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METHODOLOGY

Methodology is the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study, or the theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch of knowledge. It, typically, encompasses concepts such as paradigm, theoretical model, phases and quantitative or qualitative techniques.

A Methodology does not set out to provide solutions but offers the theoretical underpinning for understanding which method, set of methods or so called best practices can be applied to a specific case.

It has been defined also as follows: 1. "the analysis of the principles of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline" 2. "the systematic study of methods that are, can be, or have been applied within a discipline" 3. "the study or description of method

The methods section of a research paper provides the information by which a studys validity is judged. Therefore, it requires a clear and precise description of how an experiment was done, and the rationale for why specific experimental procedures were chosen. The methods section should describe what was done to answer the research question, describe how it was done, justify the experimental design, and explain how the results were analyzed. Scientific writing is direct and orderly. Therefore, the methods section structure should: describe the materials used in the study, explain how the materials were prepared for the study, describe the research protocol, explain how measurements were made and what calculations were performed, and state which statistical tests were done to analyze the data. Once all elements of the methods section are written, subsequent drafts should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and logically as possibly. The description of preparations, measurements, and the protocol should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. Material in each section should be organized by topic from most to least important.
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The methods section is the most important aspect of a research paper because it provides the information by which the validity of a study is ultimately judged. Therefore, the author must provide a clear and precise description of how an experiment was done, and the rationale for the specific experimental procedures chosen. It must be written with enough information so that: (1) the experiment could be repeated by others to evaluate whether the results are reproducible, and (2) the audience can judge whether the results and conclusions are valid.

It is usually helpful to structure the methods section by:

1. Describing the research protocol or design 2. Describing the materials used in the study 3. Explaining how the materials were prepared 4. Explaining how measurements were made and what 5. Stating which statistical tests were done to analyze the data

Engineering design
A formal definition of engineering design is found in the curriculum guidelines of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET). The ABET definition states that engineering design is the process of devising a system, component, or process to meet desired needs. It is a decision-making process (often iterative), in which the basic sciences, mathematics, and engineering sciences are applied to optimally convert resources to meet a stated objective. Among the fundamental elements of the design process is the establishment of objectives and criteria, synthesis, analysis, construction, testing, and evaluation.

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Design Levels
As in any field of human activity, there are different degrees of difficulty. In design, these stages are adaptive design, developed design, and new design Adaptive design: In the great majority of instances, the designers work will be concerned with the adaptation of existing designs. There are branches of manufacturing in which development has practically ceased, so that there is hardly anything left for the designer to do except make minor modifications, usually in the dimensions of the product. Design activity of this kind demands no special knowledge or skill, and the problems presented are easily solved by a designer with ordinary technical training. One such example can be the elevator, which has remained the same technically and conceptually for some time now. Another example is a washing machine. This has been based on the same conceptual design for the last several years and varies in only a few parameters, such as its dimensions, materials, and detailed power specifications Development design: Considerably more scientific training and design ability are needed for development design. The designer starts from an existing design, but the final outcome may differ markedly from the initial product. Examples of this development could be from a manual gearbox in a car to an automatic one and from the traditional tubebased television to the modern plasma and LCD versions. New design: Only a small number of designs are new designs. This is possibly the most difficult level in that generating a new concept involves mastering all the previous skills in addition to creativity and imagination, insight, and foresight. Examples of this are the design of the first automobile, airplane, or even the wheel (a long time ago). Try to think of entirely new designs which have been introduced over the last decade.

