0,dy dr; eliminating dJd; .".ifrf^0; dr=^Oi ,\ dx '-rsin0 .dd;
= = = =

dv
.".

dxdy=^ ^
.-.

"

sin 0

do
.

-;

"

smO
-

^r

rdrdJ0 :

jjVdxdy
=

JJF,rdrd0.

Thus Ex.
an

if
3.

r=c^+y'; Jj^'^^dxdy^'-fy'rdrdd.
If

^+
which
.

j-j
r

0, and

a^ +

r*,transform

to

in equation

is the ^u
af^

variable. independent
1
T

du
^

ar

1
INDEPENDENT

VARIABLE.

227

iPu
ar*
j-2

2
+
-

du
.

then

dr

J-

0.

j:=rcos^;

7'sin^. into
a

sin0;
function and
1

sin^.cos^;
6, (p;
2 ;

transform
assume

of r,
use

p==rsin6 ;
1

Ex.
,

^(ru)
"'"

ffu

"ss;"^* ''"'^^"*'iiS^*^"^sina-d"-v'"
Camh. Math, Vol. Journal^
i.

d_ (

du\

See TVadJ.

p. 121 ; and

O'Brien's

Ex. 6.

Transform

to a jjjVdxdydz,
=

function of

r,

0, 0,

sin 0.dd.d"p. Vdj^dydz ///Fr'^ir ///

Lagrange^sTheorem.
239.
Let of

and u=f{y\ where .y ^r + a?0(y), of x. u or f{y) in terms a? ; required

=

is independent

By Maclaurin^

where when

Ui, U^y c7o,

j?
=

"c.

are

the values

of ", ^,

"c.;

0.
a:
=

if First,
^*

0, 5^
Jt/
"j-=

.".

=/(z). CT,,
cfu
.

du

Now

dx

dy j-.-T^, and
dx^

(ftf
=

dy
dz

dy

dz

j-

dy

j-

.-H^.

But

where fy=^^ |=^..^'(y).|+0W,

"

dx

"

x^\y)

'

q2

228

LAGaANGE'S

THEOREM.

'"

dx

^^^

ds'
^
s

dtt

du

^/

rfy

J./

^y

^f

.du
,

du,

du

_,

dui

d^u
"

d^Ui
_

cPuj
" ~

"

_ "*

dx*

dadz

dzdx

dz

az

dz

^' And
so

as
but
to

may

Uf be found;

find 27,,

assume

^j;::r

3J3

d'u

dH'u^y '"-1

d^u ** **"-i

.-.

c/.

J"

"

Hence if the assumption be true and it is true for n 1 and " =2

=

for
;

1, it is true for sally therefore it is univer"

-

true,and

Z writing

for

'^^^
,

we

have

230

EXAMPLES.

1.2.3

6",

6"

n(n+5) n.("
+

6*

8)(" + 7)

6'

g^

Ex.

8.

Find

logy, when
y=l
+

l-y
u
=

a"

0.

a", and
=

logy;
=

.-.

s=),

"=1,

0O^)

a",

yi[a) logJ5;

"'""2

-;

and{,(.)^l "...i.^:4^ 3^""".|-$,

=

g-5
=

9^g

.-

^r+

-^
s
=

9^'g"-6^g"

2g";

l,

.-.

logy
Ex. Here

g+(2^-l)^
Let
=

(9^'-6^
^.

"c. 2).-j-|-^
+

4.
2

^
x
=

sin^, find
=

m,

e,

"p{y) siny, and f{z)

z,

1;

^(0)
/.
iTTv

sin2r=sinm
/)

if

a?

0;
=

.%

{^(z)}'=:sin*;sr;
=

=2sing.cosjg

sin22

sm2yyi

if

ar

0,

dz

{^(z)}"=sin"2; .-.
"

3sin"^cos;?, ^i^ff
=

^^

^*
=

sin

cos's

S sin*5r

6sins-9

sin*'2:
=

f(3sinS2:-sinz);

EXAMPLES.

231

.".

^:=m

sinm.*-

sinSm." "C.
ay
+

"

+|(3sin3m -sihw)"

Ex. of Xy.

5.

Let

Xi

+ ^* + "c., find ^ + cy' hy^

in term

Here

j^

J--.Cy" J/ |y+"c.);
+ +

a:,

5
+ --jJri' a^
"

26*-flc
"

5b^- 5abc

.". v '^
a

"

ar

a?i"

a'e

^7 (V

j:i*+"c.,

formula general

for the inversion of series.

+

Ex.6.

Let"

^A
for

^.

"

-3"

"c.

0;

find yiin terms Put

of u, and its differentialcoefficients.

p, q. r, "c

|,g, g, "c.;
p\
2

2,3

"c.l. l,"%?2lz"!:Jf; .,A._j" ) Ip p' p"

+ +

2.3

If

be

root

of

an

u equation
=

0 ; and

an

mate approxi-

series may value of fl, so that j; + A a ; the preceding be used to find a near value of the root ; and it has been thus x*^ 2j?* used by Lagrange. Thus i"u +4!X 8,
=
"

(
,

8j:*-1

1^

l2".(a;"-ar+l)"*'2*.(a?"-a:+l
2'ix*-'12x'-6x-\-3
"*"

u^

2\{x'-x+ir
whence
and ifj?
=

2.3^
^; lo
a
=

\
)'
h
=

-;

.".

"

1.6l value

nearly;
may be

if 1.6l be

put for

x,

more

correct

obtained.

END

OF

THE

DIFFERENTIAL

CALCULUS.

THE

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS,

CHAPTER
1.

I.
inverse of the Differthe
function original shall

The

ential" its
from and
a

Calculus is the Integral objectbeing to discover

relation of
x

given

between
u.

the

differential coefficients
we

functions
case

and the

At

present

only consider
i-

the

in which

first differential coefficient

is

an

ax

function explicit 2. The

of jr^

as

"p^ {x),and
which
u

"

0(^)

is

required*
-7-

process when

by

is found

from

is called

'and inlegration, the symbol f^ Thus

if

performed is expressedby prefixing

tt ^(ar),

C. /,.^(ar)+

Also

since if

;7-

; ^ (*)

"*.

du-"p (x) dx,

.

is found

thus the symbol f, by prefixing

u^

(x).dx+C, f(f"

for since
to be

the

is the initialletter of summa, is said the integral the of differentials function. of the sum and identical: also since are L"l"(je) f"p(x),dx, that /and a indicate inverse operations. see

Hence

fdu

=e

n,

we

constant

connected

quantity C, is added^ since constant tities quanwith function by the sign " the original
we

in differentiation : and therefore, when disappear value u, an arbitrary to the original as quantity be determined which must by the nature of the

return

C is added, Problem.

3.

The

case simplest

is when
du

-7-

cuf*,

Let
.*. a

^Aaf

C;
ot
=

"".

-jax

nAa^^

aaT

"

nAy and
-;

"

1;
=

.". n="i

l;

andii=-=-

fjaaf^

.a^'+C:

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

233
the

integratea monomial^ and tJieindex so increased^

or

to

add
add
a

unity to
constant.

index, divide hy

Cob.

1.

Also be

if

-y-

aar^

=^

-r:

u^
.

"

r+C,
m.

which

may
2.

derived The

from

above

by writing
fails when

"

for
"-

Ooiu then

general formula
C

1, for

"

"

C,

1-1

du
"D

a
=

1
X

But

i.

lflll

"/"

^
=
"

1,

-r-

ax

-=:a,-. X

a
--

d.Ciogx)
=

r 1
.

Now

" .

^.^
ax

^;
be

.".

log
from

C ;

J J,

the

true

value

of

may

thus

derived

the

general

if expression^

C be
tt

first determined.
=

For, suppose
.-.

when

b;
C
=

r+C,
"i-

or

: m

.*.

fl.
OT

"

=-;

lfw=-l 0'

a=

log J
if
"
=

log d?

"

log 5

log x

C;

4.

Since

("),where log{/(a?)}=log
dz

s-/(x),

du

dx

fdz l^

ri

Or, if there be
of the denominator.

fraction

in which

the

numerator

is the

derivative of the denominator,

the

is integral

the

logarithm

Ex.1.

LetT-=;
dx
.'.
tt
=
.

"

1 +

a^

-i=i"i ^

1+a"

";

i log(l + "")"log^l
...

x\

Ex.2.

Let^-^^j^^; "="log(a:'"^

l).

234

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

=j)
or

"c.

the

of integral
:=

coefficients

sum

of differential any number of each differential coefficient. of the integrals

the

sum

of

Ex.

3.

Let

'^
ax .-. u
=

Aar

Bar-hCx^

"c.;
"c
r

AjjT^ BJ^-h (7/^+

/f
tn

7? l
n

6.

If

Jax

2^.

-=-,

where

is

function

of x, find

u.

ax

Since

if

ii

sT^^

C, ;7-

+ l)^* (""

-j-

function of this description, increase a integrate index hy unity divide by the index so increased, and by under the index* differential coefficient of the quantity
or

to

the the
'

Examples of Simple Integration.

du
fa\
J
.

a
_g

ax"^

(3)
^

Let

-Jax

ao:" ;

.".

=
.

ax^.
iw

(4)

Let

^
2

rftt (fla!" + 6)-.a;"-^"fx. (flj:"+ft)'""*-S

=

Let

ajf" +

b;

r.

d2

naaf^^dx

.".

du

"

z'dz;

na

nay,

+ 1)~ na.(m "~na.(w

1)

'

(5)

p^iax^bT; ...uJ-^^,"^.

EXAMPLES.

285

(6)

-1-

+ by*, (aa?" of^ tn being a

whole
term

number.

+ 5)"*, Expand (aa^ multiply each them separately.

by jf, and

grate inte-

(7) 2"=
Let

r~vr"
+

^^^

being whole
"

numbers.

Ja?

j?;

.%

a?

j o

"

dx^rds;
0
^j

ag^dx
__

(^ oT
"

^^

Expand {z-aY, first dividingby z\

du
f
\

and

each integrate

term

separately,

For
du
* *

put-;
dx
1

.-.55
rf"
'

"

p,
2""H.-"

du

rfz

dx' dz

js" rfj?

(az + 6)*

'

which

resolves itselfinto the

precedingcase.

'
"

*^

6
"*"

.'

if

"=:^-*"""('vD-

du

(a + io?+ cx*)*"+^
.". u
"

"
.

236

EXAMPLES.

When
in

the

index

of

in

the

numerator

is not

less

than

that

the

denominator^

divide

by

the

denominator^

.*.

"

"

"

-r-

"

tan"'

a?.

7-

Integrate
oA

the

following
a3^
+

differential C3^.

coefficients.
+ 6)' ((m:"

(1) (4)

(2)

hx^

(3)

"".
.

(2",+^'.("+,).

(5)

^.

(6)j;;f;;,.

""

""

(10)

("*+6*7.

(11)

j-^.

(12)

_.

^^.

('""
The 8.
be

iT?results In the may four

in be

(^*)

2^'
by
differentiation.

tested

integrated
(1)

the

succeeding following
of

chapters
order.

the

functions

will

Rational

fractions

the

form

'

Aiof^

Bi^f'i+

CiOfi

"c.

(2) (3)
,

Irrational

quantities.
and

Exponential
Circular

logarithmic

functions.

(4)
The

functions. will
to

integrals
of
curves

be

then volumes

applied
and

to

the

areas

and

lengths

the

surfaces

of

solids of

revolution.

238
11.
or

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

n
of them =a,

Let
-

some a

let (x

be fl)*

of the roots be factor of F.

viz. m equal,

Let
Assume
.'.

r=(x-a)"'a
o

-^

+ "C. +7^; r" +7 Tz-i +7 rj;, F =7 (or-fl)"' Q* (j?-a)"^* (j?-fl)*-* +

Cr-iiQ
Let x-a,

{B.(x-a)+C.("-a)"

"c.}Q + P(x-ii)-.
Q;

and let U^i, Q" be the values of U and

.".

U^^AQa,

andi4s=7~;
+
+

.-.

D("-fl)" "c] 27-^'.Q-("-fl){[5+C.(a?-fl)

side of the equationis divisible Hence^ as the right-hand let the division be the left-hand side is also^ by (jr-a), and let IP be the quotient; effected^
.%

f7*

+ D(x-a)" {B+C.(j?-fl)

"c}Q

P.(ar-a)*-*.
and

Again^make ing in
the
same

"=

a, and
we

we

have

IP

Bs="^,

proceed^
is

manner

at

lengtharrive at P, which

the case either constant, or a function of ^ ; if the latter^ that of article. the reduced is to preceding these methods,we will take two examples* To illustrate
_

du

j:*
"

7*

Ex.l.

Integrate g^=^_g^^^j^_g
""

(x^l){x 2)(x 3)
--

'

Let-o
.-.

a:"_7-P+
^

l
7;=

A
r

B
+
,

o~-.

jr"-7^+
=

^(^-2)(j:-3)+ J5("-lX"-8)+a(a?-l)(aj-2).
.-. J l-7+l=-5=^(l-2)(l-S)=2il;
=

Letx
a?

l; 2; 3;
*''

.-.

-^.
;

.-.

4-14+l=-9=^(2-l)(2-3)=--B; .%J5=9;
+
.-. C^~ l=-ll=C(3-l)(3-2)=:2C;

a?

.-.

9-21

L'F

2*iar-l"*'^"a?-2 2 V,"-3
following examplesihe
constant

In these and the

will be omitted.

RATIONAL

FRACTIONS.

239

9log(x-2)-~log(^-3) -|log(a:-l)
+

Ex.

2.

Integrate -r-

dx

{x + 3) (" + 1/
-7 rr"

Let

-7

= ^vx
"

(x + 3)(x+iy
=

.N"

("+!)'

Of+l

x-hS'

.-.

2jr-5

^.(a?+ S) + 5(j?+l)(j? + S) + P.(a?+ 1)'.

.-.

Let

a?

-l;

-7

^(3- 1) 2^;
= =

.-.

^*:-^;

.-.

2jr-5

-(x

3)

^
=

=^(^.+ 1)

+ 1)(a; JB(a? + 3) + P(J?+ 1)";

Leta?+1"0;

.-.^
=

2-8;

.\B

^;
4
=

"

0;

.-.

-2P;

""""P

-^J
4,

";.f^
7

2;,("+i)"
1

4;,"
,

j.x+s
/ ox

11,

,N

11,

7
2

1 x+1

^lll
4i

/""1\
"\jr
+

3/
possible im-

12.

Next, let
roots.

contain

factors haying quadratic

(1)

Let

F contain
"

two

roots impossible

only,and

let

(j? a)'+ /3*be

...

the

factor; quadratic
+

F=Q.{(ar-a)"
U
Mx
+

/3'}.
N.

Assume.

^.y^j"^^,^^;

240
Put Then
x^a

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.
+ /S"=0. (a:-a)"

l3j^; V^J^,

.'.

becomes CT*

+ CT,

and
sum

Q becomes
of the
s

Qi-^Qg/J-i*

posi^ible quanand coefficient of also the tides 0, ^y 1 0, M and N may Or if P be firstfound, subtract P{("-. be found. a)*+^}
=
"

and making Substituting

the

from each side of the

...

equation ;

U-'P{(x^ay-^P'}^{Mx-^N).a;
"^ " "

"".

3fr+^=
rU

q"
Mx-hN

"

^
rP

known;

To

integrate
du
"*"

_=^__^j_^,
Mz
+

let Mz
_

*-a

^;

_du
_

Ma

Ma

N
'

dz~dx

FTjS*

s" + /8' JF+yS*"*"

Mlog

V(^r^7T^

^^t""-(i^).
tan-*

tt

3f

logJ^Tp

-g

-g

Ex.3.

Let^"^-^
dr jr"+ l

^-^

(a:+l)(a?'-a?+l)'
-

Let-i

"

a^

a?+l

a^"x

l'

4
a?
=

-[l;

.'.

-4

Si",or il-"--;
"^

.-.

"-.S

g(a^-a?+l)
=

RATIONAL

FRACTIONS.

241

r x-3

4j?-5

du
_,.^

4r-5
=

4j?

"

To

integrate 51

^,^.

i" 7

iv

3*

Let

"

rr^z;

"""

-r-

J-

and

4j?

4s

"

"""-ffl-fTT-'fT^
(3\ ^j-2V3tan-'-^;
/-

2z

2* +

r X'-S

Qx^l

EX..4.
-

Let

5;^''(a"+l)(" + 8)'("'+l)*
B C P

r^

l=i".("+2)' ("*+!)+ |B+C.("

+

2)|("'+1)("+1)

P.("

l)("+2)',

ar

-2; -l;

/.

1-5.5.(1
l=-4.2
=

-2)
2^;

-55,
-^ =
p-

i.e.B

-i
=

5
jr .% "".

^_(..2)'(^^l)^(^^l).(xH.l)^^^^^
+ + 2)", P.(ar+l)(ar + (5ar*
or
"

ISjf* + 23ar'+ 18a?

10

8)
^=

+ 2)}. (" + 2) (" + 1){C. (""+ 1) + P(ar

.

R
I

n
242
Divide
."

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

both

sides

+ 1), or + 2) (a: by (a?

.

j^
+

Sa? + 2 ;

JO

=C(a*+l)
.-.

P.(x
.v

2).

Let

jr

-2;

-^
5
""

5C;

C
+

---^;
25

1) 9(3?*+
"25
or

15j? 5jr"+3x-i-4_ (7^?*+ 10 50

2)

--f'l' + S),

",

50

7^
.-.

50

[U^l
hT
=

fj.

"

2';.ar+l

lf_l 5LC^+2)"
+

J_ r7"+i 9_[_1 25 j.ar+2 50* j,.''

+

i^.|log(^2) |log(-+l)

13.
assume

If there be

each factors, quadratic

+ /3', (ar a)*

-

V
.-.

/3"}'-^"***^-"*"Q {(ar-a)-+^'}-"*'{(^-a)"
+ + /S"] + "c.}Q tr={Ma? + 2V+(M|ar + JV)[;(a?-a)" + + /?"}-; P{(ar-a)"

first find

{Mx + N), by putting(x-a)* + /3'=0; subtract + )9*; {Mx + N).Qi from C7; divide both sides by (a?-a)* find and to Mj N^. then proceedsimilarly
"x.
5.

Let

77-

(a:'+iy(ar+l)'
.

U_Mx

M,x-hN,

...

+ l)}(x + P(^+l)". + (Jlfi^ + l) + iVr,)(a:" t7=l={(Mar + iV)

Let
.-.

a;

a/^

(MV:ri+iv).(^ri+i)^.jjf+jif^-i+2V'y

RATIONAL

FRACTIONS.

243

+i. ("+l) ("-!)= ^.-.

; (*"+!) =(M,"+ J\r,) ("+l)+P(*"+l)'

.
.

+ P(a"+l). + JV,)("+l) (itf,"

.:

Let

x^J^;
and
=

+i

(M,J^+N,)(/ri i-)
+

.-.

N,-M,=^,
"

and 3f,=_2V;=-;i, .-. JV,=|, iV,+Jlf,=0;

.-.

-l;
,

Px2;
.

.'.

i;
1

!?
To

x-l

x-1

J?

"

14.

the integrate

fraction

^^

"

p-j,

divide it into

two

others,

^^,
is
a

and

^^.
of

And

but
not

I
. ,

^g

case particular

/
j^

"

"

which

has

yet been

integrated.

hy Integration
%

Parts.
the
of integration

15.

The
-^

method

usuallygiven for

J'

"

j-ji

is called the
its

by parts, which integration

which
we now

is very

general in

and application,

proceed to

explain.
Since

,|; ^(py)=pg
+

dq

d
, ^
=

""'PTx

di^^"1--"''

dp

'""lp%=M-lq-%.
if any

differential coefficient
of which is
a

can

be
x

divided jp, and

into
the
r2

two

parts^

one

function

of

as

other

n
244
18

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

coefficientof a known the differentiBl is equalto the the required function, minus the
of integral, q

then u, product of p and q, function

a

multiplied by
q

^t

"

The

of utility

this method the

depends upon

than being less complicated

function j)^-. original

Ex.

1.

Let

+ or")* + a/'Y ""ar(l a?"(l ;

=

y (1 + J?*)*(i+j?^^

12

I
-

(1 + i^"/ftr*1 V^
"

12~

v~r"/:

16.

integrate 2j=^^p-^-^.
1
~

x*+l
_

ai*
~

1
"^
'

(""+ 1)-'
"*"

+ 1/ (x*

+ 1)" + 1)' ("" (""

lo?"^^ ";.("*+ 1)-' i(i^^ny"

"

'

^"''
f
"'"

di"^' S'Cx'
jt'
-g

l)-'

(2"-2)(a?*+ir*'
1

j.(d?"+l)-""(2"-2)(""+l)-*"*'2"-2'L(

"'*

i^Niy"(25r:2)(?+lp^
"

"^ + 1)-' (2/" 2)(a:*

-

2"

'A(1 + aO"""
'

f246
19.

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Integrate

^ax

hx

ca^

-.

bx

cx^

c/a
c

b
c

J
dx
"

b
Aiet
T
^

"

2c

'

"".

dz
a
^

1. *'

bx
"i
"

a c

b*
4(r

du
"

dm dx

ds

{^""-c-^)
4ac"6';

(1)

Let

"_,

or

c'J,.'\'4ac"b''

Scar + 6

tan-*,
^ "

J^^-a^
"

2ca

y.Vs-a

2r +

a/

2ca 1

\2 + a/

2cx-\-b,

Jb^-iiac

_ ^

Jb^-^ac' ^^2cx-^b+Jl,^^4ac*
{a + bx
"

20.

To

integrate
J?"

'

ca^y
fl?^

(a +

6a: +

ca;*)"c"'/

(*'+;*+^)"
"

SA.TIONAL

FRACTIONS.

247

Let

-"

z,

ora?

jsr, ifa

"

-;

''*

A (a

6a: +

car")"c" j. (z"" /3")"

'
'

(1)

Let

-"^a;
used
in Art

found then|^-^j-p^
may be

by

th^ metbod

l6.