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Design Process
To design is to create a new product that turns into profit and benefits society in some way. The design process is a sequence of events and a set of guidelines that helps define a clear starting point that takes the designer from visualizing a product in his/her imagination to realizing it in real life in a systematic mannerwithout hindering their creative process. The ability to design requires both science and art. The science can be learned through a systematic process , experience, and problem-solving technique which are the principles in engineering that are taught in school. The art is gained by practice and a total dedication to becoming proficient. The design of a device or system can be done in one of two ways: 1. Evolutionary change: A product is allowed to evolve over a period of time with only slight

improvement. This is done when there is no competition. The creative capabilities of the designer are limited. 2. Innovation: Rapid scientific growth and technological discoveries as well as competition among companies for their slice of the market have placed a great deal of emphasis on new products, which draw heavily on innovation. The creative skills and analytical ability of the design engineer play an important role. The invention of the telephone was a truly innovative design. Since its invention, many then tried to evolve and hence improve it over many decades, but very little actually changed until the next innovative and technological jump occurred, and that was the mobile phone. This created a whole new market along with new competition, and since then, this technology has been evolving once more every once in a while showing signs of new innovation, such as the inclusion of cameras and videocalling and the integration of pda, internet access, and mp3 facilities into one device. Proficient designers control evolution and innovation so they occur simultaneously. Although the emphasis is on innovation, designers must test their ideas against prior design. Engineers can design for the future but must base results on the past. Engineering students during their training are presented with a vast amount of theoretical material and information. They only realize their weakness when they are faced with the task of logically applying

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what they have learned to a specific end. As long as their work is based on familiar models or previous designs, the knowledge they possess is perfectly adequate to enable them to find a solution along conventional lines. As soon as they are required to develop something already in existence to a more advanced stage or to create something entirely new without a previous design, they will fail miserably, unless they have reached a higher level of understanding. Without a set of guidelines, they are at a loss for a starting point and a clear finishing goal line. The design process was formalized to enable both students and professional designers to follow a systematic approach to design and help them guide their creativity and technical problem-solving skills to a satisfactory end. There are various forms of the systematic design process, and different people list as few as four steps to as many as nine. Essentially though, they all revolve around the same following basic principles: 1. Requirements 2. Product concept 3. Solution concept 4. Embodiment design 5. Detailed design

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Below is an example of engineering design process map:

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Design Process
1. Requirements

In product development and process optimization, a requirement is a singular documented physical and functional need that a particular design, product or process must be able to perform. Requirements analysis in, encompasses those tasks that go into determining the needs or conditions to meet for a new or altered product, taking account of the possibly conflicting requirements of the various stakeholders, analysing, documenting, validating and managing software or system requirements. In this stage of the design process, the designer defines what must be done to resolve the need(s). The definition is a general statement of the desired end product. Many of the difficulties encountered in design may be traced to poorly stated goals, or goals that were hastily written and resulted in confusion or too much flexibility.

2. Product Concept (Task Specifications)

This stage requires the designer to list all pertinent data and parameters that tend to control the design and guide it towards the desired goal; it also sets limits on the acceptable solutions. It should not be defined too narrowly, because the designer will eliminate acceptable solutions. However, it cannot be too broad or vague, because this will leave the designer with no direction to satisfy the design goal.

Lets say for example that we want to design a lawn mower and we set some task specifications. 1. It should be safe to operate, especially when used near children. 2. It should be easy to operate by an average person. 3. The device should be powered (either manually or by other means). 4. The device should be easily stored in a garage. 5. The device should allow combinations of lawn tasks: a. Collecting leaves and mowing the lawn. b. Chopping the leaves and fertilizing.
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c. Chopping branches for mulch. 6. The device should use available hardware and require sheet metal, fiber glass, or plastic. 7. Material should be selected based on cost, manufacturability, strength, appearance, and ability to withstand varying weather conditions. 8. The device must be reliable and not require frequent maintenance. 9. The selling price should be lower than that in the market.