12J
must

1-et

^"^^,;

"""

j,(2""^")"-;,(2+/3)"(2-^
1

be

fractions. integrated by partial To

2L

integrate

^,^^^^^^^^^,.

rfw

du

z***""

which

is the

case

of the

precedingarticle.
=
-"

22. Since
aT"

To

integrate -5"

-;

and

ax

oT"l
even

-j-

"

"

-.

ax

atf+\

when

is

an

number,
"

cos^ l)(a + l)(x'-2a? (or-

2a? cos 1)(j?"-

"

1)...

("
"

2\

J7r+1;

and
j;*-

when
1

is

odd,
"

=(ar- l)(j:*-2d?cos
to

l)(a?"-2jrcos
"

1)...

"

1
w

continued
and
"/

the factor a;"

"

2j? cos
n

1 ;

the factors of a?" + 1

J
-

0
2m

are

contained
1
TT

in

+
n

XT"

2a?

cos

J,

248
we

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

may

them

these differential coefficients by resolving integrate into partial fractions,having simple and quadratic

factors for their denominators.

23.

Let
df
-

be even,
-

then since
+

+ l)(a:*-2xcos "(jr 1)(a?

1),

where

""-2"cos

29iiir +1

factors; represents all the quadratic

.*.

+1); log(""-l)=log(jr-l)+log(a?+l)+log(aj*-2d:cos
2otw 2a?
"

cos
n

noT-*
0:^-1

^,

11
+

x-l

*+l

Qmir

ar-2x

cos
n

.2jr-2j?cos
.

nx JJ"

XX

d?-l

x+1
JT

2wiflr
.
"

2a?

cos
n

Now and
two
on

subtract

from

the left-hand side of the each

equation,

the

from rightside,.uniti^ factor quadratic

-

simple factor,and

from

each

2 nil af"l
x"1 j:+1
,

"

2 J?

cos
n

2"ix
JT
"

2"

cos ft

2"iflr
r
'*"

1,
n

a?-l

2f
~

"a?

cos
n

j.a?"-l "^a?+l"itJ
last
is integral
=

2"iir 2j?C08
n

hi

The
if

6" the form

=

-j

"

"

"

-,

and

is,

wemake"-./3
=

2,

1-/S"

S" 8

S tan~*

-s

"

since or \ogfJs^-{-h\ /3

==

sin

2mT^
a?
"

cos
n

1
" -

1,

ar-l
"

2f
.

2mx^
tan-M

I"

=-log

"sm

2"Mr
.

sm n

RATIONAL

FRACTIONS.

249
^Tnir

Qmw
-COS
"

/
.

I
+

log "
"

jr-2j?cos
n

l\
,

)
n

24 The

The

method

is the

same

when

is odd. and

same

method

to applies

-,-

--;

"

odd,

2m j^ + 1
5=

1
TT

+ 1) ("* (jr
-

2*

cos

1);
lj;

even,

*"+!

=(jr-2d?cos
values to
m,
ti

whence

giving proper

may

be found.

Examples.

+ 7

TTT

Tv

log(* + *) +7

wZ

^^S (^+ ^)-

^^

j.("-2)(j? 3/"
+

5"

s"*'25 ^^Vc +

S/'

.**

1
SZ4UP1E8.

250
*

(10) A + (* 2/ (*+ 4)*

"

[-

f!

5*+

12
+

ZTS^^
1
5 + S"

^"^
I,

(jTs)
"

/x

i\"

(11) ;.(* + i)'.(*-s)"i-(^Ti)'

(12)

f, f-^
f
*

TS'""(J^)'
+

/g^S\

"P+4

/"
+

l\"
.

+ ;.(*"

3* +

2)' iTT^^qig

log^~|

(13)
(14)

/^"^,lj"i^-l)l
/.im gj: / """ V ^f^ y. (iNi)7(?Ti)
=
.

X("'+l).(?T4)'=3{2tan-'
(16)

/"^
y.(*+
+

J?

l)(*+2)(""+i)=5%(*+2)-log7a!
10
+ ^/*"+l {log
^

3 tan-' "}.

(17)

y.

fj ("
(-

+ 3) 1)(* + 2)(jji

"^^
(18)

"^(^Tly:;^^+s73.tan-'
**
4
+
,

+ 4"^iT2 y."^+5"'+8"

+ l)lo"(*

(20)

11

1,

"

+ l

A.V4x.3-Sm-9K^^^^^)
1 1 i 3jr'+ar-2_ 2("-l)""2*^:n' /-("-l)".(jr"+l) 6 1

(21)

,3, T^TT "'"5l""^V-r--tan-'". 2 "-l

(22)

/" l-^

"'

1(

(ix,)"

EXAMPLES.

251

"^ ^

/."" + "'-"*-"""

4(1 +*)""

"^^"gV

-i*^" (ih:!').'

tan

^".

J?"

(31) /-T-r;

i\=-r-"

-Sj

tan-'*.

(33)

f_J__.
+ y.ar'

tan-r?^).^
**

(34)

or-l

^
cx^
c

^x

I +

Jb/

'

J^a + bx

c^

"^

\2?"

cjj,a +

bx+cx*'

"

20^'-

EXAMPLES.

.^^

JP

,/2jr +

l\

(39)

-4

4"=i-log"

"

tan-*-.
"

(43)

{-^

i^j,^-*V2-^J
,

t-"-*^

'

Z,***!

("+l)

^3

2-"

(**^

i.x'-l-6^""(,+l)yir^iTT 2^3
I
"

l-**

(40)

being

0,

whenx^O^

i8when"=l

loe
3
*

"

-7

"

Pi

"

3^8

254

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

log -s
1

+ ^/7T^ log("

c.

28.

Since

29.

If

j^=" pj
""e
.

-A.

"'*

1
,

"

"

="

loe

JfA^JZSLJ.
=

J*

30.

Hence, if
f
1

31

1
_

/"

hja

bx

ca*

Jc
I

/a

JA
1

"F

U
.

by

*^2^rc-i? \/^/ A"

"

6V
+
.

^ac-'b''
4c*

Tr-| +

2c/

IRRATIONAL

QUANTITIES.

255

which

beiniP of the form

"

32.

Also,

y*^a+

6j:

"

ca?

Jc\

/a

bx

cj
b
J?"

1
-"

2c
1

1
'
=:

,/

2ca?-6
.

sm"*

Jc

l^ac

6'

^c

-7=

sm"^

( \j4iac-\-h*.

r)

33.

Integrate t-==
T
JLiCw
f

" .

" -

^
X
"^ ~-

^^
.
"

^
-

. " . f

.
""

"^

"

;2r

as

jr
"

dz
J

d!af
+

Jaz'

bz-{-c*

or

"=-/
^"

=.

31). (Art.
c

+bz ^a-s*
=*
"

du 34.
^A

1
.

Integrate-7o^

-,

=.

+ j?'^a

6a? + ca?*
1

^,

1
a?
=

z^'ds
.".

Let

-;
^

du=
,
" -

x--^;
2

Jasr+bz-\-c
r

6
2

6
2
+
c

/
-

^
_

^
+ c ^

J'Ja^-hbz
"y"

"''Jas^ + 62

v.i7^z* + 6z

+ bz+c) jjaz'

1
256
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
=

JaS^
"

bz

-h

rr-

2fl

/ + bs J'Jaz'
"
.

35.

IntegratetJc-^ex;
du dz (ae-

Let

"".

a?

; a +

6a?

2z
+

be

6^)2'

,/"

ae-bcV

(1)

Let

ae"

be;
V
ae-^c

^ae

be

Jbjae
(2)
Let

"

6c
let

ae

"

6c

ac"6c,

and

"

"

=/3';

36.

TIntegrate "?^

=-

-"

"

7=z=.

[a-\-bx)J^Ve^
1 /I

,1
Let
a

dlr
=

6a:=-;

2J j(^j-";;
2flc
c

-g^-

efl'
c +

ea?*
=

c +

^-';'^''+^
+

6*c
=

6fl'
.

(^

2az

2")by substitution ;
-1

^g^a du
*'*
"

b^ Jb^c+ eaV/^'
-J
'
"

5i

2a-5 +

6? z'-'

V6"c

+ ;s" eaV/3'~2a;5

r
IRRATIONAL FUNCTIONS.

257

37"

Inteffrate

dx

-5-

=
.

{a-^bx^Jc + ex"
c
=

Let

Jc-^ea?xz;
zdz
X

.".

^
c

-5

"

'(z'-e)*'
+

az'"ae

bc

z^-e
.%

dx

du^
as^
"

ae+bc'xz'
z^
"

1
+

cdz

az^-^ae
dz as^
"

bc' a^'
1

(z'^e)
dz

ae

bc

a'

s^^^*

the

wiU integral 38.

be either

an

angleor logarithm.

Integratej1

="

dx

(a+

bx)Jcx'-"ex-"f

mi.

l/l\iirll

T^

.'.

-^ss
"fe du

aj^-2l3z +
'
=

=.

(Art 31). ^

39.
of Let
"r

Integrate
-v-

X(" + bxy, X being a

sfl
"

tion rational func-

X.
1

o
"

dx
m

Q
=

bx

^;

'

.\

x=

"

and

-r-

dz

f z' b

dz

where

Z is the value of

X, when

"

7 0

"

is

put for

jr.

40.
a

Integrate ^

X
or

+ JlVx^) * (a:

where
,

is either

rational function of x, Let

x

of

and o^
=

^i
2*"
-

+"*.
gaijs' + a?* ;

Jl +

af^z'';

.*. 1 +

258

n
INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

and

Jl-hx'

z^ +

i(^

^);

the being 41.

value of

is put X, when \{sflsr^) when itis either J.*-'

or

for

x,

Integrate -j1

In the

former,make
.-.

2a:'"- 1
l
=

z*"a:*";

j;*"-2a:"+

a:*"(l-s*");

-^""=^'^"
therefore by

('""'

dividing (2) by (1),

dx dz (l-jf^)xz
,

,am-a
sm-a
'

l-

du
'

dx

du
_

JB**^
~

dx' dz
1
=

cfe 2*" ;

j5*"
dx

In the

let 2a:" latter, and

a?""*

-^

-^"^

|(l-2*"); l-ar'"=l-.i(s*"+l)
=

a?""*
"

rf.r du
^

22*"^

dz~dz~' (l-a;"*);?
were

1-^*"*

These

formulas

rationalizedby Lexell.

Binomial
42.
To

Coefficients. Differential
du
S.
=

integrate 5^

"^*

(^+ ^'="^")
'
"
"

It may be rationalizedwhen "^

or
n

"

+^
H

is

an

integer.
^

IRRATIONAL

FUNCTIONS.
m

269

(I)

Let

hx^=z^;

.\

""

"

"

a:'"=(
"

"

j;

oz

no

'M'
dz nh

""

dz

dx' dz
m
"

'

ivhich is rational if

be
n

an

and easily integer, integrable.

by expandingthe (2)
If
"

binomial. fraction. Let 6j:"

=

be

a?"j8" ;

"
_

o"

^^-^

(s"-6)"
-

J^
.

'which is rational when

be

"

is an

inteand easily integer,

grableif
43.

"

negative integer.
that
"

We

have

assumed
as
-

and

are

but integers,
j: :

if

they be fractions
and

and

Make
.

t;**i

.\

x*

V'l,

0:^1 "=

v^i^

Also
.

is assumed

for positive,

if not, let

Ex.

1.

Let

^
-

Ji^jm?.
tn

4!
-

Here Let
1

S, and
.-.

"

2 ;

"*"

r
n

^'

+""

"";

j;"
=

^-l,

ar^^C^s*-!)';

...^^.(^-1).; di
82

260

INTEGRAI.

CALCULUS.

Ex.2.

Let^=^^ryy=^.
-

Here

--,

and

^
=

-4;

.-.

-+^
=

-2.

And
,

s= ,

,,

r.

Let

ar"+l

=2*;

.".

"~*

-2:.t-,

""*

s:'- 1;

or

3a;*

J"

Saj'

Ex.

3.

Let

^=,J
"

(l-j;")"".
1
n

w n

"

1
^ =

Here"

+^"
q
n

0.

1 +

;?"
1

da?

2*"*
=
-

.-.

nlog"

-log(l+"-);
rftt
1

.-.

^
'

J";,;

a*

2^
1 + 2*

"

dz~

xz' dz"

which 44.

may

be

fractions. integrated by partial method

of substitution
more

This

is seldom

adopted, the
shall

by parts being integration

henceforth
.^ 45.
"

confine du

our

attention
a:"*

generallyuseful^ we to it chiefly

Ex.
^^

-7-

d'^

JT^'
.".p
=

=^-^-p^;

*-^

^^

262

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

*2".(2"-2)(2"-4)'^'^*^/
^

(2"-l)(2"-3)(2n-5) 2" (2/1 2) (2" 4)

-

3.1^^..^ ^ ^.
4.2

"

If the "c. Qta_8, If

ar

integral 0,
=

when

0.

Then

C"0,

for

Q"."

each

0.

^c. each Qsit-89 1, Ct^tnr-\9

0, and

sin"* ^

'J,JT^^'
(2)
Let
m

"

toa?=lJ
be odd
P

2".(2"-2).(2"-4)...4.2*2*
=

and

2n

1 ;

""

^^ -JL-O P , ^"^^"""2iri:i^'"'*'2^TT^*-**
-

1
_

2"

"

2
jj

P.

"

iQ.+|P"

2n
"""

^s"+i
"~

"*

1 2"n

^^'^^^'^^^~^~^^^^^ 1^ ^*""*
(2" +
^

i)(2" 1)
-

2".(2"-2)

1
"

^-j "^(2"+l)(2"-l)(2n-S)^"^"^
2".(2yg-2)(2"--4)...4.2
+ "'(2"
#
,

l)(2"-l)(2"-S)...5.S*^
"

If

Pa"n
"'"

0 when

a?

0, since then
-

Q^
. . .

"

0;
.

2w

(2w 2) (2" 4)

2
^
'

"*"(2"+l)(2ii-l)(2"-3)...5.3'*"
P

whence

by subtraction, 2".(2"~2)(2"-4)...4.2
_

'^*""(2"+l)(2"-l)(2"-S)...5.3

"i2;rri^'"^(2"+i)(2ii-i)^*^

IRRATIONAL

FUNCTIONS.

263

Let
f

J?

1 ;

a^'

from

j?=a

I
may
IS

gn

(2n

.6. 4. 2)..

'j,Jl^^'
Cob, If
QJ" "

toar=lJ
be

~(2" + l)(2"-l)...7.5.3'
make

infinite, we
"c. "c.

Psi, P8"+i,
=

w
_

1.3.5.7,

2.4.6.8, 3.5.7.9,
"c.

"c. "c.'

2*2.4.5.8,
IT

2.2.4.4.6.6.8.8, "1.3.3.5.5.7.7.9.
for the

^^2
which

"c.'

is Wallis's Theorem

lengthof

the circle.

47.

Letg (a"-:r")l
=
I*

(a*

a*)*
=

a'
.

(a*
-

"')^a* (a* a*)^

-

"

by

which

is reduced,

being odd
-

to

JL(a* j:')'^.
-

Also

"("'
-

xo*
=

Ijir^jj^I^
2^
2
a "
=

If the

between be required integral

0 and

a;

/.

and '""

^ fry ^;_1.8-5.7-(""-2)-" ;/"*'' ""2.4,6. 8...("-l)("+l)- 2

264

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.
*

48.

Integrate

^=

'

Here

p=-ii,
rfp
c^j:
"l

and

"^
,

'%

"^^

r
,

TTirp

For

put

m;

and

the

integral

may

be

reduced

either

to

"

r==^i

Jr
also

according

as

9it

is

odd

or

even;

"

log 1+^1

"

J'xjl+a^
and

i"'

f^.^=f
Integrate
=

^^^^^/prn-^-^t^.
-v-

49.

IRRATIONAL

FUNCTIONS.

265
m

f
.

J^^
^
+ 2), (wi

writing m therefore,

for

and

therefore
=
.

may

be

reduced^
?w

odd,

to
v
"

"

sec"^ jf" and

even,

to

"

Il_.

Example.

Find

"

J?* y" dj'^ /^

"

f__l_"

iVZ^

/"_!__

sec^

ar.

50.

Integrate
"

-=-

"

. .

(to
^
_
-

J^ax-a^

J* J2ax

a^

[-ar-\{a-x)+ ax'^^ ]a J^ax i*

-

}"^Zax~a^
^
_

jx^^ax'-ar
-

J*
=
,
_

Now

/X*"'y

(m ar-^J^ax^x""

a;"-" -ar". 1).f,j2ax

therefore, substituting
m

I 7*
r

^:^-ar-^J2ax
,j2ax
"*
=
.
-

x'

(2m-l)
2w-l

I
.
,

a;'

J*tj2ax
r .a.
m

a:*

.'.

aT-^J^ax-a^ ^
m

"*"*
,

Jxj^ax'-a^

I , ] J^ax^a^
X
=

/I
.

Fsin~*

266
The
=

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

last term
fl"

(2^-l)(2w-3)(2m-5)...S.l" m.("i-l).(w-2)...2.r
"
= =

.^x
"

^^'^ 11

51.
when a? .'. C"0:
j;"^'
=

If

0, when jf 0, and its value be required 2a. Then, since all the terms vanish when ar 0; and when all the terms of the form ar=:2fl,
=

J^ax-x^vanish ;
I

but V sin"'
from

"

tt

2a

'''I.J ij^ax-ar
=

a?

to

a?

2fl,

ir.ar.

l*3.5...(2m-3).(2CT-l)

1.2.3...("i-l) m
52.

t^= Integrate
"*
"

Letdr

arj2ax^x'
^^
-

-;
z

^^

^/2flj5 1

J^as^T

which

is

easily integrated. Integrate -^=-7=.

"

53.

ax

^a

ox

-hear

2c

4c"

'^

J^Ja +
which may

bx

cx'
to

Jc]"J"^'

2c

"'

be made

dependupon |

'

54.

Integrate -j-=
"^

" .

a^Ja-{-bx-{-cx'
^
dx
+ c' s'Jas^+bz

dz

IRRATIONAL

FUNCTIONS.
-I

267

..."=c-/^ "\-bz-\-c' wjaz^

which
may be

JS'

integrated by

the

precedingmethod.

55.

T-r-

f"
,

_^

^Ml
Jc J2ax
1
,
-

"

Jc-xJ^ax-a^
1

x^ a^
o 1

1.3

and thus

depends

upon

|
Jm

;
"

this

is integral

met

J^ax

or

with in Mechanics. 56. Since

to Lastly

prove

Bernoulli's series for

j"u.

/."

"*-

f*^'
du
f,

X* du
.

y^^

^^^'^-^^-^"d^'^'^'^d^r
f^d^u
3^ d^u
1

/"""?"

^^d^^'S'l^''^'^^'d^'

"c... 0? a?'
.

"c. x^ ar

du

d'u a'u

a?* x

^^ u a
+

.-.

f'^-^^-YT^'Tx'^^^'d^''2.3.4^'

"c.

dx'

/.
Ex.
Let
tt
=

d^u
1.2...

Wjj"*
+

n'

aa?'+6a:"

ca?+e;

.".

-=-

Sflo?* + 26a? + c,

-=-"

6ax

26,

or*

^-6a, and^,

0;

268
4
" .

INTEORAL

CALCULUS.

3ax*+2bji^+ca^
r "^
"

hji^
.

ax*
4

ax*
4

bj^
3

ca^
2

+ 2^fl

6x
"

6*

(3)

( ^ J'xja-hbx J
=
"

lo
a

Ja Ja-hbx \/?"?fZ^ Ja + bx + .^a

"

(5)

U^-^^^^ Ja+bx
I
^^-=====
-

b
^

iJa+^^-J^\
loff ^,
"

(6)

-5

J'a^JiTSx

4x

10

+ 3a? + '='^4

J'xia+bxy
(9)

a{a+bxy (x"-"-9)"

aja

\fa-tbs+^aJ

/" ^

^y.
4(l +

"''(1+*)*
^

*)"
1

(10)

^'x(l+2x)^ (1+2*)*
f
*"

f-^_=2j|"_JL_
/"_...
S2"
"

/"^zl). 2*+!''
VI
+

128\ 85/

/,,x

(2+")"

'(2+")

270

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

(29)
(30)

ff
" .

=
.

2tan-Vr+g"
1

log(2x+

+2jl+ar

4r").

J'x,Jl+x+x'

(34)

/ ^ J'xjaf

x-l

=^n-.(i:i"). ^xJbJ

(37)

L
=

4_ W

fN/il^+fN^N

(41)

^
=.

cos-,

fl^V

(43)

V 6^^r?"'""/(?^)C6%:?)~""

*
"

"

""

-,

/x'-a*

EXAMPLES.

271

*
_

(44)

"''(o

fta:')* aja

b?'
+

(49)

I
=

^*

"_
-

(50)

=~i~
U(2fl*
+

Al_4""_
*')
3a'

"''(2a"+*')5
(51)

^J^^^r:-i

"

(
"''(1 +"

^
-

g;(^^-^l)
"*)*
Sjl+x+al'

(52)

8)

2(2*

!)

272

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

(58)

Rationalize

the

integrals

f^ (1)
J"

2^*-^^\
(2)

f
La^
+

sJ
x

'"

^{\

xf

in

(1)

make

sr",

and

in

(2)

make

(1

ar)

r*.
=

"")

/.-v^i^-l-V^
i
-

^
""

(2

*")

^yiTi*.

make

"

(62)

flr|._i

1
.

x^2
_i '
^

am
.

l+ar"'

CHAPTER

IV.

of Logarithmicand Exponential Integrals Functions.

57.
where 58.
X

These
is
a

functions function of
x,

are

of the form

X. (logj:)*.

a',

IntegrateJ^X.(logar)".
and /,Q.l i2. j.P.\^Q,
=

Let/,X=P,
Then

XX(log x)" P(logx)'-n.j.P. (log*)-' 1

=
. .

and

f^
J
a
*

")-' Q (log")-' (" (log

=
-

Q i) f,

(log*)-

1
.

i2(log*)--("-2)./,fl.(log*) |^|.(log*)"-'
=

.-.

/.XGog *)" P(log *)"-". Q(log*)-"

=

".("- 1)

ii

(log *)"-"-"c

59.

/,*-(log*)""

j;*^Oog^)'='^'^"^*^' ^.j;"~"'. (log*)-".!

^*--'(log*)"_
n
,

/.*-Gog*)-"=^:^^^^ _^./.ar.(log*)and in this

manner

may

the
if

be integral be

reduced

to

","""
=

whole

number.
n
^

x^'

and

.-.

f,ar (logx)" ^-j^y {Qog a:)- ^-j-y (logx)

.

._

._

(n 1) + 1)' (iw
-

"
,^
"

.^, '

1
'

"

("

1) ("
"

2)...2
.

1
_.!

_^

(rn+ 1)***
x^O
"r
=

Every
X
=

term

of the

1, except the

vanishes both when integral last^which vanishes only when

and T

0 ;

274

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

60.

IntegrateI t;j

^,

whole

number.

/*

'

dx
^.

J.logx_
""

1_
a?""

y,(logjr)"j*
"

(logd:)"
/"

rfar c?
.

(Xr)

X.jp
"**

("-l)(logx)-^

f c?jf ^^V.Clogj:)-^1

-Xjt

"'"i.Oog^)""(ii-l)(logx)-""*'n"rj,
,

'*'''*

/"_p
where

-p.x

r^Q^^

j.(log:rr' (n-2)(log^)-"*^n-2V,(log^)-'
Q=
,

f
"'"

-Xx

Px

i.(log^)-""("-l)(logj:r* ("-!)("- 2). (log*r"

Q.or
-"c.

(n-l){n-2)(rt-3)(log;c)-

/X ^*
"

7i

which

cannot

be

integrated except by

series.

61.

Find

(tt^.
C
w+l

J,(logxy j, a:)* (log

Let

Ipg a:

"*" ^*" "*"

^jAogx'
rf^
^
.

log ar

.".

a?

e", and
dx

aT^e"^;

[ _^^_
/ft./ .IN

[^

fe^
(m4-l)V

("i+ l)V

LOGARITHMIC

FUNCTIONS.

275

=log(logx)+(m+l)logx+^'/
Cor. If
m
=

g"^

"*"

'*"^^'

2.3'

0,

we

have

62"
Since

X, Integrate f/f.

X Aa^

being a
;
.-.

function of*.

-^
"

a*

loga

/^

^;

Ex.

1.

Let

/X*.a' be required.

fg' fg'
.

-of

a'

-^'
,

fa'
AoT

far

-of

t2

^
276
INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

"

"C.

("-l).("-2).("-3).ar" ("-l).("-2)...lV."*

Also

Ex.

3.

Find

log(a4- hx).
"=
-

logo(l + -or) loga + log(l+ log(a + fijr)

=

ar)
\
^ "c. 1:

/"
,

"V 2a'
^

iV
+
"

6V
r

a log ^

+.

(-x
\a

3a^

i^a*

J'

.'.

log(a + fijr) logor. loga

=

JgX

Ex, 4.
"i" t

Find
.

/.""*.
1

(wj?loga?y (fiarlofirarV
^
.

1.2

1.2,3
+

,-.

/X*
"

0?

"

./^ logX
8

"

./^ (log dr)"

depends upon Hence, the integration

,-,

Art a:)"*, J!^^"* (log

59;

/^log^

.(logo?-!).
+

j{(logx)'-|logx ?^}, |*{(loga:)"-|Gogx)" /,(^loga.)" ?^Gog*)~}.

/^(loga:)"
=
=

"c.

278
the limits of t

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

being

"

oo

and

0 ;

now

let g

1-

+ ^) /e-''(^

Now

making

0, in which

case

\/

=
"

"

but
/

as

the value

of the

is integral

the

same

for t

as positive

negative;/.
.".

the
"

from integral,
=

"=0

to

"=go,

^"asf^'y

from

-oo

to

"

co;

J^e'^'=^^.

Examples.
(1) Pr^(loga:)
=

^(log*-l). ^.{(log^)"-|log^ |}.

+

(2) Mloga:y
(3)

/yGog^)"=^{GQg^)'-fGog^

'

-^

j*(loga:)*"" 2 (log a:)' 2.log

I
"*

a?

*J*logjr*
1,3

'
'

//^

J'Jiosx 4^1oga?'^ ^yiogi 4Jloea?

ft

" 8

log^ {SAogxY logo?

*

(8 log jsy
.

(7)

/x.^="-{3j-.3^+3p-^,}.
=

(8) /Xx*

c"{a:*4jr"+
-

12a:'

24a? +

24}.

(9) j;e-'a?""-.c-'{ar"+3ar" + 6a?+6}.

EXAMPLES.

279

(10)

/,^e^=2e^M^"-s.:

6V^-6}.

also

=^
^7i

i?f^-(?^'
1
+ * 1

(?f^_(?^+"c.l
3.5

1.3

S.S.I

(u)

/7^%-^/^T^.logg)-log(^^^

(17)

"--(2-"')
^

/m^

09)

/.*".*-] *'"^^J=_-j-^--^
"*

"*
.

(20)

/""\

/*-e-| t"^^"|="("-l)("-2)...2.1.
c
,
. _

from

ar

1
CHAPTER
V.

Circular Functions.

64.
"

These
and

are

of the form X

cos"^, (cos^)*, sin"0, (sin0)-.

is
a

-r"

(sinoy
may
or

ar-,

where X.sin"*a?,

function of either

x; '

these

be
more

integrated by parts,and simplefunctions such

1
"

be reduced
as"

to known

11

1
^,

cos6, sin^, '

Also

5^, cos'^

tan^, cot^,

sm^

-;"

-^ cos(?'

"

and
^ cos6sm6
.

^.

-cos^. (1) /tfsinO

=

(2) Jicos^
=

8in^.

(5)
(6)

-logco8". Jitanfl=/^"|
=

fccot^

-;

"

2i

log sin 0.

65.

Integrate -r-^,
^

-"

-r,

and

sin

cos

(7

-^-w"-^. (7
sin

cos

(i\ ^^

-[
-

""

^
1
_

f /" sin 6
"^

sine
1 +

Jesine'~j9l

cos'^

"*iAl
sin"-

-cose

cos^/

cos"-

1
_

/"

cos^

^^

i"^^";el-sin*O""*JMl+sin0"*'l-sinej
"

-if/
+

^^"^

cos^

sin e\

"

/tt

e\

f
.

/"sin'g +

cos'g_ f
cos

sing

T costf

'

J0smd
=
-

coad" J0 sin e.

0
=

'^JecosB jBsind

logcos

6 +

logsin 0

log(tan 6),

CIRCULAR

FUNCTIONS.

281
is
a

66.
Make

Find

where J^X sin^^or,

.

function

of

x.

j,X

P, and

then

integrating by parts"

and

I -^
J'

has
"

been

integrated. Jl-a^

f^l

or

Ex.

-7=^= sin-'

jr.

Here

"

"

a/i
"

^'.sin-* J?

+ jr.

Similarly may
67.
To

j^Xcosr^xbe integrated.
=

integrate -rLet
.".

Xtan-'x.

/,X=.P;
-

JlXtan"*j? Ptan-*.r
=

I
j
.

68.

Integrate "-i^
=

8in"^. sin*-'^ sin ^

Integrating by parts, since

.-.

sin*d

J"sin"^="/sin"-'a.sina
=
-

sin"-'a
.

cos

a +

("

cos'^ 1) ./asin"-"a
for cos*^

and
=
-

putting l-sin*0
6
+

sin"-'0
.

cos

("

1) jtsin"-"a -("-!) /flsin"^ ;

.

sin"-'^.cos^
,^

n-1
.

"

.^

formula

by

which
n

fcsin"^ may
or even.

be

reduced

to

cos

^, or ^,
value
of

according as Suppose

is odd
to

be ^
=

even

or

=2m,
0
=

to

find

the

between ji(8in6)*" Let

0, and
; 1

-.

2
=

a)*" P^ /"(sin
.

sin*"-'QcosO^
^ a_

d^^

"

+5^"

2m

-1

ip

282

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

But

Qa^i

both

for ^

and

-;

*"

^*"=^
(2m
_

"

r^
-

"

4; ^N-^*-Pa"

hence.-.

1) (2"i 3)...3 1
-

2m.(2m-2).4.2'
1

.S.5...(2m
4. 6. ..2m

"

1)

TT

"2.
69.

'2'

IntegrateTg /^cos"0
-

cos"^. cos"-'a /^
+

cos

a sin"a

cos-'6

sin 0
+

("
~

cos"-^^ 1) J^
.

cos"~^^ sin 0 cos"-*6 sin ^

("
n
-

cos-*^ -("-!)/" cos"^ 1)/^

1
.

_^

cos"0 by which J^ is odd or even. n as according

formula

may

be reduced

to

sin 0

or

0,

70.

Let^=p-_.
Tsin^a
.

Since
C
^

Bin'^

cos'a

1 ;

cos'6

cos'a

Ja
_

(sin0)"
^Q^^

y(sin0)"-""**^(sin^)"'
1
"
-

and

f-ggjJa 0/ (sin
("
(n
-

/" 1

sin g
'

(n

1)(sina)-^
^

A (sin ^)*-*

1)(sin0)^'
cos^
^

V
n--^

1/ j^ (sin0)
1

1)(sin0)'^' ^m
n

7^ (iSTa)

formula

by
^^

which

may

be diminished.

^^

'

50

(cos0y

'

*^""

*^

^^ ^"*

article.

J/cos^r* Je{cos0y'

CIRCULAR

FUNCTIONS.

283

h (cosdy
*'"

""

(" (n

n'^JeXcosey-' 1) (cos0)"-V"
'
,

sin ^
,

w-2
"^
"
-

1
*

"

"

1) (cos6)"-^

A (cos^)"-*
and
n

72.

Let

-7^

m (sin 6y*(cos 0)",

both

integers^

a)*cos (sin ey (cos ^)" (sin

=

(cos0)"-' ;
+

.'"

0r(co86)-"^^ /^(sin
r/"
/i\"/ m.

(sin0)"*^Ycos0)""* "-!-,. ^

^^;^
.

0)"+Xcos^r" ^jj /a(sin

^.^, ".,
.

",^^2,

",.,-

""^

(sin0)"*+Vcos6)"~* n-1,-,

; +^^{X(sin^r(cos0)"-H(sin^r(co

^.^,

^.^,

^..

.A
\

n-l\
m +

"

(sin0)"^os
"i

0)"-'

iy

.!?:lll [
.

(sin a)-(cos0)-*;
"-l
+
._, ,,". ."(sin0)'"(cos0)'^',
.

.'.

-^

0)-^ (sin ^)'"+Xcos ^ ^^ ^

" "

...

formula

by

which

the

integral may
or

be reduced
cos

to

(sin /^ Qy,
du
MCk

(sin "y J^

Q.

sin"*^
=

73.
c
"
_ ~

T Let

-7^

rf^

COS"0

'

sin"'-^6sin B
""

(sin0)"-^ ("
-

gw "

1 1

(sin6^
'

(cosa)"

1) (cos a/-*
.

j^ (cos ey-^
to
a

formula

by

which

the

is integral

reducible

known

form.

74*

Let

5^
av

0".sin^. -e"cos^
+

/e0" sina X6-^cosa

sin X6"-* ^

"./O"-'cos0,
("
^
-

a-' sin ^-

^, 1)/^0"-"sin

0"-"cos ^
"c.

B, (" 2)/^6-*cos
"c.

"c.
0" sin Jq 0
=
-

^"

cos

n^"-' sin 6

(w 1)a*"* cos
-

("

1) (" -2)

^"-^ sin a-

"c.

284
Cor.
=

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Similarly may
a" sin a
-

be f^Q^cosd
cos

found
-

and

shewn

to

be

ne^^
-

"

("

1 ) 0-" sin 6

("
A"

1)("
"

2} 0-*
sin ^

cos

"c.

^^
"e

75.

T Let

^=^"n^
^

/I =

-g;^;
1
/" cos

Jr
fsind

sin ^

sin 0

Bind

cos^

fsinB
^

sin 6
^

cos

sin ^

(n-l)a-" ("-l)(n-2)e-' (ii-l)("i-2)("-3)^*^

by which
the

integral may
+
^

be reduced

to

I "3"

n (if

be

an

=1 integer) ^

" 1----

Jo\

-^-"c. r=^-;i-^+
2.3.4.5
^

2.3

i"it~"C'
2.3.4.5*
^
.

2.3"

similar method

to applies

I
^,

fl"

76.
.

sin Integrate

9it0
.

cos

nd^
+

sin md
.

sin tiB,and

cos

md

cos

nd ;
"."

sin mQ
a

cos

nd
/IN

(m J {sin
.

") 0

sin
COS

(m

"

") d};
") d
^

.-.

wid.cos na) /^(sin since

and
r

r,'

i
nd

^
=

fCOS(wi+ n)d
"

\"^"

^
+

(m

"

Also

cos

"id

cos

(w + n)d ^ {cos
.

cos

(w

"

n)d},

sin md
A
.

sin nd
/"\

(m ^ {cos
"

") d
") d
^+

"

cos

(m + n)d};
"

f sin
.".

t (coswd
/

cos

nd)
a\

"

(m ^^

sin (m
^

n)0\ ^

"

",

andji

/^(smwd

'

sin

nd)=-i.

\
"

f Sin (w

^-"

d n) i

Sin

(m

"

^^

n) d

) ^

Cor.

if Similarly ^
.

sin

(a + md)

cos

(6 + nd),

put for sin (a + md)

\ [sin{a +

(m

expression (6 + nd) its equivalent n) d}+ sin{a 6 + (m -n) d}].

cos
-

286

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

Adding (1) and

(2),
''

^-^a')^'^^^^
.

?
cos

.ju

"

(a.^inkx"k
J

kx)"f"

80.

To

integrate -jdx
1

6
.

cos

(cos"
\

sin*- )+ 6 2/ \

(cos' ^
-

sin'

^)
2/ sec*2

XX

(a + 6)
.

cos*
2

(" ^).sin*
-

(a 6)
-

tan*

Let du dz

J8r=

tan-;

2'

a-{-b

{a-b)z^'

(2) Let""6;

^ ."/$=" dz

(6-a)' b
6
"

a
a

,'

/b +
"". "
=

i76 +

J'6-a.tan-

.log

81.

Similarly

may

/
"^

J"

7-^

"

be
X

found.

sin

CIRCULAR

FUNCTIONS.

287

d(hcosx)
da:

sinjT

if"
f
cos +
a;
__ ~

li

"

[
a?

+^
+

cos

or

"

J"a
=

cos

y* b(a

cosai)
1
+
'

f|i_"
y"

11
a

^i_"
or

f
b Jaa

I6

b'

cos

cos

a?

82.

^ Integrate
dx

^^
a

b(C08a:y
/*
~

f
j"a +

sec'o? sec' a?
+

(cosJ?)' y*a
1

{
_

sec'jr
+

_/

ha

al^n^x-

J^^TiA

'^^b'^'^V'

...

f_A_=r__j__
y"a
+

6 tanor

J, (1 + z*) (a + bz)
=

-rrTa

{^'logC^cosaf +

fi sina:) + aj?}.

^'+^'cosa?
R4 Tf
~
-

djj

(a +

'

cos

xy
f
^ +

Let
.'.

..,

^s^no:
(a +
b
cos

^+Ccos^
.

j:)"^' y* {a
b

cos

o?)"^*
sin'a?

'

and omitting the differentiating a'

+

denominators^
J6 + (w- 1) a;)

l^Qosx==A
+

cosx(a + (J5 +
(7 cos

cos

.".

a?) (a+ 6 cos 0?) ; (m-l)Ab -hBa" a'+(Aa + Bb+Ca{(wi 2)-4 C} cos"x 0,
-

b')cosx

"^

(""-l)(a--6').'. w
=

C=(m-2M; ^=-^r^6--'
-

"m

sin j? (a6' fta') 1) (k* 6*) (a + 6 cos ar)*-*

-

"*';a

+ 6cosar)-^ (i"-l)("'-6=^)(fl

n
288
Cob. If 6'
INTBORAL

CALCULUS.

1.

and
1

a'= 1,
r

|
Jm(a +
-

^
b
cos

x)

6 sin b

or

_ ~

(m

\{a+ 1)(a'~6')
"

cosx)'^'
J?

/"(m

1) fl (a +

"

(m
6
cos

"

2) ftcos

J"
Cob.
2.

ar)"^'
, Ja[a

/
+
o

'

If fl' 0
=

and sin

6'= 1 ;
X

^^^"^
.^

cos

xp

1
"
_

1 {a+bcos (a'-6") (wi-l)

85.

) cosjj /"(m" l)ft-(m-2)a "j. (a + /"cos ar)"-* J' a:)--'

Integrate ^(a
cos

ftcosj:)"' by

means

of

multiple
n

arcs.

(a+

"r(I + jr)**
=

cos

+ w a?)* fl"'(l
=

cos

jr)* ;

"

but

(1+

"

cosa?)"{1+
=

+ e-"^i)}" (^^-1
,

_./-:

*'1.24"^

'

"' ^m(m-l).(m-2) (^V^ ^V^I). 1 2 8

.

"^

"

1 +

win

cos

a: +

"v

^
"

"-

(2cos

2* +

2)

^
"

"

Too

+ 6co8ar) (2cos3a?

^^
"

\^ ^/^
JT

+ 8cos2ar ^-T.(2cos4"i?
iO

6) +

"c.

X.^.o.4
=

cos A^'{-Ji

^aCos 2j: + A^cos 3x

"
o

4d: + "c. il4Cos

where

^o=^+

+--^

^
"

"*"^^*

l2
to find

2.2.4

2.2.4.4.6

and differentiate; ^3^ ^3, "c.^ take tbe logarithms

mn

sin

a:

Ai sin

a? +

2^- sin 2x
+

3A

sin Sx

"c

l+ncosop

+ -4,cosa* -"i",
x

JjCos24f + "C
" "

Then

"""

sin
coso?

cos

a: ^ {sin (a + 1) sin(a l)x} + 1)j: + 8in(/3sin/3a?i {sin(/S l)jr} ; aa?

= =

CIRCULAR

FUNCTIONS. terms

289
ing accord-

and arrangingthe out therefore multiplying to the sines of the multiple arc ;
0
=

(Ai"^"-^n-'mA^n+
^
f^ A M

"

A^n)sin a?
m
-

SAo

\2Aa + -Ain+-"n
{3At +
^aW

^^
J
\

"

^-"i"

"

2j? -/fgWjsm

"*"

"q~^

""

""" '^"'*
9 9

Sx A^njsin

"C.;
^mnAQ
__

"

2yf 1

(m
__

"

1)Ayti
"

4ijf ,
'

"*"

^*-

(m

2)^'

^'

(m+3);i

hence known,

if

A^, Ax

are

known, the other coefficientsare also

86.

When

1,

or

jx\

cos

J?

2.4,--

^-

,/rr^'

1
+

^a

~--("^o
+

^i)* ^j=--.(-4in+ 2-^g); 2^,);

m^"

^4=--(^""
we similarly

the latter

find the coefficientswhen ""=-^, may is useful in Physical case Astronomy.

|;

87.

Let

log(1 +

cos

x).
n'cos^j:"'
.

i log(l +"cosa?)""cos j:-|n'eos'jTH-

in*C08*a:+"c*

_1"'
2 2

1.3 2.4

"*
4

1.3.5

2.4.6
+

6"^
or

t^+7"3^
4

T"

4.0

^-=o

"c.) cos
"

+ "C.

=-^^+i"iCosa?--4aCos2ar+^aCOs3j?+"c. (l);
U

^^W

290
1 ""
.

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

1.3

n*
T
+

1
^

S
a

5
a
"

"*
tt

where

--^

+^-i
1
8
.

+ "c.

2.4
.

2.4.0 .1.3.5 2.4.0

rfi^o 1
a"

1
e ^

2.4

Jl-n^
" "

an

njl-n*
=

and C

==0, when log2, for -4,

"""

0;

log(^ ^j
n' 1.3.5 "*
+
^

j,
"c.;
""
o

1.3

and^,

J.

"

.^+^^-g-.^
2

=;?l2^ir-2-'~iTr-2-*'^^-/
2

}n'

1.3

"*

1.3.5

.(-4H?),. ,..^,..(lz4Ei).C
=

...C

";

and

to

find

A^ A^,

"c.

differentiate (1);

4^4 8in4j? + "c =iiisinj:-2i^a8in2ar+3iJf3sinSa:"

l+ncoso;

..A,^"",

A,

^jp~,

^,=

"c.; A^lN^ A^In\ J,=|iy7", ^=|iv^,

"""

jV*cos2;p+"c.} /^{logf +"cosj:)= JLlog(l -^ j+2^cosj:-fi

-"

j?log~^+2^sinar2.2 *-tV
Cob.
If n=:l ;
.".

-"iV*.sin2"+-----^.sinSj:-"c.
3.3

and log(l +cosjr)=logr2cos' -j ; JV^=1,

CIRCULAR

FUNCTIONS.

291

.'.

log2
=

+ 2

logcos

hence

putting2^
+

for j?,

logcosx
And

]og4 +
^=-1,
"

cos2a?"

^ cos4ar

J cos
=

6a:- "c.

n=-l;

.".

and

log(l-co8a:) log2-2logsm-

"

log^
=

log sin
"

.*.

putting2a:
4a?
"

for 6x

x.

At

log sin X
"""

log^

cos

2a?

"

^ cos
Xt "^

J cos

"

"c. ;

+ ^8in2a?-"" a?log^ /,logcosa?

=

sin 4a? +

^-7^
o
"

sin6a?- "c.

sin 0? J^log and

a?

logl -^

sin 2a?-"

-sin

4ar--"^

sin 6a?- "c.

tan J]^log

0?="

sin 2a? -T

sin 6a:

"

"c.

(1) /9(sin^)" -J.(8in0)".cos^-|cos^.

=

a)" sin ^ + I 0)* J (cos (cos (2) /"

=
. .

sin e.
8

r ms + (3) Ji(8in0)* -cosa|^^-^+-^-^^ --|.

/"N / fl
=

"

/ (sin ^)*

6)* (sin

/.\

ff

/j\"

"

fl/(cos^)" 5 (cosay

cos

a)

56

^ (5) k {"^flf (COS

.

")* J (sin {(sin fl)'"}.

-

ey (6) J^ (C08 (dn fl)'

^"" ^
=

'^ ^^ 1sin'0
+

cos

+ -yg8inffC0Sg -g.

"?)" ey (cos (7) J"(sin

{^H^ ^ }(sin ")'.

+

u2

292

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS.

(*"^

je (cosfly
"

*"*

"^

"^

l5(cOT0)" 1 5 (cos fl)"

' "'

15

cos

flj

'

J"

(cosfl)* (cos")"""
1

no^

f("'"^)'

J(8in(?y 4(8ing)'
"*"

81

^'^^

Jeicosey
Je(sinr)'
I
^

cosai

3/*

'

(sm 0)'
~

"

^^^^

'^

"

(sin 0)" (dos^)"

.

12

(cos a)'
+

j sm?

|,logtan(^
-

^^^^

j" (siney (cosa)'

" =

""

swTa
tan

(sSr^)'3
+

^^^

^^'

(16) J"(tan0)* J tan" (^^)

=

a.

i(t^ 4(i^
.

(18) /a^
/,^N

cos

^ sin a

30"

cos

60 sin 0
a?

6co8 0.
x'
.
.

^
"

(sin-* or)" xjl-

"'-(I-*')*
/"

Vl-**

*Vl+a'

^
"

(21)

+""" -,tan-'x "tan-'"-^(tan-'a;)"-log^l

=

\5
\

(23) J[:"-.cos*"=" i^

jp^^-^

CHAPTER

VI.

Application of
the Areas the

the

Calculus Integral of Plane Surfaces

to

determine

and

Lengths
and

Curves, and
of Solids

Volumes

of Revolution.

88. y

We

have the

seen

in
to

the
a

Differential
curve, and

Calculus,
A the
area

that if
of
a

=f(a!) be

equation
dA

portion ANP^
to
a

that
is

j"=^

=/(""?)" Hence,
its
area

when
found

the

tion equa-

curve

the found

value

of
means

by
If

the

by finding in general be jgf{x\ and this integral may rules of the ters. given in the preceding chapbe between ordinates, polar coequation to the curve given,
may be

then

It is sometimes

convenient

to

substitute

s"or

(p (x) ; but

then,

since

y=/(i),
dA
__

dA

dx

dx
^

dz"

dx'
/.

dz~^
dx
r

dz* dx
y N

89.
which

Again, if the equation

since

represents

the

length

of

curve,

of

is y

"f(x),
.

"-Ji+^.
be found
from y

,-f

ATI!

where

^
sur"ce

may

=/(")"
the

90. and

Also, if V and
of
a

"S

solid of

respectivelyrepresent revolution,since
=

volame

^y,

and^

2^y^l+^;

AREAS

OF

CURVES.

295
to

91.
of the As the

constant

must

be

added

each

of these

inte-

the gralSj

determination

of -which

depends

upon

the nature

problem. particular
an

let illustration,

the area^li^Dbe
nature

required,
curve

of the

^iV!P

beingknown
and
NP
=

by the
y.

equationy=/(j?)"where
AN=a!,
Let

AB=^a,

mdANP=^A;
dA
dx
.-.

=5^

=/[*);
=

A:=ANP
we same

+ C f,/{x) "l"(a:)
=

(1).
the
area

To

find C,
at the

observe time
^

that if

ar

=0;

if

therefore

^ (j?) 0
=

.".

0,

and
the
x
=

ANP

(p(x), "Tid ABD^ip

be obtained

(a);
successively put
the former is

same

result would
x
=

had

we

and
from

ain

and equation(1), This

=

subtracted is called
a, and

result

integrating commonly the first limit being representedby the symbol Jo'/(x); placedbelow, the second above the signof integration.
process
x==

the latter. limits of

between

the

a:

and

To

take where

second

instance, let the

area

DBCE

be

quired re-

AC=^b;
area

puttinga
^ J5D
=

for

in

equation(1)^

0 (a)+ C, ^ (6)+ C
-

and
"".

area

ACE BDEC=

area

0 (J) 0 (a).
an
u integral
"

the value of Hence, ,if

between from values
two
a

be required "p(x) the

values
and b

having put
a

b of x, omit for x in successively

a

and

constant^ and
the limits is called
or a

subtract 0(a) "p{x),

This "l"{b). and

is called

between integrating

b of x, and the integral so found and is expressed definite by Jafi^)* integral, We have pages^

alreadyfound
and
1
_

definite the

if

we

use

in the preintegrals ceding symbol mentioned above^

w

/:

JT**

.3.5...(2"-3).(2"- t)

Art.

(46) ; (50);

/. 2.4.6...(w-l) J9,ax-^j^

or

l.S.5...(2iii-S)(2m-l)
m

_^

var

Art.

"!"

^
296
AREAS

OF

CDSTE8.

e"''

and Art. (63)" ,yir.

some

others.

When
the

C is

not

+ C, is caldel determined^ the value^ "p(x)

integral. general

Areas
92. To find the
areas

qf Curves.
of curves, dA
or

to

integrate

dA

r*

Ex. 1. To the circle.

CN^x\

find the

area

of

CA^a)
.\

A^j^y^j^Ja^'-a?;

But

|v^^=j;^
.9

2^
area
=

C
sin~^
-

0, since

0 ;

if

0 ;

can

to, by onlybe approximated

if or
=

means

of

an

infinite

but series,

a, it =

and,

^a"- a:* quadrant^CB==j^

.". area

="

of the circle
=

wa*.

Con.

I.

If

iJfiV=x,y
.-.

ANP
a,

J^ax-a^, fil'.J^ax^'.
becomes X*
a

and

when

^iVP

quadrant ;

.".

I ^2flx
-

AREAS

OF

CURVES.

297

The

j^Ja* a?*,and j^^J^ax jr*, integrals should be carefully remembered. CN is someAlso JmJ^^-^ being where times CBPN, or*is called called the cosine to radius CA ; ,\ LJa^
two

definite

"

circular
-

area

of

which

cosine

ana a

radius

and of

J^ax J!^
which

a^ in which

AN=x^
radius
=

is called
a.

circular

area"

ver.

sine

and

If AN=

the diameter^ the

area

ANP

is

semicircle

.'.

/ J^ax
Jo
=

"

a^

"

r-

"

2
area

Also

%"

Jo'^Ja^"'
-

of the wa*
2

second

quadrant ;

Cob.

2.

To Let

find the A
=

area

of the sector
;

ACP,

area.

ACP

e^zACP;

a'B
.

ad
=

radius
=

arc
"

"""^-T
Ex.
2.

'"'T
area

To

find the

of

an

ellipse.
x

The

centre

the

origin ;

CN

NP

^r,

elliptic quadrant

* T^iirr^
"
.

![^* T"^
==

ay
.*. area

of

ellipse
=

tto^.

Had

the vertex

been

the

and AN:=:Xy origin^

elliptic quadrant
"x.
3.

^ ^' j^J^ax^a^
=

!^
=
.

To

find the

area

of the

common

parabola.

y*

4jiM?;

.*.

y^Qjmx.

298

AREAS

OF

CURVES.

/""
.*.

i"Jfm
= a

"
=

area

/
I

j:"

^mx

"

fy-^

of

rectangle. circumscribing
area

Ex.

4.

To

find the

of the Witch.
I-=

2a
X

"*.

area

/^
2a

2ajr

^2a

jr

"

J^
2a

/. jy2aa?
"

2a

-"

a^

j / ^"""^
{J*,j2ax-

\
}

._^a

a^

J"^2ax-'X'
a

2a

^2aj? -j
-

x'

ver-sin"*-

" +

C.

And

area

0^ if

j:

0;

.*.

C=0;
ver-sin*"^2wa'.
"
.

.".

area

2a

J^ax
=

"

a^

Let

a?

2a

.".

area

2a

Ex.

5.

Find

the

area

of the

sector h3rperbolic

CAP.

Sector

CAP

aCNP
Let CN=x\

area

ANP.

NP^A;
CA
=

a)

ha

andO

~~.loga+
jTkT-n

C;
^y

"."

ANP

0; ifa?
+

a;

^"
,

fx

WJ?"

a*\

\r.r

r
AREAS
OF

CURVES.

299
/j /a: +

aCNP

-2-%(^ ,

ha ba

Ja^-^a^
^

)""

sector

CAP

T-'"*(M)area

Ex.

6.

Find

the

of

the
an

PJVMQ, PQ being portion the of arc perbola^ hyrectangular

axes

the asymptotes.

Here yx Let CN=

-~.

a, and

CM

yS,

.-.

PQ3fi^r

^.Gog/3-log")=|
.\

Cor.

Since

^=^;
sector

aCNP=.aCQM;
area.

.-.

CPQ^

PNMQ.

Ex.

7.

Find

the

area

of the

cycloid.
"

Origin from
area
=

the vertex,

-^
oo?
=

^
="

ar

/^

j^ar-/,^2aa?-.ar", ya?-./^^
"."

also
"".

if

a:

0, y

0; if
=

ar

2a, y

7ra;
;

semicycloid 27ra*
=
=

^ TTfl'
=:

Jo
.".

2 3
.

cycloid 3w"^
The
Area
area

area

of

circle. generating
Sira^
=

Ex.

8.

of the cissoid

Ex. g.

of the conchoid

'""'^"(rTW^)'(''-'
"^i"'^"(f)
+

^-

300

ARBAS

OF

CURVBS.

"""^-'i'--jfi|--J
Ex.
11
"

The

area

of the lemniscata
area

a*.
r

Ex.

12.

Find the

of the

where spiral

=^0".

de

1 iMi"

i-i

dA

1+i

Sua"

i
^

2"

2"a*

and Cob. Let

n
"

C=0,

if -4

0, whenr

0.
;

1, or the
/.

be spiral

that of Archimedes

area-g^-^,
=

if /?

when

2t;
=

therefore
The
=

area

of

in spiral

first revolution

"^

area

after

two

revolutions
=

Q when 2/2. r Aur, or when have made two revolutions, and therefore have twice generated from the area jR. r 0 to r
= "
~

is of the radius vector But before r ZB, it will

^1
302
The
curve

ABBAS

OF

CURVES.

has

nodus

APMQ,

Ay

and

Ax

being

tangents.

Let

y^xz;

.".

z^^=XsxlPAN\
X

Saz

3fl2*
J

and since a: is 0, for each of the branches 0. oo or this will happen if s

= = =

-4P3f and

AQMy

dA
__

dA

dx

dx

{(1 "")' J.(1+27/ -*""/.

+

S2"

Lets

0;

.-.

-^,
and
"
=

and let

if a.=|at
; 1 2

3a'

1)

co a Integrating
=

3, for the branch

APM,

r
AREAS
OF

CURVES.

303

area

^P3fm

+|._J_I; 9a"|i ^^-1-5-.

=

.-.

the nodus APMQ

area

area

APMm

area

AQMm

"

If the

of the nodus
tan ^ ='2. =
X
/*

then, onlybe required,

dd
z

since

... -^

=-

cos* 6 x^

dz
^^

dA

^dB

.8^9

A-^
5? =

f
0, to

''
r

3"*

from integrating
Ex. 15.

z=

co :

area

"

To find the

area

of the

volute of

an

ellipse

We
_

might put y
X
-

xz;
v
=

but better thus diB

Let-=:C08'a;
dA
"""

"

/I

.%^
dx

8in"^;
dx

^=-3a

sin ^. cos'' ^;

dA

"^=^"35=="5^d5=-^"^"^^'^^^""^'
which
are

.^

-4
""

the limits of 3a^.j^sin*^cos*ei;

x

and

0, since those of
XT Now
"

are, 0 and

a.

r /^sm*^cos"a= ^

4/1

9/)

cos6sin*0
+

-/^sin*^;
^
^

!/..-."

but

^cos^.sin*^
5

=0, both when

r,

x.

^^

w
=

0 and^=:--

2'

.-.

-irsin"^ -ix|:iill.?. r8in*^cos*a

=
=

If

5Jn

6.4.2

2*

'^

6x4x4

4'
,

.-.

4^

whole

area

-^^
8

2
8

K-fT
"

fl6

304
Ex.

AREAS

OF

CURVES.

16.

The

same

to find the substitution applies

area

of

For

making

j?

cos*^'0

.'.

P iAn^%
0 ;

(2n + 1) cos'-^sin
a

(2" 4 1)a^

r {sin'^e (1 sin'tf)"} ;
-

whence

d=expanding, vy^sin

"2' 2",('2"-2)...4.a

.-.

\ fi.8.5...(2fi+i) i;|:::g!i"? area=4v4=(4"+2),ra^ i2.4.6...(2n+2)~ 2.4-C2" + *)

.

"^''""~T~*2.4...(2"+6) 2.3

1.8...(2n+7) I (n-1) 1.3...(2""+5) _("-l)(n-2) g.^

,

"2.4...C2"+8)

wa/S, the result obtained

in the

precedingexample*

The
93. To

lengthsof
lengthsof

Curves.
or

find the

curves,

to

integrate

Ex.

17.

Find

the

lengthof

an

arc

of the

parabola.

fn

tnx

Jx^+mx +

-5

log(" +

Jx'+mx).+

C"

LENOTHS

OF

CURVES.

305

And

0, if
^-5

a:

0;
m
.

/.

C7; |log(|)
+
m

(9.x+

Jx* +
under

mx\

.'.

s^^Ji^+ mx+-log\-Find
m
"

J.
the

Ex.

18.

when
are

curves

included

general

equation1/

ax*

rectifiable.

which

is

integrable.
When
m or

(1)

is g^^g^
1

an

integer
=

r, 2r+l

m or
-

1
=
--.

1=^-,

i=-_

^^^

^^^^^

2i^^
1=:n

"^i^teger
=

^,

or

-,

2^

'

or"
n

^
" "

2q-

Let

l, 2, 3, "c.

1, 2, S, "c.;

971

3
=

Ex.

19.

Let

"

(thesemi-cubical parabola)
Sa
I

dy

Jx
^

,-

Vc3

Ex.

20.

Find

the
-0?

lengthof
,

the

cycloid.
2g-d? 2g

dy_

/2a

^.y'_T

and

CaO,

since

0, when

d?

0;
X

306
ft

LENGTHS

OF

CURVES.

therefore

Jzax

twice

the

chord
the

of the
arc

arc

of the

to generatingcircle,corresponding rectifiable. is Hence the cycloid

of the

cycloid.
semi-

If

x-2a,
"

^/ia*
=

4a,

or

the

length
of
X

of the

cycloid
"x.

twice

the (Uameter the

.

of the circle. the b

^

21.

Find
b
__

lengthof
dy

arc

an

ellipse.

df

b'x'

a*-(fl"-y)ar"_fl"-e'jr"

the

of integration If the

which

depends on

quadrant be required,we
=

must

from integrate then

to

a,

or

from
IT
^

to

1, but

n
JQ

g'"

l.S.5

(2""1).
2"
'

Jl~^~'
2'
^

9.'
IT

2.4.6
I

_^

i-s

2'2^ yoyr:^""2'2.4' '''hjiZTTr^

2^

IT

1.3.5
"

joyrr7""2-2.4.6''^''-' io^T3?"-2'
therefore

elliptic quadrant
2

'^

2'

2".

4"^
e

2".4".6"
is
a

*' fraction.

series

rapidlyconvergent
To
=

when

small

(3)
Lejt x
.%

find the
a cos

same .:

by
y
=

circular functions.

6 ;

b sin

6,

"," a;

is "

-jx

sin* 0 ^fl*

6* cos" 6

^a"-(fl"-6")co8"0 aVl-""cos"0
=

fl{l~ic'co8'0-|4"*"^o8*^-|44"'

LENGTHS

OF

CURVES.

307

Now

Jico8*'asina.cos**-'a
=

+
-

(2n-l).JJcos*"-"a.sin*d
1

sin e cos""-* e
2n

2"

2n
=

Jecos'^d,
^
=

and

sin B cos**"*d
IT

0, when

0, and

6=^^;

/.

C03*"Q I calling
"'0

Pa^

f2n"l).(2n-3)...3.1
2".(2n-2)...4.2

ir^

^r
,^
* _

'2'

""i*

"""^s-i.^; ^*-2T4-2'
"*" *"

^'^27476"2*'^'

'^

2'^ 2".4"^ 2^4^6""^"2[U^6^8"^"^^"^"

Find the

Ex.

22.

length of

arc. hyperbolic

eg

/,
being x

1
,

_^ra _1

1"1.3

1
.

^C^^-^/ 2.4-(e2)* ^''i'i^^^'l

the limits
now
"

2.4.6

""*''"/' "(e5)"

a\

a?

oo

or

"r^

1 ; 2=00;

the first, dependsupon every term^ except

X2

308

LENGTHS

OF

CURVES.

[ _i

yz^-T
.

wg-2

and

^
,

vanishes

both

when

1, and

oo

/"I
But

V
==
=

"

sec-'j5

r
\ s^ae

jar

ira

1
,j

1.

1.1.3*
"^

1
"

1
"^

8*. 5*
"

2^i^6

2*. 4'. 6*. 8

? "^^^^

J.

Now

the

equationto

the asymptote is y

"

.*.

lengthof asymptote

=^

a:* +--jr

irW

i"
"

e"

flCJ8r.

If therefore / be
.

the

length of
1.1 1

the asymptote, 1.1.3'

1

irflCll
2

l2*e"^2ri-?'*"2".4".6-?
1.1.S".5"
1

"
"

'*-2'.4'.6'.8-?-"^^7'
Ex.
curve.

23.

Find

the

lengthof
1
,

an

arc

of the

logarithmic

J
^

I +

Ay

Ay

^
310
LBNOTHS
OF

OORVBS.

Then

zPQp^.
-

P,Pp,;

..

g J^
= =

QP

^^or^=^; ".
but

"("";

.'.

e,
=

rfl*;
%
"

"

.:

"c. + fl,+ fl+fl4

fl+

+ "c. ie* + -i-fl'

e"-l

2.3

The

Volumes and

of Solids of Surfaces
and
or surfaces of solids^

Revolution.
To find the volumes the functions integrate 94.
dV
to

^
Ex. 27*

^y,

and2j 2,r5^^1+^.
^ =

dS

I
of
cone

5/
with circular

To

find the volume h altitude,

base. Let
a
-

radius of base.

r
VOLUMES OF

SOLIDS.

311

Then
.

if the vertex

be the

originand the altitude the

h
.

axis

01

X,

y=

"X;

Andr=Oif" Let the

same

0;

.-.0

0;

.-.

F^^.^.
or

jc

a;

"".

whole
on

cone

"

^ 3

of

of cylinder

altitudeand
Find

the

same

base.

Ex. 28.

the volume

of the

paraboloid. generating curve;

+

y"
.".

^mx

is the

to equation
=

the

r=wj^^^7r f^4imx 2irm.x*

rr

C^ andC
.

0;

.*.

"y =

ja
=

ir^mx

X
=

irj^X
-"-

%irmar

But

v^x

volume

.'.

wy* and altitude cylinder. paraboloid ^ circumscribing

of
a

base cylinder,

x;

Ex. 29*

Find the volume Here

of
=

a
"

sphere.
a?" ;

2ax

andr=Oif"
Let

0;

.-.0

0;

.-.

r=ir""|a ||
-

or

2a ;

.*.

sphere

4irfl" ("
=

"

-5
o

^)
=

"

''"^'
o 3

Since

circumscribing cylinder
.*.

2a

wa*

2ira';

sphere "
=

of

cylinder. circumscribing
of the

Ex. 30. Find the volume

by

the revolution of

an

round ellipse

(formed spheroid prolate its majoraxis).

0); l/'^^(a'-a^

4
=
-

wb'a

from

"

a^

to

a?

a.

If the solid content

of the

oblate

formed

by

revolution

round

the

is which spheroid, minor axis be required.

312
take that

VOLUMES

OF

80UDS.

the minor
of ^.

axis for the axis of

for

x,

and

the

major
we

for

Then

in

equation(1)put

and

for y,

have

...

".lid

,r

(5" "^.
-

*0

^* (ft'* j)
"

4
=
-

9ra*6;

from

jrsc

6,

toj;s

6;
h
i

.*.

prolate spheroid:

oblate

spheroid ii

a.

Cor.

spheroid:: Sphere on major axis : prolate :: h* : a\ sphere on minor axis : oblate spheroid
31.

a'

6%

Ex.

Find

the

solid

generated by

the

conchoid

round

the asymptote. Here

xy
=

(a + x)Jb*-^j^ ;
the axis of y;

and

since the

curve

revolves round

-^r

sin-^ -y {a6" J
.-.

76"

*"

f (""
-

ar")*}*

anda:

i;

r=0;

0^

C^~-; C-^|fly|^};
.".

...

r=^-^{a6"sin-'J-^^fc^(x 26")}.
+
x
=

Let Ex.
the

0:

.""

whole the

volume volume
of

vb'

*{ ^

-rr

32.

Find
the

generatedby

revolution its asymptote.

cissoid round

AB

2a, BM^x, NQ'^ BN'

MQ=y.

Now

or

"^_(2"-.y)'.

VOLUMES

OF

SOLIDS.

313

But

a?y^ ^yi^a- yf

.'.

xy^

J^.(2a -yf ;

.%

whole

solid

jy

7r.2a.-^=9rV,
the revolution
of

Ex.
the

33.

Find

the solid

generatedby

round semi-cycloid

its base.
.*.

Make

the base the axis of a?;

-^
dx

^y~;y
y

3*5
" "

273 V2"y
"

/"

3.5
. .

27s

"

ver-sin-"

iV

|;

Jo sj^y -/
Ex.
34.

Find

the solid
its axis.

generatedby

the revolution

of

the

round cycloid

and

^"a(0
.-.

sind); a:

ii

(1-

cos

^);

(0 + ir(^Je

sin

Of sin 6
20 sin"0
=

sin 0 + "fra"/^{0" 6

sin'^},
w;

whence

from integrating

to

Ex.

35.

To

find the volume

of

conical

the figure^

base

of which

is bounded

by

given curve.

314 From
to

VOLUMES

OF

SOLIDS.

draw

AD
=

perpendicular
In AD

the

base,and
X,

a.

take
tion sec-

AN^

being a point in a and similar to be, parallel

BC.
Let
A S S
=

the

base

area

of the

base,
be
;

area

of section

''A

AN*_ji^ BD'^AD^'a''
.""

bN*

S^A-if
a

and-j- ^S^A.-^;
dx

.-.

r=^J.^=^
3a
a
=

C, and

0;

Ad
.-.

A.
3

ABC^
3a'

base

of the altitude. for

Cor. of any Ex. in this and

This

is manifestly true proposition

pyramid

base.

36.

To

find the volume

of

Groin

; a

solid of which squares,

the sections parallel to the base are instance, those perpendicular^ bounded by a given curve.

Let

the

given curve NP=:^i^;AB

AD

be

rant quad=

AN=x,
therefore
dV

BD

a;
*=

area generating

(2y)* 4^

.-.

|a"^, r=4(a;c"-.|')
=

ifa?

fl.

surface Again^ "." generating

perimeterof
a

square

8y ;

/7.C

i"^

"".

S^SaX'^SaK the volume APD.

is and
a

And

similarly may
be the
curve

and

surface

be

found,
other the

whatever

Also, if the base

function
be
a

be any
as a

of which the area figure, "c. parabola,a triangle, is equation ^ =/("),the

of ^,
curve

circle, a
found.

APB

of which may be

surface

and

volume

SURFACES

OF

SOLIDS.

315

Find the solid generated by its ordinate. round area parabolic

Ex.

87.

MP

ff,

BC:=h;

AB^'CB'

a'

8
Id

The Ex.
lume solid

double
38.

of this is

spindle. parabolic
\"

Find surface

and

the of
the
an

vo-

the cle ciraxis

generatedby
BQP
round
own

ANx^

in its

plane.
=

Let ^0

6, OB
y,

a,

MQ
Then
=

OM=x.

surface
w

generated by QJP (NP'-NQT) ^w{(b +j^)"-(6-yy} 49r"y;

=
=

...

4^Jy;

...

r==4iwbf^y 4iwb-^=^2'rr^(^b,
= =

47r"6fl. 27r./,(iSrP+JVQ).^=4Hr6./;
The
.

Ex. SQ.

surface of
"

sphere.
/^y
a
"

1+

^
=

1 +

i?rf)l
=

_f!_
=

1'
jb*

da?

2ax

"

a?

2ax

y*

. '

*S

0, if a?

"

0;

.'.

0 ;

.*.

surface
=

of
.

segment
=

2vax

.*.

surface Convex

of

sphere
of

27ra
a

2a

47ra'.

Ex.

40.

surface

paraboloid.
m

^4ivJmfj,Jx + m

+ m)i+ C, 4!wJm^{x

316
and

SURFACES

OF

SOLIDS.

if a:=:0, 4^=0; surface

.-.

C=-|

vjm.ni;
"

,\

"

^^
3

+ m)i nfi], {(a?

Ex. its base.

41.

Surface

generated by

semi-cycloidround

dS

dS

dx
^

n"

2ir^{-2y72"-y-~(2a-y)*};
4 S2

.*.

surface

by semi-cycloid2ir
=

(2a)'
=

"

ora*,

"x.

42.

Find

the

same

when

round

the axis.
2a
"

The

vertex

the

origin^ ^-

J?

Surface

s^%J%ax 27r/^^"2"-|5^*-""|;

AiicJ^{y (2a ")*}, Jx^-g

-

from

j;s=0

to

""2a^

or^-0
-

to

y^ica^

iS

"

4w

72" {^fl A/2a

{wa
"

1 (2a)*}
.

8ira

^}

8^"*

"]'**"""

Ex.

43.

To

find the surface of the

spheroid. prolate

^=_J"r:7?=2.6.;^l--^;

318

EXAMPLES.

(45)
by
a

How

much elevated

of the

Earth's

surface

may

be

seen

person

the

-th

part of the Earth's radius

above

it.

Ans.

th part

(46)

Find

the

lengthof

the curve,

where

"* +

y*
=

a*.

(47)

If A

height of
Frustum

parabolic frustum,a
(a*+ b').

and

b the

radii of the

ends, shew

that
=
-"

(48)

Find

the

area

of the
a

catenary,y

;r

+ e"^ (c*

Area

J^
=

"

a\
-

(49)

The

area

of

+ /)" (jc"

aV

by

is

"fl6

(a"-j")tan-"^jV
a

(50)
2

The
^

area
.

of

parabolic segment,

cut

off

by

any

chord

of

circumscribing parallelogram.
of
:

(51)
on

Content it
::

sphere :

content

of

greatest

cone

scribed in-

27

8.

(52) Find given sphere. (53)

The

the content

of the least

about paraboloid

area

of the

nodus

in the

curve

defined

by

y-a(af"-2arV) is
(54)
Find

^^^.
area

the

of

xY

aY

"'"

(55)
curve, its

In

the parabola,

area

included
of curvature.

between

the

evolute, and

its radius

*\/5{'''+i'"+i**}-

EXAMPLES.

319
the

(56)
of the

If the

subtangent
=

of

logarithmic curve by
two

"

that the

spiral,0
s

-:

the

arc

included

radii

of

spiral
of the

arc curve.

included

by

two

equal respectively

ordinates

(57)

Find

the

length

of

the

spiralof

Archimedes.

(58)
of

The

length

of the
8

epicycloid after
-

one

revolution
between

the

generating circle
the

(a

6), and
(3
+

the

area

the

epicycloidand

circle

vb*

"

(59)
Witch,

The

volume

generated by
=

the

revolution

of

the

round The

its asymptote
area

4ir V.

(60)

of the
"

curve cos
"

in which 6
,

(a' -^,

6") sin 6
-

w
,
=
-" ..

is

Ja'sin'd+b'cos'd
(61)
'

2^

(a

by. ^

If

equidistantordinates
the the

be

drawn

in of

the the

hypersolids
will

bola

between

asymptotes,
included
areas

the

contents

generated by
be
as

round "c.
,

the

asymptote,

the fractions

""

-"

""r

(62)
then
area

In of

AP
curve

the

chord

of

semicircle
Tra*

take

-4Q

PiV,

traced

by G

{6S)
the

If

"8ec-,

the
at

area

included
=

by

the

curve,

asymptotes

and
area

tangent
of
a

vertex

4a'.

(64)
r :

If

-4 of

Ai that

the

locus

logarithmic spiralfrom r 0, to of intersections of perpendiculars

=

from

origin on

tangents,

with

tangents,

^s
+

of

the

curve

(1 1(\

CHAPTER

VIL

Differential

Equations.

which have been performed in integrations the differential coefficient has either the preceding Chapters, of the variables, else has been or given function of one a of the two, that by a been expressed in such terms very 95. In the evident process
We
now

it has

been

reduced

to

function

of

one

when the differentials^ proceed to integrate variables and differentialcoefficients and the x mingled y are

only.

together.
96.

Differential
upon the

equationsare
and

divided

order

degree

into classes^dependent of the differential coefficient.

Thus

an

equation involving
dx' da^'

da^'

*^

dj^* the n^ order

and of

is called

differential
one

equation of
containing

the

first degree,while

dx'
is said to be of the

W'
which

W'
are

^^*

w
rfi^degree: and
the n^ powers m^^ differential coefficient,

first order" and

to

of the be found

an equationin finally,

of the

differential coefficients and

is named
an

the the
m^

equation of
with

order

and

the

n^

degree.
the first power of the first differential coefficient is alone found. We shall

begin

that class in which

Differential Equations of the first Order firstDegree.

97.
These
are

and

the

included

under

the formula

ax

where however

may be any functions of x and ^ ; in the firstplace treat of homogeneous

and

"N

we

shall

equations.

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

321

98.
one

Let M

Oyhea, homogeneous equd^n, N-^==

sum

or

in which the in every the same Make

of the indices of y and

is together,

term.

xz; '

"".

-j^
da

-r-

dx

Divide

by
M

and

the
^

becomes, equation
M dz
^

dy

But

Tf

is of

no

dimensions

or

is a function of ^
X

or

z.

Let

.-.

^ ^fiz) ;

"". "

2^
=

{z+/W}

dx
" "

xdz

-'I^fWr
=

"*"

'**""j.TTTo^'
rules. ordinary

which

may

be

integrated by

the

We put x=:i/z, or y be most convenient, xz, as may for the solution is more when substitute effected, we easily for that differentialcoefficientwhich involves the fewest
terms.

Ex.

1.

Let
Here
T1

"

+^
1

("-^)
y
=

J-

"

dy
xz;
"*"

dz
~

make dz dx dx

;^
^

+ ^

j"

x+y
x"y
l^z

^1+z
\
"

i^^^"^^.
dx
z

"

z'

"xdz
.-.

1 + z"

1 + 2"

l+js*'
;

1^"curve

tan~* z

log^l+z*
=

.-.

loglog^^7l+2')^
or

tan-''i.

Ex.
to

2.

Find the

in which

the

is equal subtangent

the

sum

of the abscissa and ordinate.

Here

yj-^x
da

y;
dz
^

and let x^^jBr;

x

"

dy

dy

322

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

...*.., ...i^g).,.f.
Ex.
3

Find

the

curve

in which

the subnormal

y-x,

Ex.

4.
a

Find

the

curve curve

in which

the distance from

the

to origin

pointin
Here,

the

equalsthe subtangent.

77+^

"y^;

let

yz;

Ex.5.

{Ji''Jy)^Jy"^'
then ;,^"y=77T7; a^"c"
+

Ex.6.

2cy.

Ex.7.

"""3/' ^^-^^-yl^^S)-'
=

^^-

Ex.8.

/,y

J;

"""

C^-2/)'=cx".

the subtangent and ordinate of and NP NT are 9 ^mtxaAPN, is A, and tan TPA of which the vertex curve a to the curve. find the equation
Ex

Ex.10.

.^5r^"*"^="*^" S^{^)-ll.y; l^/*/" .""/ /,(a:j(*)

= =

Ex.11. 99.
can

^^-

The

equation(a +
+
"".

6j? +

da? + (ai rfy + ii" +0,3^) ci/)

=

be rendered
v^a

homogeneous by making
hx
+

cif, and
+
-

a"ai
^

Ciy

dv^hdx
.".

cdy^ dz
=

b^dx"{'Cidy ;
-

CiC^v crfsr (6ci bic)dx^

hdz
-

6irf" (6ci hc)dy ;

"
-

whence

by

substitution the

becomes equation

DIFFBRENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

823
"

+ 2 (bdz bidv) 0, {cidv ccbs) dz + (bz cv) or 0, (yci biz)dv

V
"
" " -

which

is a

homogeneous equation.
This method
=

Cob.

is

when inapplicable

6ci biC; but

"

since then Ci

-4-

the
"

becomes equation

+ fa, + b^x+ b^-|(fl-"bx-k-cy)dx jrfy

=

0,

i.e.
an
,

(a + 6"

cy)dx

+ {aj

-r

+ cy)} (5df rfy 0,

=

equationin
.

which
=

the variables
dz
"

may

be

separated by

makmg

fta: + cy

.*.

dx

cdy
7
"

^;

.".

(a + J5)
-

^
g"
C2
-

0; ("l+-T-)"?J^
=

.".

(a + 2)fl" ^.y
_

+ (cfl

fli5 ^iSr) rfy 0;

"

(^ + ^)
_

(a+ 2)
a-^

"

dz

ca

"

aj) + (c 61)2
-

fiz^
of integral

where may be 100.

cfl-a,6 and

c-6"

the

which

found. readily

To

the integrate
of ^ is alone

linear

the firstpower

equation, (socalled involvea),

since

|-^^^=" 0),
in which P

and

are

functions of

x.

Since

r'-'. ^js/-'1./-''+ ij,

It is obvious that if both sides of (1)be multiplied by and the the left hand will be a complete differential, hand
a

function of

alone ;

therefore multiply

c*'*'', right by e-^*^ ;

.-.

C yc"^'^ integrating
=

or

Q ; /e-^*^ Ce""*^'^ a jef"^ + e-f"^

+
. .

y2

324
Ex. 1.

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

Let^+^ ar'.
= =

HereP

l,

j;P

";

.'.e^'^^tf, Q--aa^;

Ex.2.

(i+*oi-j'*" "'5-^nr?"rT7";

Here

/-P '""7n5''^'^'jk^'' -j:^;

=

f_l_
1
gj?

Ex.3.

^
ox

6x

cy;

.-.

C"f

6+c(a +

6a?+

cy).

Ex.4.

1^+5^4;
=

...j^^ a(x4 6).

=

101.
to

The

equation y*~'
the

J^^* Qy" "*y

=

reduced

the

form, in preceding

manner. following

Divide

by y;

.-.

Pj^" jT^^^
+
__^,

a
dz

dy

...

g+(w"-")P5=Q.
"*""'3" ^

Ex.1.

Vj

ds

dv

dz
=

Let"'

. =

25;

"""

"2;

^;?

Here

P=-^

9A

; .-.

.'. eJ'^'jH ^.P^-Shlogiii-log-^;

'

r P

326

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

will give all the terms in which its integral vary^ and be performed. Then to be found : let the integration

is

tt=/,3f+r.
Here
has those y been
terms

instead of

adding

constant

C,

we

put F, for
will functions

as

y of

supposed not to vary^ the constant of the original equationwhich are

Next
to

include

alone.

determine

F:

differentiate with dY

regard

du^djjl
dy dy

"

dy'

103.

Since

ought

to

be be

function

of y

only,
x.

I (^^
To prove

J")

should

independent of
for y in

let y this,

hyhe put

f^M

dY
" " "

-H ^!f
^^
"=

fdM
I

d^Y
, * " "

dN
^
to

dM
=

XT

j"^y

"i

0;

^^y

^y
x

or

since
a

-r-

differentiated with
of y

regard

vanishes;
have

dy
is

function

only :

the
or

same

result would

been

obtained

N by integrating

-r

in the firstinstance.

9,dx Ex.
",

1.

Let

du

9,xdy
^
-.
" "

= ,

"

^*

Here

3f

iV^=

dM
__

2y

dN^^Slf

-y'

2y

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

327

du

-9tf

rfr_

-2*

.-.

r=C-2logy;

Ex.2.

Letrf"=^i^"^+^:$=^ S6yrf.=0.
+

tjor + if^

+^

(^M

Here

.-.

ti

/,M+y=fl7^"4y
flfy
3?

tan-"-+F,
J'

cftt

dY

dY
-

.*.

F=6y

C,

and

tt

a^ar"+y
+

tan*'*-

5y*+

C.

EX.S.

fito^-tan-f C.
^+t^.y^+^
-

Ex.4.

^y^-fsjiF:r/=Oi
+

.%

log(J3^)
When

^ (y

T^Tp)

log(y 7^?Ty -/)

+

C.

104. the

the

equationMdx
"

iViiy 0
=

does
no

not

fulfil

criterion

of integrahility^ -jfactor the factor be be

-t"

it is
,

longer a

some complete differential,

it. Could this class

however

from having disappeared of restored, every equation

might

integrated by

the

same

process

but

328
there is great

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

this in finding difficulty

the differential eduation,

more

complicatedthan
A

by which the original one.

factor ; in most cases it is to be determined, is

is

be the factor^then Mzdx Thu8" suppose j? to and therefore complete differential^ d

Nzdy

(Mz)
^

(Nz)
dx
*

dfy
dM

^,ds

dN
dx

T^r^^
dx

dif
whence
105.
z

dtf
a

is to' be

found,

problem

seldom
of the

practicable.
equation

When,

however, any
Mdx
+

factor
=

Ndy

is

known,

an

infinite number the

will render

which be found of factors may equationintegrable ; for let z be a factor,

.""

du
=

Mdx

Nzdy
+

.".

"p(u)du

z"p(u) Mdx
of the

dy ; Nzip (tt)
any

and

since the first member the second

member of may be

function We

{u),will make
sometimes
be divided found

the

equation is an exact is also ; .*. z multiplied by equationintegrable.

factor when

ferential, dif-

find the into two

the differential
a

equation can
factor
can

parts, for each of which

; for let the

+

equationbe q^dy
=

pdx
and

qdy "{"p^dx

-^

(1),
will

pdx

that z and the factors which suppose z^ are and that + qdy so p^dx + q^dyintegrable,

make

zpdx
.*.

zqdy

du ; and include

+ Ziqidy du^ ; Zip^dx

=

and 2i0(",) will z"("(u) the

two

all the

factors

which

will

render
we can

make

will render

equations separately integrable ; if therefore z"p(u) zMUi), we shall obtain a factor which the equation(1) integrable.
="

Ex.

1.

Let?^
hdy

*^="^.
.-.

adx

dAogisT^);
if

J5=l;

ti^^a^'.y;

-y-

IS

mtegrable

z.^t^;

.-.

"i-^^

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

329

Let

0(afy) a^f
=

^"^^ (^(a?-^0
=

"

.*.

the factor

is

whence a;^y,

integrating

^y^ ^
Ex.
2.

!^5
"

"i

a+

^+C.

xdy
=

"

Zydx
"
=

=i

adx.

Here

1-;
-g

l; log(|);
ir.=

".""*;

.*.

is the

factor

and

c"*

Ex.

S.

+ hxdy atfdx

arf/'{aiydx-k'hixdy).
o:*-^/^* ;
it
=

The the

factor

is

?i^Il^
:

of this equation might integral j:*y 2 ; a:*iyi t;, from which we

=r

also be found shall obtain

by making

"!"

"

6i"i

"

+
an
"

bm

"

=C;

where

^1=-^^
when

ab^-aj)
be

7.

106.

The

factor
as

may
x,

determined
;i=

contains

only one

variable

for then
1 /"fM

0, and therefore
rfA\

"f2

zdx"
The is the side right-hand

N\dy
must

dxj*
a

be

function

of

only^which
M

case

for iV= in the linear equation^ of ^; therefore X

.*. 2

1, and

contains

only the first power

integrating,
=

log
But
to

ce*

which will make the multiplier priori + (Py Q) do: 0 an exact differentiaL equationd[y Let z be the multiplier : multiplyby it; .*. zdi^ + 2(^y Q)dx Ndy + Mdx ;
find
a
"

the

"

.""S-CPj'-9)|*J-.;

330

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

.'.

jT

^*

(^Py Q)(ia? -T-

Pzdx

^-

since (Py- Q)dx j-dy-^-Psdx;

rfjp +
1
I.e.
-

-."fy;

.*.

-7-

dx dz

-r-

dy
-.

"fe rfv ^
=

Pzdxi

dx

-r-=P:

.'"
'

z^e'"'^

fp
z
*

which

the assumptionmade justifies

The

in article

(100).
the

107.
is

factor may

also be

found

when

equation

homogeneous.
For
to

let M be

JV

-T^
=

0 be

the differential equation^ posed supz

the

homogeneous and of m dimensions^ and let factor,a homogeneous function of the n^ degree; zMdx du .'. + zNdy (1).
=

be

Hence^ since
zMx
Art.
+

must

be of
+
n

zNy ^(m
Mdx
Mx
+ +

l)u

dimensions, (2),
du

Diff. Calc; (112),

therefore

dividing (1)by (2),

1
+n +

Ndt/ Ntf

_ "

l'

and

since

the

side right-hand
left-hand
must

of the be
so

equationis
also
*

complete
^rp

the differential,
'

and

.*.

Mx

iVy

ttt-

is the factor

required.
+ (or ni/)dx ydf^
"

Ex.

Let

0 ;
-z

.*.

the

factor
"^^

.-.

Mz

-z

"

,"
"

nyx

'

"2Vz=-i
"

a,

if

jr

"

nyx

+^

and 108.
solution Find Let We the y and

^(^^)^
dy
now

ny^-^^y ('^" wy*+^)'

a

d{Nz)
^^

shall

add

few

the problems illustrating

number of the of
curves

of differential equations.
curve
a

which

cuts

any

of

at given species
x

given angle.
the co-ordinates
curve

be

of

given

species.

DIFFBRENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

S31

^1 and

Xi those of the
m
="

requiredcurve^

tangent of given angle.

=

Then

tan"* m

tan"'

-J^ tan-* -p ;
-

ax

aXi

dx
m
=

dxi
dx

l^^^Vi*
dxi
and is
a

and of
X

--p may and

be found

from

the

given curve^
at the
are

function

y, or the co-ordinates and

curve

and "p{xy)y of both y ; and

since

pointof
we

intersection may for Xi

curves

the same^

^1

put
is

and

then

the

equationto

the

required

".{l+^(xy)g}=^*5,)-|,
which is of the firstorder
If the and

degree.
cut

CoR.

required curve

the

given

curves

at

rightangles^

then".=l; 0; .M+4,(*,^)|
=

.-.

| -^.
=

which Ex.

is the
I.
a

equationto
Find
common

the

OrthogonalTrajectory.
which
and will cut axis at
one

the

curve

that have
Let

vertex

parabolas rightangles.
of the

all the

y*

"

^mx

be the

equationto

parabolas ;

"

dx"

y'

""

2""^^
the

"^^^ is the
is
common

the

of to an ellipse equation and of the parabolas^ vertex the

common

which
the

centre

major axis
axes

perpendicular

to

axis^ the ratio of the

shews

being

J2

1 ;

being indeterminate
are

that any ellipse of which the axes in the given ratio will cut the parabolas at rightangles.
2.

Ex. all the axes,

Find

the

curve a

which
common axes

will cut

at

that have ellipses

centre^ coincident
constant.

rightangles major

and

the ratio of their

332
Let in which

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

be n(a' a:*)
"

the

equation to

one

of the

ellipses

Jn

dy
"

dx

dx'^

y"

dtf'

the
common

equation to
centre

of parabola,

which

the

vertex

is in

the

of tcie
=
"

ellipses.
the
common
: parabola

If

ft

2,

X,
c

this

case

is

obviouslythe
Ex.
3.

converse

of the
curve

precedingproblem.
intersects the
at
an

Find

the

which

angle
meet

of

45^

all the Let

lines drawn from straight of the lines; one y=axhe

originto

it.

^^

^^

X a

xdx

dx^

homogeneous equation,
whence Let y
.". r
=

log \k/- ^
"

tan~*

(^ j
r

sin

Q,
=

ar

cos

(ir 6)
"

cos

d ;
r

^ar*+y, ^
the

-tan6;

.%

^; logf-j
=

c^9

the

equationto
Ex.
4.

logarithmic spiral.
~

The

of ^ orthogonaltrajectory

Amx

2**

is

m(ja- x),
To

109. proposer,

RiccatVs equation^ so integrate

called from

its

-^
(1) grable. (2)
^

6y*

ax**,

If

111

0, then

-^
0,
we ar

a-.6^', which

is

easilyinte-

If

be
T

not

"

must

proceed as follows.
Jy
1

1
, ^

cf^r 1

22

1
.

is'

2s

1
334
DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

.'.

"

"

etc

a:rdx

.".

d^x + ay^aTdx

hdx.

^
"

m+i

in

i
^

It
=

or

puttiBff

6.,

"

5
=

ff"

and

1 =

""i ;

which

may
; or

be if

integrated by
=

the

former
tn
="-

method
-.

if Wj Hence form
to

whence 2"-l'
,

2II-1' w+l Biccati's equation is

-.

2"
m

when integrable

is of the the

The

firstcase

belongsto

the upper,

second

the lower Ex.

1.

sign.
+ i^dx Integrate dif
=
"
"

Here

"

4 is of the form

"

.-.

letv="
.", x
=

andlet4r+^
=

ar^^

d:"i
=

Xj;

x{^; dx
"

"

3xi~*dxi;J^
=
"

jri'^;

.*.

^
"

"i"*da:i
=
"

Sfl'dlri,

dyi Sa'yidxi
Let
-

3xi~*d[ri.
=

Sa"

6"
=

fli;

.-.

+ h^^dx^ dfyj

ftia?i'^dj:i.

Nowlety.
Then

j^+J..
"

^
'

h,z^* ,
\

or x,^ AiX.-*,

-^
=

(a, h,^
-

dx^
a,
-

1
'
-

'

xf dzi

ftiZ,*S (a'-ffj* 1)
^cV
a?' andJ

J?,

^V

aZi-l
.'. smce

+ Xi-3a 3a'xi'ifi

1
"

PIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

335

+ 1^f 3a*jr~4
__ ~

) (1 + Sojri)

? I Sa'j;-* +

(1

J Saa:^)
'

"

"

I 3a'd?-i +^
a'dx

(1

/ Saj?*)
*

Ex.2.

Letc^^+y^ir
Here
"
-

is of the form 2w-l'

2

\
/.

lety
+

-5;

and

vft

l, fw---;

.'. -jt
ax

--5-=
or

fl*"*** becomes

-=-

dx
2

s:* -s
ar

a*a?"5.
1

Letsrs:",
y\

and

"." m

-7-;

.". ?w

l=-. 3

3
.*.

Let

a;4

"=

j?i;

aridx

Sda?i ;

Six,
--

="

"

5 ;

.'.

"

which, as
110. variables

has been

shewn^ is integrable.

in which the happens that equations admit of though alare separated algebraical integrals^ the integral of each part is transcendental. dx dy

It sometimes

Thus, since

j^=^
.*"

j^=^=0,
sin"' y
=

(l);

sin"' X

sin~* c.

we

may

however

obtain the
f

same

result^thus
r

xydx

xydy

or

-yJl-'al^ + jdyJl-a^-xJl-^-"JdxJl''a^^''C;
since

which

dy Jl-x'

dx

Jl-^

0, reduces
=

itselfto

yjl-'x'+ xjl-f
relation between the required algebraic

c^
x.

y and

336

DIFFERBNTIAL

EQUATIONS.

Jll.

Again, let -^
J
a

^
+

^--^J^.
+

=0;
cjp*

cy

cy*

"r

make

y and

fnnctiaiis of another

Yariable /, so

that

ct

x-^y"pt

then

squaringand differentiating^

Multiplyboth

sides

by-^
"

and

integrate;

...

f =C+2*p
+

cp.; ...

J=54-VcTi6^T^;

or

Ja

bjc+c:^-Ja+^+"y'=JC+Sib(x + t"(x+y)\ + ff)

Let

"^='Ja+bxcx' ej^+fx*=JX;
+ +

Make

x+y=p;

x"y

qi

whence

squaringand

di"

ferentiating,
'*'
~

de

tU*

d^

*\dx '*' efy )

+

cp +

+ 90 f e (p*

i/p(P* + SO*

Jp

dp.dq
de

"^de
.".

-i^^jP^'

both multiplying

sides

by

-|.-^;
dt^^^dt'
--

^'dl*'dt

^'W*'S

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS,

337

whence

integrating

%-qJC^ep^fp^; K%-C^ep^ff; ^de

.-.

dp
"^
"

dx
dt
+
'

dv
J

dt~
ex*

dt

jja+bx +
an

CO?'+fx*

-Ja

hy + c^-^ ey^+fy^

algebraicequation, which may_be put also under a for writing (jx~y) JP instead of the rightrational form: side of the equation, inverting and hand multiplying by
X-Y;
X-F
''"

X-Y

JX-jY'{p,-y)JP'
"

or

^X+JY=,_.jp\

^"

-A.

"

Jl .'.

by addition,

and

squaring both sides, the equation becomes

dip
^"^
^-

rational.

dd

7l-e'8in""^Vl-e'sin'fl"^'
=

Let^
.*.

Vl-e'8in''^;
=
"

.'.

-v^l-e'8in'";
=
"

-j^

e'sin^.cos^;

-7^

6*81110.008^;

."."+g=-^(sin2.^+sin2"),

^4f=-^(sin.^-si"2.);
.".

by making p^"p-{'d, q=^(f""d^

d^p
e*
+ q) + ^'^-"^.{sin(p

sin(p-q)}

'-^sinp.cosq, -e*.sing.cosp.

d'a

e*
=

^J

--.{sin(p+9)-sin(p-.g)}

338

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

"

(cos20

COS

20)

"

{cos (p + 5)

COS

(p

q)}

"

c*8inp8in"y;
dp dq^
cos

d^p

d'q

dp dq
^

cos

S^"^5/ rf^""smjp' '''W^'di'di''^q' d.m d.m

.

\dtj
"

cosq sin

dq

\dtj
"

cosp

dp
*

dp It
,\

q' dt*

dq
di

sinp*tU

logl-^j log sin

=

g + c'

logsin
also
-~

loga log(a sin q);

=

.'. -jT

"

"

sin q

"

a' sin

at

at

to ;

/.

Jl

"^

sin*0 ^1
"
-

"

e*sin*^ e* sin*^
a

sin
.

(^

"

0);

and

+ ^1 Jl-e^ sin^ip

a'

sin
a

+ ^). (tp

Cor.

1.

The

constants

and

a' have

mutual

de*

pendence ;
for
V

~.-^
.'.
aa

"

c* sin p cosp e*.

aa'sinp. cosp;

"

Cor.

2.
;

The

precedingequation may
sin
"

be

put under

simpleform
for But
"

dp
"""

a
=

-:~

dq
a,

a'smp
reducible
^
=

-7-;

^- :

.'.

cos

a
^

f a' cosp ^

+ a"

""

(1).
'
. .

f*\

a', a'^ are

to

one

constant

; for if /ti be

the value of
-1
a
=

when

0,

4-^1-e*sinV
:
,

l+yr^^VsmV
,

a"

sm
// '

/ji
"

sm
/

/i

cos

/ a'

cos

(a
a,

"

a') COS
we

2cos/ti
u
"=

in (1) for Substituting

cos

a', a",

have

(0

0){- 1 -7l-e"8inV}

cos(0 + ^){l+^1 -c'8inV}-2cos/A;

.'. cos

(0

"

^) +
-

cos

(0 -f ^)
=

+
or

{cos (0 + 0)
cos

cos

(0
sin

^)} ^I-e'sin*/A
.

2 cos
=

; /ui
ft.

cos

0"

sin 0

^1

"

c* sin'/uicos

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

339

Cor. 3.

If

f /,

"=g=/W.

"'"

/(0) +/ W
^
=

*=

constant
=

/3.
.'.

Butif^=Ai,

and/(a) .""/(")+/W-/W0,

0;

l3=/(fA);

of Differential Integration Eqitations of the first Order and of the n"^ Degree.
m
be the of
X

^(^)Vp@)--.a(g
equation ; P, Q,
the "c. and

ft-S

17, being rational regardto

,

functions

and y.

Let

equationbe
"c. be

solved with
J-.

; and

let

Xj, X"

X3,

the values
=

of

^=

or

jo thus

found

then each of the

will integrated

X" p Xa, p^X^, "c. when equations p also will the the proposedequation, as satisfy formed of the productof all these integrals. equation Since the differential equationarises from eliminating a constant*, raised to then*** power, from the primitive single introduces a constant, integral equation ; and since each simple
the solution will contain

more

generalthan
that the

that from
constants

constants, and therefore be which it is derived. But if we

n are

consider and Ex.1.

arbitrary,we

may

make

each, equalto

the constant belongingto the primitive tion, equathe then result will be of the required form. Let

-^
aar

a*;

/.

--f-=a,
dx

and-"
ax

-a;

.*.

either of which

ax-^c'y satisfies the equation. Also their product c)(y + aa: (y ax c') 0
"

ax-\-Cy

and

y^

"

"

"

will
*

it. satisfy .'.y-pjr+p'sO,

an

For supposes -car + c"=0; ,'.p-ox of the firstorder and of the second degree.

equation
z2

340
For

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

obtain we differentiating

and

making successively y^ax-\-c,

and
we

jf

a*

c', we

get the results

"

"

; as

ought.
du
since

Again
y-~c
=

from and

the

original equation,
-

"j^^*^*
=

"'"

^axy

This

squaringboth sides, (tf c)' inclined at equationgives two lines,

the axis and of x, but

aV.
rections different di-

to

both

the may

same

point;
groups

by giving to
lines in

cutting the axis of y in (c) different values, we

have

of such

pairs. And

the

integral

result,except that gives the same (^-aa: + c)(^+ flj:--cO tion; direceach factor represents only lines inclined in the same values, and c' all possible but by giving to c and lines in which taking care to collect togetherthose straight in c' are equal,we shall find the solutions comprised c and is limited to the single the equation lif--cy a'x\ which
=

constant

c.

Ex.

2.

Let

^
^
3

"^"

or

"

Jax;
=

.".

jaxy and ;^ ""v^"

and
if
=

.-.

+ c, -^flar*

-'-Jax^'^"/,
o
=

each

of which

is

comprised in (y -"?)*
the
curve

^^"
q

Ex.

3.

Find

when

ax-\-

by.

And

"."

-J-

is

obviously constant, ^^t

c,

.*.

mx

the

equation to

line straight

"

Ex. 113.
can

4.

p'y + ^.px
When the with

"

yi

y*

"

9.ax

a\
x

be

solved

equationonly regard to x, we

involves

and
:

p,

and

proceed thus

342
And of
z
X

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

being
1.

found

(2), (f" y may

of
x.

be

determined

in terms

and

therefore Let

in terms
=

Ex.

y-par
=

j?^l +JP*.
.'.

Make^

x2r;

z"p

Ji-hp^;

xd2

1 +

JS"'

"""*""(^)='*'srT?=^*'"
.".

a?'+y*-2ca:
=

0,
in the circumference.

the

equationto
This the

the origin circle, being

of the

is the solution

in which is Ex.

from perpendicular the

+

problem : Find the origin upon y'^cx

"

the

curve

the

gent tan-

equal to
2.

abscissa.

y-

2px

4y|"*
=

0 ;

.\

c'.

115. mula.

called Integration 0/ the equation,

Clairaufs

For"

y=px+/{p)^px
when Differentiate,
we

P:

have

dy
dx
^

dp
dx

dP
^

dx* -P'

.".

since

j^
=

l"j and

-j"

5^
*

w"

^*ve

(*+
make

P0|;.".|=o,orx
+

P'=o.

If

we

-j^
=

0;

c;

.\

cx

c\

This
if
c

equationappears
be

to have

put for p in the

what
P C This from becomes
=

constants arbitrary ; but C for P, C and originalequation,

two
c

being
y
=

when the

is substituted

for p,
one

then

cx-\-C; ,\ Again,

c\ and
j?

constant.

is the
+

equation has but general solution.

=

arbitraryobtained into

P' of

0,
or

value

of p

will be

which

is

function

y, an4 does

not

introduce

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

343

the

originalequation the constant by the elimination of formed which the differential equationwas ; such a solution of the equationis called a singularor particular solution. value the general The particular be derived from may solution, by making c to vary ; and as y -ca^-k- C is the solution gives the equationto a straightline,the particular which is the locus of the intersections equationto the curve of the straight lines denoted by the generalsolution.
Ex.1. y-px
=

ajl+p*;
^

"

dx

dx

Jl+p'dx*
=

.-.

\ x+
t
jp
"

,^
c,

"

0, and

-^
^
+

0:

Jl+p'^
and
y
=

/.

cx

ajl

c*,

which

is the

generalsolution.

But

*=.---"?X

.""!=Lt"'.
/J
"

"

JIH-l.
-a

flo

J^'^^
which
which upon

^a'-x^

A/a'-""
"

is the
each the

solution of the problem : of the perpendiculars drawn

a

Find from
a

the

curve

in

given point

tangent is equal to
Let
^=j"jf
+

given line/'
"".

Ex.2.

-(l+p*);
Jr

^a

(" + ").

Ex. Ex.

3.

y^px

a^TTf;
-T-==;

J^
/.

ca?+a^^j[;7?.
"J
"

4.

y ^px

^i +
-

at.

Vl+jp"
Ex.
5.

Let

{y

joar)- a"^' K
=

or

j;

this is the

curve

in which

AD^^a"^'^

AT.

334

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

"

"

Let ""*^*

"i ;

."" a?

ari"*^' .". "fo ;

h

dx^. ^"1'*+*
WI+

I
^
-^^

And

rfy+
1
.

"

"

y/rfr,
= =

"

"

x^
l

ciri ;
m^

m+l''

wi

or

putting

6.,

ff,,

and

which
"

may
4ii ; or

be
if
."

integratedby
fw
=

the
* ,

former
wi
=-

method
"

if
TT

nty^

4"
,

4"
-.

whence

Hence

Riccati's
"

equation
The

is

when integrable

is of

the

form
to

firstcase

belongs to

the upper^

the

second

the lower Ex.

sign. Integratedy + ^dx

Here
-i
^
=
"
"

1..

is of the form
""

9,71+ 1'

.'.

"

-^

^x{^dxi^
yi
=
-

"

3a*dxi,

Vi
-

dyi Sa^yidxi
Let
-

Sx^^dx^.
=

Sa*

6"

"! ;

.*.

+ h^^dx^ cfyj

ftia?i"*"iri-

Nowlety,"g^+J..
Then

^Si"
1

"

or """ fljari-*,

-^
=
"

("! JxS^;
-

dxx
fli
"

Xj* "fe,
Sa
__

Ji2|*
-

(a'-ar," 1)

'

"^"

1 /aZy + 1 "^V aJSTj-l ^c"

^-x^-^-^a J%c?Xxy\
+ *|-3a' 3a"X|'^i

^"cV
jr'

.*. smce

"

"

and

Vi

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

335

c" I 3a"a.-f

+^

(ori 3a) )
-

Ex.

2.

Let

ay

'\-%fdx
"

"

"

Here

"

--

is of the form 2"-l'

-^:

3
.*.

let

"

and

"."6

1,

wi

-"-

"

-Jax

--5-=
or

a***** becomes

-r-

^ T=
X

fl*x"*.

ax

Let

5f

"

and
,

"." wi

"

.". m

^1

3'

Let

"i

=ari;

.*.

arirfj? S^iri ;
=

3i:r,
-

"

5 ;

.".-"
X"

"w

X\

X\

which, as
110.

has been

shewn, is integrable.

the in which happens that equations though alvariables are separatedadmit of algebraical integrals, of each part is transcendental. the integral dx dy It sometimes

Thus, since
.""

/j-"

+
.

"Tfr^

=0,

(1);
sin"*
c.

sin"'X

sin"'y^C^

.*. we

xjl'-y^-hyjl-n^^c;
obtain the
t
same

may

however

result,thus

xydx

[ xydy

or

-yjl-jf
since

which

+ fixjl-a^'=''c; flyjl-'a^-a!jl-y' 0, reduces itselfto dy J\ -a^ + dx Jl-f yJl-a^-^-xJl-y^^c, +

=

relation between the required algebraic

y and

x.

336

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

Jll.

Again, let
x

-;"^U= -=i:^=0;
+

make

y and

functions

of another

variable

/, so

that

ct

x-\-y^py

then

squaring and difierentiatlng,

(Px
" ,

J*v

Multiply

both

sides

by

-^^ and

integrate;

or

Ja
-^

bx +cx^

JC Ja +by -k-ci/*
=i

-i-^b (x +

y) + o{x +y)\
*

^
'

^
+

Ja+by+cy*

ey^+fy*

Ja+ba+cs^+ex^-i-fx*'^

.-.

^=-Ja
x+y
=

by

cy'+ef-^fy*^JY.
whence

Make

p;

x"y-q;

squaring and

ferentiat dif-

.".

multiplyingboth

sides

^7

"

"^

"

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS,

337

whence

integrating

J=C ^.
dp

ep+/p';
dx

...

i^^qjcep+fp-i
+

dy

algebraic equation^ which may rational form : for writing {x -^) Jp

an

be

put

also
of

under

instead

the

right-

hand

side

of

the

equation, invertingand
X-Y X-Y
_

multiplyingby

'''

JX-jY

{x-r,)JP'
.-.

or

JX+jY=^^_ j-i
{x-y)JP

by addition,

{x-y)JP
becomes rational
d0

'

and

squaringboth sides,the equation

dip

Let

^
"""

yr^r?^E";

/.

-^l-.e'8in'a;
=

^==-e^sm^.cos^;

-e*sina.cos^;

"""

5^+^=-2("n2^+sm2^),

.*.

by making
d^p
"

(p + 0^ q

"l"'-6^

e"
+ g) + 2-{8in(p

d^ d^q

sin(p-5r)} -e"sin;).cosg,
=

c*

^"=-2--{sin(p+g)-sin(p-gr)}=:-e".singr.co

348
tween
.

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

and
^ of

p, thence
dx
^

we

obtain p
du

in terms

of u, and

"".

in

terms

from

"

"

fa Ex.2.

"

C3c\

Jr"g (5^ -pa?)' ;

=

"log{"

^j.

119.

To

the equation integrate

whence
an

"'

Pm

-=-

0,

ox

equation of the first degree and order; but which is It and seldom P when Q are functions of x" integrable however P and Q are constant when -B; ^; Q is, ; letP
= =

dx

or

(m-")(m-*)
u
"

0;

which

is satisfied by

making
^

and

"=

6;

and

e/-*

c*^'

c^

either of these values substituted for y will satisfy the conditions tion, of the differential equation; but the complete soluwhich must CjC" + c^ ; comprise two constants, is ^
=

which

by

substitution
1.

we

find also satisfies it. of m* and 6

+

Cor.

If the roots
a

Jm
=

0 be

impossible,

fl

Pj^^,

Pj~^l ;
-

c"*

+ Ca) cos fix+ (c, {(ci

Cg)J'^siu )Sx}.
=

Make
.'.

c, +

c,

^ sin
cos

^, (c,
-

c,)^/^
=

-4

cos

S ;

y^Ae*

8 {sin

+ ySj;

cos

I sin

/3j:} ^e"*

sin (y^x +

S).

350

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

substitution of each
will integral

in it will

it. satisfy of
+
n

Hence

the

complete

be^ by the introduction

^
=

constants^

+ c^ c,e" + CgC**

"c be

CoR.

1.

Should

any

of

the

roots

equal,as

h;

then

for Ci"f" +

c,"^, put c^("?i + c^x);

.%

+ C3C" + + CaX) "l"(Ci

"c.

And

if three roots
+ e"(c,

be

and equal, for CjC"

be the

equal root, put

c^,

0^0? +

c^)
of

c^

and

so

on

for any
2.

number

equal roots.

substitute for pairs of roots be impossible, the impossible functions, the cosines and sines exponential of the circular arcs, to which they are equivalent.
CoR. Ex.1.

If

^+n"tf=0.
Let
tt
=

"^;
=

.".

j?=""^*;
f"*+n'
=

dti*~^'^^*
0, and

.'.

fii*e'"*+n*e"* 0;

,".

m^^nj"
sin nO

1 ;

"a + (c' c") y^ + c") COS (c' A cos(n6 + 5).

-

If

c"

il

cos

JB, and
+

(c-c")^^
0.

^ sin R

Ex.

2.

Tg5

tru

a"

Make

a*

and w"/3,
.-.
M
=

/3
=

fv;

"""

-i5r+

w'w'

0 ;

-/? +

-4

cos(n0+ ^).

Ex.

3.

T^ +
Make

2A: T7

+/*

0.

s==^;

.*.

m*

SA-ni+y

0 ;

.-.

,?

e"'^^+ r*'(c (2)

space the arc

c'r^^-^
=

^r^'cos

(af+ B).

Examples (l) and

Ex.
moves

(3)gives the
the

dirough

PhysicalAstronomy; a body time, when a function the resistance varying of a cycloid,

are

useful

in

of the

as

velocity.

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

351

Let

y=^;

.'.

wi*-6^n'

llm-

0;

Ex...

U.g-3g.s|-,.0.
car). e-*'(ci S"**"^"*"^^^"^''
.-.

^^"^-

Ex.

7.

V?

-^
+

34y

0 ;

.*.

+ 5j:). -4c^cos(B

Ex.8.

^-1^+^
ax .'.

0.

Let:r

e-j

xdx

ar

+ c,s:)ar(ci + Cj logx). e'(ci

=

Ex

^+1^-^

0-

Ex.

10.

Integrate 3^
.-.

""

^V

O*

CiC"

Cgr*" + A

co3(B + flar).
^"

Ex.

1 1.

Integrate

j^
=

"*y

Here

OT*+a*=0:

"

^^=
"

and
,

.-.

4"^^cosrJ5

^U
-

"^^cos fB, A.e"

^j

Ex.

12.

Integrate -r^ ^x*

.%

-,

fl' dx^

v',

CiC*+

Cae

'+03
0.

+ C4ar.

Ex.

13.

IntegrateT^-y
Make
y
=

e"";

.*.

"i"

"

"0,

352
let 1^
oi, Og,
"'"

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

a^,

04,

"c.

a^i,

be the roots
+

of this

equation

+ CjC^a* + "C. CiCf+ CaC*"'

C^c'^^'.

122.

To

solve the

equation, (")"
be

S*''|-"!^-"
We shall
to

shew

that the solution

upon

of

made

depend

that of the

equation may equation,

this

To

effect this^ we
consists in

proceed to applyto
"

this

a method equation^

called
which the

by Lagrange^

The

Variation
=

of the

Parameters

;"

this,that if ^

+ c c'^j

equation(2),we may assume if c and c' be considered functions (1),

Let
.*.

y, be the solution of it to be that of equation of

x.

he + c'^a c'^i

the solution of

(1);
"

...

^^c/^^
dx

c^^'
dx
one

dx made
make but

v ^^

"

dx

V ^'

dx

But and

as

we

have
may

to supposition ; let therefore

determine

c'

(/', we

another

^'dx^^'dx"^'
da^ dx*

"

dx""" dx^^
dx dx dx

dx'

dx' in the

dx

whence

by substitution

original equation(1),

dx which

dx

dx

dx

by

means

of

equation(2)is reduced
dx dx dx dx
y, d(/
'

to

dc"
dx

ya dx'

dx \dx

tfadxj

'

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

353
c' ?=

whence

-j-

is found
=

to
+

be

function of x^ and

X, + Cj,

c" also similarly

X,

C, ;

A similar Ex.
1.

of to equations proofapplies

higherorder.

-^+ a'^ Integrate

cos

^o?.
+

The

solution of the 5(
=

^ equation
ax

a* y

0 is

c' cos

c"sin ax;

let this be the solution of the

proposedequation ;
d"/

dy
"

d(/'
.

".

-f-^ax
s
"

ca

sm

ax

4- c'a

"

COS

a"

-,"

cos

aj?

uj?

+ -^" ax

sm

a j:

c'a sin ax
Since

(/'acos
cos ax

ax.

-J-

-t"

sm

ax

"

ax

ax

d^y
"".
-7^
="
"

dc'
etc
,
.

dd'
.

,,

cos

ax

"

(T a

sm

ax

"

a-r--

sm

ax

-r-cos
ax

ax

ox' d(/
=*
"

ax

dc"
.

a^

"

a-p-

smax

--7"

cos

ax;

d"/
.

dd'
sm

,-.

a^
"
^

ax+

"

cos

ax

cospx

(1).

rfc"

cos

ax

cfc'

dc^ f
.%

cos*ax\
.

-a-j-lsmax

"

)"C0S/?x;

.*.

2r

"

+ 8in(a-/^x}, cos)Sxsiaax ---{sin(a+ jS)x

=

and

-T"

cos

cos /?x

ax

"

{cos (a+/^x
. """"

cos

(a-/3)x} ;

^
. ""

y-/.

/cos(a+/3)x
"

cos(a-/3)x\
a" ^"

'^^'^''^i^l +
1
"^
,,_

/?
.

/'

sin(a-/3)x| /8in(a+/3)x "*" /' ^'^"'^2^1 a + .^ a-/3

1

/cobSx

cos/9x\
+
"

.'. VBCiCosax

Cgsmax

T-l
2a\a
COS

^+ p

^| ^^pj

)3x

Cj COS

ax

+ c, sm

ax

-,

-^

Aa

r
354
DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

Ex. Let
as

2.

Integrate 'T^'^^'y-^*
c' COB 1,
J

If

ax

"/' sin ax, be the solation.

Proceeding

in

Example

sm

lax" ax

-"J-

T-

cos

curs-= owr
a

aj?

ax or

"fc"

dc'

cos

And
dx
A
a

ax
'

dx sin and

ax

.*. ^-

sm

ox,

dx

-p-

cos

ax;

dx

.".

c'=c,
c"

"

j^Xsinax,
-

Ca +

/,X COS
ax

ax

;
cos
ax a

.'.

c,

COS

c,
ax

sm

ax

.^

sm

ax

sin
+
a

L A
"^

-w

cos

ax.

Ex.

3.

Integrate

,^ A^
+

By='X;

X=f(x).

Let
.*.

a
=

and c'c"

h be the roots
+

of the

equationtjf+Am+B^O;

let If

c/'c** be the solution of the

equation ;
cue

ax

dx

Make

"^^' 0; ^$^ dx
+
=

dx

.-.

^==ac'^'+hc"(^.
dx
ax

ox*
/.

ax

e'er

+ (a'

Aa

E)

+ Ab c"e/^(b''

B)
XT

^dc'
ox

hmd(/
dx

And

a*

Ja+B

0;

h'

Ah
y

B^O;
^

^dc'
ax

,dc!*
dx

BIFFERENTUL

EQUATIONS.

355

ax

ax

.:

and -(a-6)e^^' X; {a-by^^X,

=
t

Ex.

4.

Integrate T""^^
/.

^"

Cje^ + c,e" + g

(*+

Simultaneous
123. In the

Differential Equations.

of the Differential Calculus to applicatioils quently freare physicalproblems,mutually dependent equations

found

in which

"

1 variables

are

involved, and

as most commonly the unknown tities quanand and shall are t; x Xy y^ y being functions of ^ ; we first solve the system of equations which involve these tities. quanof solution is due to D'Alembert. The method are equations given:

Let

J-" B-"
+

Cx

I"y=:0y

and
be

D^^^Bi, Ai^'+Bi-^+CiX
+

the

two

: A^ B, equations

"c.

being constant,
-r-

6 and

^i
dv

dx

functions of /. these may

the successive elimination of By ^

to

and

-^
dt

dt

be reduced
+
aa?

the

form,

^
Now dt^
Let
a

6y=r(l),
m

^
and
'^

ai^

%-

Tx (2).

multiply(2)by
^' ^

add the

productto (1) ;
^'

a-k-ma

^
=

and let mu

m^

be

the two

values of Aa2

mui

I
L
*
'

356
from resulting
.*. we

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

the

also equation;
two

shall have
d

the

linear

let "+^iai=ri; A4w"ai= Ta; of the first equations order,

=

+ mjif) + miy) (op +r,(jf

2*

WxTi

^
.-.

(" + w;^) + r,(x+ iii^)

=

2*+

m,

Ti ;

J?

OTi^

e-i** r + III, {/,e^i'( Ti) +

q,

Ex.

Let

"T-

4y

5"="f';
+

^+d?
+
a (5+ "i)

2y
=

e*;
+

"".

+ + (4 + 2m)^ ;i7(-ipw*^)

"ic*.

"Let
"

"

.*.

or

"4,

5 + fiis=6 orl:
'

or

a?-4y

+ Q r-'{j;e'(e'+c*)

ic'+ ic"+C,c-';

which

give a;

and
to

y in

terms

of t,

124.

Next

the integrate
+

simultaneous r

equations,

da $+(^" dt

By.+ C*)

(1),

(^^+5^+C^)
are
m

7; (5):
of

where
/:

^, ", C, "c.

(2)by multiply
j7

constant^ and 7\ 7*,, Tg functions and (3)by m' and add ;

=

.".

(" +
-

""y

+ -4i"+ ^a^O {"+ B'y + C'js} J7, + (i4 ""'^)

jB
",

jwB, + m'5j
"

C
c
^,
=

+ +

mCi
5

m'C^
,-.
,

wnere

x"

-;j

A+Aim

Agm'

/ "

-j

tnAi + mfAg

.*,

ifB'sswi;C=m';

Aim
a

-{'

M A^m'ss

my-^m'z^^v;

|
which
also since from

Jtfr=tr,

linear

equation,
v

will give the integrated B'=^ m, and

relation between
two

and

/:

C^e=m,

cubic

will equations

ffla^i'^T?

1
358
DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

Total
Let be du
=

Differential Equations.
+ Q,dy

Pdx

Rdz

supposedto

arise from

which the equation^ the differentiation of

be

may

and since when

this is the case,

dP^dQ
we can

dP^dR^

d" dz

"
"

dy" dx'' dz" dx' ascertain when an always

Let du

dy
a

equationis
dii +

rential. total diffe-

Ex.

-^
=

dx
z

+
az

"

"

("
y
-"^

-,

^"^^dz.
-

^)

^=JL":!^
"

"fP^
dx'
dz

^dR
^

dy

"

(a

z)'

dx

'

du
y

du
J

xy_
a-z

C.

127.
=

Next
may

to

the equation integrate

Pdx
=

Qjdy+
Q
"

Rdz

0, which

be

put under the form

P

rfj8:--g"ir -wcfy;

Q
g
=
"

or

which,by making
may Now

"

-=,

-=,

be written

dz be

+ g^fy. pcir

if this equation can

^

=f(^" y^ c)" ^^ ought to

have

expressed by an equation /(*" y" ^) ^'

=

we

"

-4^,

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

859
dz

dp dy
dz
or '."
-V-

dp
dz'

dz

^dq
dx dz

dq

dy^
1 "-=-

dz' dx*
1

-s

g,

and

p^

we

have

dy
an

dx^^dz

^dz"^
which
we can

"^^^'
ascertain whether
=

equationof condition^by admits the proposedequation

If
we

of the solution g the

^

restore

the values of p and

^

/{x, y^ z) equationbecomes
dQ\
^

c.

^(dOi
when

dR\

fdR
the

dF\

/dP

,^,

this

equationor

preceding one
as

holds^
and

one

of the

variables

must

be considered

constant,

the

part

of the

for the

equationintegrated accordingto the of of variables. two integration functions

1.

rules

remaining given

^x.
tj

{y + z)dx
dP
.

(x + y) dz
dP
^

-^

(z + x) dy

0.

7,

da

da
,

Rszx-^y;
.*.

J"

T"

"

"'"

equation (2)is satisfied;

^
+
=

making
.^

dz

0;
x

'

.-.

+ 5)+log(y log(ar

5) ^(2:)=log(Z);
=

"""

+ {x-\'y-\-9,z)dz^dZ; {y + z)dx'{-{x-k'Z)dy

.*.

^=2s;
-

.'.Z

js*+C;
"

xy

xz

yz

C.
0.

Ex. 2. (ay Make z constant;

bz) dx + (cz ax) dy + (6a: cy)dz .-" dz=^0^ then

-

"il_+_^
cz
"

0;
'

ax

ay ay
^

"

oz

...log("y:^) logZ; ax)

=

\cz

"

ady
cz
"

ax

a{ay'-hz)dx (cz-axy

aibx^cy)
^

^^^^
*

(cz-ax)'
"

"".

(cz ax)dy + (ay-bz)dx+ {hx

"

cy)dz^O

{(cz ax)YdZ
"-'

;
=

dZ

0 ;

.-.

C;

/.

(ay bz)
-

(c-s ax),
-

360
128.
If the

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.
+

equation Pdx

Qdy

Rdz

is
the

not

be rendered but may means so by completedifferential^ satisfied be still of a factor Fy the equation (2) must : for, multiplying by Fy

FPdx d.FP
"
_______

FQidy+
d.FQ
*

FRdz d.FR

is
" .

an

exact

diflFerential ;.

d.FP
" '

d.FQ
,

d.FR
"

j^

_^_____

'dy

dx

'

dx

dz

dz

dy
'

\d^'"dx)
\dx

*^"
dx

'dx"

dzj

dz

\dz

dyj
and add
:

dz

dy

Multiplythe
and the third

first of these

equations by 22, the second by Q,

we

by P,

have

Kf-S)*";(f-S)--(f-l^
the
same

equationas
the be solved

When
it must

precedingarticle. differentials dxy dy, dz exceed the

in the with

first degree,

respect to dz
of the
=

and

can

then

only be
are

when the factors integrated the form dz pdx qdy 0.

"

equationso

solved

of

Partial
129.
the

Differential Equations.
required to
find
z

It is here

-f{xy) from
from
some

one

of

differential coefficients, or partial between them. existing

dz

relation

To

-r-^P; integrate
on

being a

function

of

jp, .y, 2 ; we

first integrate it instead

we

add -P

that y is constant, and supposition of adding an arbitrary after the integration constant if the equation be add we "p{y):similarly 0(j?),
the

"

dy
Ex.
1.

j-

o;

.\

z:=ax

fp(t/),
^

Ex.2.

~;

"".

""" log^f^logjj'^Cy);

^^(5'"

DIFFERENTIAL
"

EQUATIONS.

361
dx
_

cfe
V
"

_.y*H-g*,
,

ds

.-.

tan-i-tan-f

tan-"^(y);

f^-Hif)+

130.

To

the equationPp integrate

at once^

Qqsz R^
qdy
j
*

in which

P, Q, 12^contain
7

x^i/, z; dZ"
J

as

^pdx

^a^

.*.

p
^

"

,\

Pdz substituting^ there

a:,
are
"

"

Rdx

(JPdy CLdx).
^ "

Here

two

only z

and

Prfy
F

of these factors may Case

a

contain may and either both Qrfo? a: ; 2nd, or only y contain all the variables*
cases:

Ist, Pdz

Rdx

1.

Let

be the factor which and dN

will make
factor

Pdz"Rdx which
will

complete make Pdy" Qdx

.'.

differential dM,
=

F^ the

dM-^-^"dNy
function of

which

cannot

be

unless integrated

is

N,

-0'(iN^); whence

dM^"l)\N)dN;
^ '^

Ex.1,

px

qy-nz;
xdz

alsops

"

.*.

"

nzdx^qixdy^ydx);
and

and

to

xdz-nzdx, integrate

xdy-ydx^ by
-j

we

must

ply multi-

the former

by

-^,

the latter

Ex. Ex.

2.

pa?

5y="0;
=

.*.

jar=0f^j.
JEr=

S.

gj:-|3|y op

0;

.*.

+ y). 0(aj*
c*c

Ex.

4.

+65=0;
a:*;

.'.

s=!"

+-^.(fly

"

Jj?).

Ex.

5.

pa:-g

.*. ^

-o +

^. (^ + logar).

362
Case
2.

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

Next

let the
"

of the

Pdp them *separately" since longer integrate

"

functions
constant

variables. or, y, Q/ix, and Pdz

nor x

be found

in both
can
no

Rdx
z

we

cannot

be

sidered con-

in the

former^
if
we so

in the latter.

Lagrange observed : and conjointly

iV": and be M of the latter

that if these
that

call the

M;

constants being arbitrary

=

then

grated inteequationswere former o f the integral and b a N=a^ and M=by will the complete integral

succeed, one of "p{N). But that this method may involve of the variables only; and the equationsmust two ables will enable us to eliminate one its integral of the three vari", y, z, from the remainingequation.
The
Since Pdx and from
-

truth of this the

=

proposition may
=
-

be thus
=

shewn.

iV equations

Qdy
M
=

0, and

Pdz

by are derived from a, and M Rdx 0, the differentials of iV" a

=

b will be satisfied

by the

values

of

dzy dy, deduced

these latter

and putting : hence differentiating equations

M^^ ^'
Mjix
+

mJ-^
dx'
=

"^

dy'
and

M^^' ^'
+

dz'
=

+ M^ Mjjdy

0;

N^

Nydy + N^dz

0.

But
.-.

from
+

the

equationM=
=

(p(N) ;
"p'(N) {N,dx + N^dy
.

M,dx
.

Mj,dy + MJz
-

N^dz] ;

hence

M^, {Pdy
=

Qdx) + M,
-

{Pdz

Bdx)
-

"p'{N) {N^iPdy

Qdx) + N,(Pdz

Bdx)} ;

...

iPdy^Qdx)^^^{Pdy^Qdx); Pdz^Bd^^-^^^^^
.*.

dz^

dX'-m.dy;
which substituted
in

whence

"

"

"

the
the tegration in-

R satisfy it ; and therefore equation Pp + Qq original assumption that M^"p{N) (which is derived from the of Pdy Pdz Rdx ^0) is and Qdx 0; solution of the problem^ is completely justified.
=
"

the

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

363

Ex.

1.

pa^^qxy-^y^^Oi
"'.
.'.

^dz

i^dx

q{a^dt/ -^yxdx);
0

a?dy "\- yxdx

+

(X);
^\

and

a^dz

f^dx^0(2)i
.%

from

(1), xdy (2),

a?'rfj5 +

ydx

0 ;

xy

"

"

N;
6

a" from

a*
=

-gdj?

0;

.*.

z---3

iH,

Ex.

2.

^j;
"".

^
-

"

Jx' +y

a:rf;5

Ja^ + ydlr
^
= =

"ydx) (a?(fy
;
,\

from

jfrfy ^^-2? 0;
"

ax;

.".

4?rfj8r n
-

Ja^ +

a'x^dx

0;

.'.

jsr

"

nor

^1
+

a"

itf ;

.-.

z-nJj^^f^^p^N);
p?' + gy-/
4.
=

z^njx'

y' +
+

ipi^y

Ex.3.

0;

2=|-+^(^ logj^j..
+ ^)" ^ (j^ a?*). (a:
-

Ex. This

qx+py^nz;
well
as

J8r =

equation as
solved

the
z

more
=

general one
e*.

Pp+

Qg

i^z^ is best
Ex.5,

by making

+ ay'-^-y; i'a^

Ex.6.

p+,.f
=

^^;

^=i^log@+*(^-^ ^_i^+^=.^(g.
are***^" Vi?H^
'

Ex. Ex.

7.

f)ar+ gz +^

0;
+

0(^" + z").

8.

(c-z)

(a-%

(6-y)g;

"'"

f"

=^*(^-^5

Ex.

9-

^ p^-^qy^^;

'y+/(f)-

Ex.

10.

z-'px-qy

fn(x+y-hz);

364
Ex.
11.
"'"

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

(^ {y

"

"

hz)p (4? az)q^ bx Q hz)dy-\-{x-'az)dx

" " "

ay;

(1),

{y ^hz)dz
"

"

(bx ay)dx
"

=3

0 0

(j? az)dz+ (bx ay)dy

.*.

(2), (3) ;
5"
-

(2)X (2)X
.'.

"

(3)X
ds
3
X

b and
adx
+

-r-

by
=

ay ;

.'. j:

bdy
-f

0.

and

by
=

"ar

ay

.'.

xdx-hydy +
=

zdz

0;
+

this is the 131.

+ ax y* + J8* "p(z generalequationto surfaces

j:*+

5y),

of revolution.

The

same

method

differential to partial applies

number of variables.

a equationscontaining greater

"x.

1.

Let

nu

px-^ qy
dz
"
=

az,

where

j,

and

z=f{xyu)i
dz
"

"""

J dz

pdx
"

qdy

qdy

"

ndu
;

ndu ; q

,\

pxdz
X

-^
-

.'"

n{udx

xdu) +
.'.

(ydx

"

xdy) +

azdo;

0 ;

udx"xdu^O;
0; ycir-ar"fy
=

.".

A
7:

xdz

"

azdxs^O;

.'.--

.'.

since

7=0("^);

"''0(^* |V
^^P^"^ .y
"

Ex. 2.

op

69+011
=

0; put
"

n=

.*. -8:=

^{(ca? an),(cy 6w)}.

132.

When the

exceed

differential coefficients 0 and q partial first degree^ be considered as a function q must the values
of

the

of p, Xy y, z, and

^, -7^substituted
0, which
is derived

in the

equation ^ dz^pdx
+

"^

5^ jr

-P;^
=

from

qdy^ considered

to

be

complete differential.

366.

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

.-.

f,j,M+"l"(x)+f{y).
Jiff

iPsS

134.

Let

T"

="

P
.

-J-,

being

function

of

"

and

^'''

'"^"^**~*^^'"2=""0(J')+"/(y).
To

135.

integrate

^
^

P^

or

Pp;

136. functions
If

To

integrate
x

^^'*'^
linear

^^

^^^**^

of

and

^.

-=-=jp;

.'.

"-T-'-'Pp Qy
=

equation;

whence

where e"{J],c^Q+ "p{i/)}

u^f^P;

Ex.

1.

Let

*y^

("-l)-^-^+";

DIFFERENTIAL
"

EQUATIONS.
+

367
where

137.
and

To

integrate Br

Ss+Tt^^Vy
q
:

B, S,

are

functions

of jr,y^ s, p and

and

^;
"

.-.

dq=^dy ^di,
+

tdy+sdx;
. .

/.

r=-^--7
+

dp-^sdy ^;
-

dq"sdx

i"--^
=

.'"

substituting

Rdpdy

Vdxdy Tdfgfdor
to

; (22(f/ Sdxdy + T^o:')

-

it is unnecessary

the integrate

two

members

if we can integrateone separately ; for and N= the integral have by combining this with the a, and j^ being functions M other arrive at the integral M=h, of X, y, j", prove, as in a precedingarticle^ may "p and q, we this result will give an and that JW'=^(iV): equationwith ferences difwhich must we proceed, as with an equationof partial of the first order.

of this tion equaof them as to so

Ex.

1.

To

integrate 73 dp
=

^'"

j1

"

or

c*/ :

since
.*.

rdx
"

sdy;
=

dq

tdy+

sdx ;

dpdy
dy

; c'dqdx 8(dy' c'dx')

"

di^

and

0; dp.-^-c^dq
=

.*.

cdp-c^dq
-

0;

.'.

p'-cq
;

"f"\a) "p\y ex).

=
-

But

"

^^-^
ccte
=

/.

dz

+ cdx); ^'(,y cx)dx "^(efy

-

.'. .".

+ (fy

0 ;

,\
=

y+cx

a,

y^a"cx;
=

dz-"p^(y''Cx)dx dz-"l"(a-2cx)dx
.'.

0;

z-"t"(a- 2cx)
""" 2
=

^ =/(a) =/(y
+

cx);

"P(y''Cx)+f(y

cx).

This is the
Ex.
.-.

chords. equationof vibrating

=

2.

arV + y't+ So-^j Integrate

=

0 ;
-

+ y'dqdx x'dpdy

+ j^'Jo?' ^xydxdy) (.tV^* ;

368

DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS.

ax

a?
y
y

du
=

and-^.dp.^-hdq

0;

dp

adq-0;

rf^r-

rfjr0

Kj
=

((fy

fl(fo)

.-.

d2''dx"l"{a)

0;

.-.

2-J:0(a)=/(a);

Ex.

3.

Let

q^r+p't^2pqs=0;
+

(p {z)

xf{z).

Ex.

4.

Let

v^j

^/

C=0;

Cor*
jEr
=
"

(y-

ma:) +/fy

-."!,").

Ex.

5.

V'-aH^xy;

Ex.

6.

x'r-y'i^O;

2J

NAy-/(|)
+

0^.

CHAPTER

VIII.

The

Calculus

of Variations.

1.

In the

problems of
of the has alwavs

Maxima

and which

Minima

hitherto

solved^ the form

property
class of when there is
a

function

problems^in
which

which
or

quired possessed the rebeen But there is given. a it is not only required to find,

maxiinuin

minimum^

but

also the

nature

of the function

possesses

the property.
between
to two

Thus be

if the

shortest distance

given pointsr.
dis-*

required,we
ascertain
; and

must, in
the
nature

order

find the minimum

curve

tance^

of the

that possesses

the

property
the and
we curves

thus, to continue
two

if C illustration, the

D
must

be

points,
the

select

from

CPD,

CQD,
must
one

that
our
.

which
fore

is the shortest: in
from
curve,
curve:

reasoning we
pass to another

therecurve
a

N'
one

from the

point P
change
PN:

in from

curve

to

point Q
a

in

another
of

to

is called
of

variation

the

ordinate

the

symbol

variation

being "
Thus i" NP
of
=

if, and of
to

if PQ

be

indefinitely small,the point P

curve

symbols 3

variation,and d of differentiation difier in this

means

respect; by
transfer P

dy

Pi indefinitely near
to
a

a pass from it, but in the same

we

to
:

another here
:

by 3y we
have
but

point Q
to at

in be

another confined

curve.

We

supposed the
a
=

variation also vary NP

=y

to

AN 2.

may Smce
.\

tiie same

time

the ordinate y that y does. also NQ

; .-.

N^Pi ^y-^dyi
=

=y

lyi

NA^NQ'hd(NQ)

ly + d(y + ly\
+

and

NiQi^NyPi'^h{NiPi)=y

dy-^h(y+dy);
changed, inter-

or

the

symbols of

variation and

difi*erentiation

are

Bb

370
Cor.
.\

CALCULUS

OF

VARIATIONS.

Hence

also if
=

be put ii^
or v

for y,
= =

dtdy
.'.

ld^y;
=

if5ify"i!t% rf%;
thus

ePhy Z"fy,and

d'Zy^Zt^y.
and the variation theorem will the small^

If the differential of ^ be taken

of ^ be also admit of the

=yi "y,

supposed to be very followingproof: ldy

=

Z(yi-y)^Zyi^hyr^d^.
similar theorem with

3. tion:

There
For

is

regard to Integra*
3tf
=

let

fii
=

Ui;

"*. "

dui ;

.%

dhii ;

Also

J*S" /3^
=

S/"i aj*!!,
=

and 4. From

thus

/"Bti S/'".
=

that variation perceive, is only differentiation under a new symbol; and that to find the variation of a function of y^ we must put ^ + Sy the that of volves inand function for y, which term expanded hy will be the variation of the Unction required: amounts to the same thingsthe variation is the or" what differential coefficient of u =/(y) multiplied by ly ; thus if

the

precedingwe

may

tt

sy^

Btt

ly; "y*~*
^^0

and

if

"=/(*"
/.

^^ Py 9" du du
=

P' 9" ^^' du du

J

^^^^g
du
J dp

^^"" *^^ -^'^'

J dq

i-

J dx +

^- ay

J-

--r-

-h

^ "c.

Mdx

Ndy

Tdp

+ Qjdq

"c.

by putting 3f
.-.

"c.; =-j^, P=.^^ iVr=-^,

+

lut:^Mlx

Nly
u

Pip

+ QSjf

"c.

5. and
some

To

find

l^,

or

jhu ;
s or

their

differentials ; and
as

y
t.

being a function of y and x and x being dependent upon

+

other variable
.\

du
+

1=^

Mdx
+

Nd^x

Pd*x

Qjd^x+ "c
"c. ;
^j?
;

mdy
M^x
+

+ pd^y+ qd^y+ nd^y "/

+

therefore
/"
"

d^x
+

d^x "2iir, PZdrx

+

"

Sff
+

Nldx

Q8(fa? +

"c.

mly

+ pld^y+ g'Sify + "c "S"?y

CALCULUS

OF

VARIATIONS.
+

371
Ql^x
+

.\

flu j{mx
=

Nldjc

Pld'x

"c.)

^mly

+ "c.) + ^Brf^^ + pld^y ; wSrfy

/.

by parts, and placingS after d, integrating /(/iVBar, frndx JNdBx Mx

= =
-

PdBa:

rfPajr+
=

S^ JQhd'x /Q(f
= =

Qd'lx dQdBx

ftf B^

jOTlx, jaO^ao: Q(/Bar + jff

-

"c.
=
^

"c.

"C.

fnldi^wBy JSnSy, Similarly dplx + ja"pBar, j5% /p8(i*j^

=
-

and

these values in Jhu,we have substituting jdu (N^dP-^d'Q-"c.)hx-\-(n^dp-hd'q--8cc.

=

+ + + +

(P-rfQ (Q
-

+ +

+ "c.)% + (p-rfgr "c.) "iSar

rf^
-

+ (g "c.)rf^ao?

(fr +

+ "c.)^a^

"c.

j(M

rfiNr + (fP-

(f Q d^r
+

"c.)Ix

/(m-dn-h^presult due
we

"c.)a^.
is

6. of
2,

The
and
must

justobtained

composed

of two

similar

parts, one

ly ;

the variation of Ix, the other due to that thus see that had there been a third variable
to

there

be added

to the

a precedingexpression,

series

of terms

similar to that which

involves hx.

7.
oi

When

is of the form

Vdx,
"{-

to

find the variation

jKdx.
Let dF
"

Mdx

Ndy
=

"{-

Pdp
=

Qdq -^ Rdr

Sec.

where

-^:

--4:r"f^.

"c

"".

ar=3iaar

iv%

pajo+ Qay +

"c.

Now

+ dx.ir) lJFdx Jh.Fdx=^f(ndx + flxlV ^lVdZx-\-dxW)^jVdlx Vlx "\-jidalV IxdV).

= --^

Bb2

372
But

CALCULUS

OF

VARIATIONS^

J(dxhF- IxdF)

Jdx{Mix Jhx{Mdx
-

2% Ndy

+ +

Pip Pdp
-

+
+

"c.) "c.)
"c.

TV-(Sy + /, ^plx) + /.P (Bp qlx)+ /.Q(S^r rlx)

n

dy

dp

da

"*"

J.

dxldif dyldx
" _

My

"

pSj?
'

*^

d^

dH

J.

dxldp dpldx
"
_ _

dip

"

qd"x

Now

let

Sjf" p(b=sip;

.*.

lp qix
"

-j-.

But

/.Pg-P" -/J..

"i"

dx

'

ate"
tPR
,

^df^R.^,^R^-^.-+^n"-f".^;
"""n^=n,
+

,,_"?"

j^dJ'tBdR

dw

d^R

+g-"c)". (P-f

f,"

dP

"PQ

"PA
.
.

8,

Thus

the

variation of is under

one partSj

of which

distinct consists of two and th0 the sign of integration,

f^V

374

CALCULUS

OF

VARIATIONS^

Maxima
10. article
We

and

Minima

Formvlce, of Integral

proceed to apply the results of the preceding volving to the solution of some geometrical problems^ inthe lengths and areas of curves^ the surfaces and of solids ; when these quantities volumes certain are, within limits of the variables, the greatest or least possible.
Now maximum
it may between S
.

we or

know

that if u, any

function and
to
same
=

of the

and
same

minimum,
has been

du=^0;
used

by

y, be a of kind

which reasoning
be shewn of
u

establish this

proposition,
the variation
seen

that under

the

circumstances

also vanishes ; but if u the limits of x^, yi, x^ y^

Vdx,

we

have

that

/.^= V^x^

V^lx^+ (P,

"c.)w^

-(Pi-^"c.)n;i+"c+

And

since when
the two
must

J^^is a

maximum

or

minimum^

hf,F=0;
is
posed com-

therefore

parts of which
:=

the variation ofLV

be put 0 ; one separately part will determine the co-ordinates values the relations between of the extreme of the

requiredfunction, the maximum the required

Thus Mdx
from
+

other
or

the function

which

sesses pos-

minimum

property.
=

11. dV=

N"-j--^~r-^
+

"c.

0, and
found

the equation the

curve

Ndy
"

function, which is or V^hxa P\^Xi + P^fVg PiWi "C.

"

Pdp + "c. may the object of our

=

be

enquiry,and
of position

from its
treme ex-

0, the

pointsmay be fixed, Ixi points disappears.

=

be

determined 0, and
=

; if however

the

extreme

Zxg 0, and the latter equation

12.
be points for wish

Thus,

the required, the problem ;

to

determined
we curves

given cient quite suffiof the integralbeing the constants if by the co-ordinates of the given points ; but find the shortest distance between two given
two

if the shortest distance former

between

equationwill

be

latter equation is also necessary, since it determines the pointsin the two the shortest to which curves
the
to be

distance is

drawn.

CALCULUS

07

VARIATION"

375

Its
given
two

use

may

be and

thus

illustrated ; let

PPi, QQi

be

the

curves,
curves

PQ,

PiQi

drawn let

between be derived
+

them,
from y

and

PiQi
and y

PQ

by writing a:
x
:

la,

-^ly for

also let

dy^
dx be the

and -fax

^n

to PPi, equations

and
be the

VL

ni

J/[f

QQi
/.

Uien
=

if xiyi^ x^^
;

co-ordinates

of P is

and

and

"

the point P (since

always

in

and that these equations PPt and Q in QQi ;) and between of the limits,V^x^" Filxi + "c. 0; two of the quantities, as 3^1 and Sy^ may be eliminated,and the two independent the coefficients of which, variations, Bxj and hx^will be left,
=

0, will giveequations, by which and being separately put P and Q, from the givenequations the points to the curves,
=

may

be determined. We

have

here

assumed tacitly
case,
some
new

that
to

Myi

0 and
must

Idxi

if this be not

the

conditions

be fulfilled

by the limits,which will enable us of the differentials of the equations

of which and
some

introduce the
curves
:

higher
means

the
=^

by given of the variations Mxy Idy, "c. may be coefficient of the remainingvariations
of the
extreme

nated, elimirately sepa-

and

0, and the co-ordinates the given conditions fulfilled.

put

points

13*

We

shall

now

deduce
dP

from
.

the

equation

d'a

some

formulae
and

of

great
+

use

in the solution of Problems

of

maxima
Let

minima. Mdx
.

dF^'

Ndy
dP

Pdp
d'a

+ Cidq

Rdr
.

"c.,

d^R

(1)

Let

all but

iV and

0;
dP

dx dV dx
^

dx

dx

dx'
rr
^

dP dx

^dp
dx'

376

CALCULUS

OF

VARLLTIONS.

(2)
.-.

Let all but

M, N, and P be=0;
+
"".

g=Jtf ^(Ppc);
+

F=f.M^Pp
terms

c.

(3)

Let

M^Oy

Ns

0; and all the

after

Q"

0;

dV

dQ

~,dg

dp

r\

Cor.

If M
1.

does
Find

not

0; r=

Qq

cp

Ci

+f,K
two

Prob.

the shortest distance

between

given

pointsin the

same

plane.

.-.

M=0;
dP

N^O;

P^-j^
dP_^

Q=a _p_

But

N^

"

"c.

0;

ax

the

equationto
by
2.

line ; straight

the

constants

a, h

may

be

determined

the co-ordinates

of the of

given points. quickestdescent

downwards.
tween be-

Pros.
two

Required the given points.

ds as

curve

Let y be vertical and

be measured

Then

time

Jr
i^pi
i; Q-0;

2^*
4y

Js-J^+p'

CALCULUS

OF

VARIATIONS.

377

1
_ _

*'"

P~\/
3.

*^"

equationto

the

cydoid.
two

Pbob.

To

find

the

shortest distance between

given curves.
From
to

Prob.

; (1) V"Jl-vjf

p^c;

y^ax-^-h

the equation

the line which

is the leastdistance required.

Let

wi,

and

"" be

the

equationsto

the

two

in curves, and yi x^ y^ x^ the co-ordinates of the points which the shortest line intersects them ; then since ly^,Ixi^
are

the variations of yi and

one adjacent

Xi

as

we

pass
=

from

one

pointto

another

in the

curve

-^
ox^

m;

0X2

0X2
-

aXg

But whence

F^lx^" Fi^xi+ P^w^

PiWi

0,

since the variations of the extreme

points
^ =

0,

Filxi+ PiWi
.-.

0 ;
-

+ P^w, TaSar,

0 ;

FM FM

+ +

Pi (bi
-

pM)

0. 0.

.(1) ; .(2) ;
=

Pa {^y, pM)
=

from

(1) ri + Pim-P,pi

0;

.". wi

pi-^
^

"

;
c

1^1
F

pi
1 ^"
=

from

(2) F, + P8"-P,Pj
.'.

0;
0 ;

/-n^p,-^
z'2

-75
*'

Pa

1 +

cw

and

1 +
cut

cm

0 ;
curves

which

shew

that

the

line

must to

both

at

right

angles.

Also the

equation

the line

being

X2"Xg
...

^^
"

^;
"

whence

for c, in substituting with the

1 +

cm

0 ;

and

1 +

c"

0 ;

we

shall have

equationsto
the four

the

given

curves

four

equationsto
thus

determine

tities, quan-

yi^ Xiy ^9, Xi^ and

the line is

mined. detercompletely

378
Pros.
4.

CALCULUS

OF

VABLLTIONS*

Find
radius

the curve,
of curvature^

which

within

its own

arc"
area.

its

evolute and

contains the least

.'.

F=-

^"^
"

; whence

the

curve

is the

cycloid.
minimum.

Pbob.

5.

Find

the

curve

when

/ ^^"^, is a

This

is the solid of least

resistance,

Prob,
curve

6.

Find

the

curve

to

another

curve,

the

quickestdescent from one zontal velocity being that from a hori=^^

"

of

line. Here V^
^

^^

.*.

^,

the

to equation

the

of the equations cycloid;

the limits
0 ;

give
+

V^lxy^ + V^ly^
-

'Px^^x^
=

V^x^

P,Sy, P^^jBor,0,
-

from

which

since

^
oXx

"i, and

^
0X2

11,

we

have
0,

yi-PiPi-^Pifn
=

0;

and

r,-Pjp8+Pa"
,-

Butr,-.P,p,"c

-i=, P=^
J^
=

^/y^/^+P^ ^/^
0; and 0;

^" -,==-^;
=

.-. -==+

^?r
l+/}im

-==+^^
=

0;

.*"

andl+pa"

0,
both the
we see curves

which
at

equationsshew

that the

cuts cycloid

rightangles^and
of the
we

from

a/
,

that the line from

its

base which

coincides with cycloid

the horizontal
to

have

supposedthe body
To find the
to
curve

have

commenced

motion. Pros.
one

7"
from

of

quickestdescent
the motion

from
mencing com-

given curve
Let

another

given curve"

the upper

curve.

^1

be the value of the ordinate at the

commences^

pointat

which
.

the

motion

y the value at the end

of time- 1

CALCULUS

OF

VARIATIONS.

379

Then

time

^4= (^-^l;
the function
of the limits
to
:

/.

^/S.
=

'

In this

problem ^yi I

V involves
in such

yi
a

one

of the
we

able variadd
then

co-ordinates

case

must

f dV the
term

the

equation of

the

limits,and

the whole

variation of the

j"V will

become "C.

S/,^= ^2^-^,-

P,tv,-P^rv^ VM-^hA^"^
dP
^,^j

d'Q
^

-^f'^^-di^-^S^'^'^^'
Now
to referring

the

problem^

whence

from

the formula

F=

Pp

c,

the

equationto

the cycloid,
commences.

cusp

being

at

the

pointfrom

which

the motion

.'.
or

r,Sx,
-

F,Sx,+ P^tv, Pi",

-

(P,

PO Syi 0,
=
-

(F,

P#,) 8*. ( F.
-

P, w.)8", + P,8y, Pfy^

-

0 ;

P=r

+ p,8y, p^yi (8", 8*1)

-

0.

V2a
But if

-4"" =

ffi

and

-^
"

^j be

the

to equations

the

given

curves,

and

n;
"

.:

substituting
=

whence

*.*

(1 4- p^n)8*3 (1 + paw) So?! 0, Ix^ and Ixi are independent variables.

380
or

CALCULUS

OF

VARIATIONS.

the tangents at the

curves are

pointswhere
since

the
pa^

cycloidcuts
"

the
the

two

also parallel;

it cuts

second 14.
a

curve

at

rightangles.
now

We

shall

consider

problems in
use

which

is also

of x, and shall make in Art 5. investigated

function

of

the

method general
between
two

Pbob.

1.

Required

the shortest distance

pointsin
Let
*

space.

be the distance ;

.".

+ d^ Jlds f^Jda^
=

ds^;

whence

0,

iii

0, M'

0;

dx
""

dy
^'

ds
I

ds

ds^'

ds

^'

an

equationwhich
I also

connects

the constants
"*" "
=

a^b, c;
, c': *

dx dz

dy
ds
":r"
=

b
-5
c a

"." :7- =-;

c'

a -j5 c

" y^-z-^c', ^

b
c

the

to equations

the

of projections

line. straight shortest line that the surface

are

Prob.
can

be

Let

equationto the drawn surface. a given curve upon of dzs=pda:+ qdy be the equation
2.
z

Find

the

; then

the variations of the co-ordinates x, ^,

which

under

the

sign/must

the differential equation; /. satisfy

Zz=plx-\-qhy ;

-/{{''"f*f-''-i)*'*(''whence
J

we

have from the part under

dx
J

the

signof integration'
dz
-,
^

dz
^

ji

dy
from
curve

whence^ having found

and

the

to equation

the

Uie equations given surface, to the

may

be found.

nf
382
"z.
3.
CALCULUS
OF

VARIATIONS.

If the surface be

cone,

.*.

Ci

1 i^

f e* sec*"*
-

j;

.". r

csec

the

to equation

the

elliptic spiral.
the Art equations,

15.

Resuming

14, Prob. 2, since

"Py

and square, add,

add

j;

"""(sy*(S)"*{^"="-''*"(g)'
or

if R

which

be the radius of absolute curvature, and y the angle makes with the axis of 5r, the normal to the curve
1
_

f^^y

"f2
,
^

cos

ds" (k if -y- be the direction cosine of the

ds

But

anglewhich

the

tangent makes

with z.
dz d*z

dy

COSY

'

B"

ds'
the tangent to
ja

Now

we

know, if 0 be the anglewhich

makes with the axis of
x,

1
=

planecurve

that

tt

-"

or

that

the rate at which shews under minimum

the inclination of the tangent increases or result decreases, varies as the curvature, hence the preceding
that this is also true distance between for the
curve

of double

curvature

the consideration, possessing any

two

property of being the

on points a

surface.

CALCULUS

OF

VARIATIONS,

883

Problems. Isoperimetrical
16. The

precedingproblems have
and

been

those of absolute
of

maxima relative maxima

^

minima;
minima.
a
a

we

and

Given

the

length of
by
it is solved

curve,

of questions Of this kind is the problem, find its equation, when the
now

treat

area

included
and called

maximum.' James

This

Problem

was

first

proposed
was

by

Bernoulli,and from
which
and
so

its nature
to

all

a name Isoperimetrical, of this kind. problems The problem of relative maxima Find defined to be this. y =/(*) ;
'

was

extended

minima

may
be
we

be
a

that

f^u may

maximum make is
a

while

f^Ui
=

c'

To

solve this
add

problem,
=

tiply mul-

by a J^Ui 8 {J,u +
.

constant
a

Jl",}
=

a, and 0 ; or

product to f,u,and + aui) 0 ; for since f^u S/,(m

the

maximum
as

and^t/i=c,

and

the former included

another

their separate variations will =0 ; is limited by the values of the variables in the variation of
+ aui); so J^(tf
"

in the there

all the conditions of the 'problem will be fulfilled latter, and be also if

equationof condition Lu^ Ci, we must and taKe the variation of add to the former integrals, bf^Uf + aui + bu^). /,("
Hence in

instead of then

V,

we

must

write

F+aui

or

V+aUi+bug
and ma mini-

and ^J^Ff
:

in these

proceed as examples the total variation

Of
all
curves area.

in absolute

maxima will be

expressed
that

by S/,r,.
pROB. which has
1.

of

find equal perimeters,

the greatest
*

Here

/.Mi /.^/rTp cj JL^=/.^;

=

dx
.V

V
=

"

dy
.".

-J-

Ja'--{y-cy'
-

x^Cx^^

Jar V

/-3

*-(y ^y -cf; ;

rs

(x

CiY+ (^
2.

c)*
=

a*.
curve

The
in

equationto
which
a

the circle.
of

Prob.

Find

the

chain

given