3. Solution Concept (Conceptualization) The process of generating alternative solutions to the stated goal in the form of concepts requires creative ability. The conceptualization starts with generating new ideas. In this stage, the designer must review the market analysis and the task specifications as he or she engages in the process of innovation and creativity. This activity usually requires free-hand sketches for producing a series of alternative solutions. The alternatives do not need to be worked out in detail but are recorded as possibilities to be tested. Alternatives to perform the functions should be listed in an organized fashion. For example, to design a novel transportation system, a designer may list the methods as follows. 1. Natural way a. Human i. Walk ii. Swim b. Animal i. Ride ii. Pulled in a cart 2. With aids a. Land i. Bike ii. Skate
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b. Water i. Canoe ii. Tube c. Air i. Kite d. Mechanical i. Land Car Train Tube ii. Water Ship Sled iii. Air Plane Rocket

Once a number of concepts have been generated in sufficient detail, a decision must be made about which one or ones will enter the next, most expensive, stages of the design process. An excellent technique to guide the designer in making the best decision regarding these alternatives is a scoring matrix, which forces a more penetrating study of each alternative against specified criteria.

4. Embodiment Design Once the concept has been finalized, the next stage is known as the embodiment design, and this is where the product that is being designed begins to take shape. This stage does not include any details yet (no dimensions or tolerances, etc.) but will begin to illustrate a clear definition of a part, how it will look, and how it interfaces with the rest of the parts in the product assembly. This stage is separated from both the conceptual design and the detailed

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design in that new technologies can replace old ones based on the exact same concept. For example, The concept of a traffic light system will remain the same (three lights: red, amber, and green), perform the same functions and specifications, and work conceptually the same way, but as technologies advance, the lights themselves can change from bulb to LEDs or the way the lights change can be from using a timer to cycle through the lights to using a system that is connected to a modern traffic network. Possibly, the future may hold a system where the traffic light is able to sense the most efficient light for the junction to alleviate congestion and change the lights accordingly. The concept still remains the same, but the execution and parts or the embodiment of the design can change

5. Detailed Design (Analysis and Optimization) Once a possible solution for the stated goal has been chosen, the synthesis phase of the design has been completed and the analysis phase begins. This is also known as Detailed Design and is what most of the engineering courses in an undergraduate degree program cover. In essence, the solution must be tested against the physical laws. The manufacturability of the chosen product also must be checked to ensure its usefulness. A product may satisfy the physical laws, but if it cannot be manufactured, it is a useless product. This stage is put in iterative sequencing with the original synthesis phase. Often, analysis requires a concept to be altered or redefined then reanalyzed, so that the design is constantly shifted between analysis and synthesis. Analysis starts with estimation and is followed by order of magnitude calculation. Estimation is an educated guess based on experience. Order of magnitude analysis is a rough calculation of the specified problem. The order of magnitude does not provide an exact solution, but it gives the order in which the solution should be expected.

6. Experiment The experiment stage in engineering design requires that a piece of hardware is constructed and tested to verify the concept and analysis of the design as to its work ability, durability, and performance characteristics. Here the design on paper is transformed into a physical reality. Three techniques of construction are available to the designer:

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1.

Mock-up: The mock-up is generally constructed to scale from plastics, wood,

cardboard, and so forth. The mock-up is often used to check clearance, assembly technique, manufacturing considerations, and appearance. It is the least expensive technique, provides the least amount of information, and is quick and relatively easy to build. 2. Model: This is a representation of the physical system through a mathematical similitude. Four types of models are used to predict behavior of the real system: a. A true model is an exact geometric reproduction of the real system, built to scale, and satisfying all restrictions imposed in the design parameters. b. An adequate model is so constructed to test specific characteristics of the design. c. A distorted model purposely violates one or more design conditions. This violation is often required when it is difficult to satisfy the specified conditions. d. Dissimilar models bear no apparent resemblance to the real system, but through appropriate analogies, they give accurate information on behavioral characteristics. 3. Prototype: This is the most expensive experimental technique and the one producing the greatest amount of useful information. The prototype is the constructed, full-scale working physical system. Here the designer sees his or her idea come to life and learns about such things as appropriate construction techniques, assembly procedures, work ability, durability, and performance under actual environmental conditions. As a general rule, when entering the experimental stage of the design process, one should first deal with the mock-up, then the model, and finally the prototype (after the mock-up and model have proven the real worth of the design), to allow beneficial interaction with concept and analysis

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Prototyping
A prototype is an early sample, model or release of a product built to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from. It is a term used in a variety of contexts, including semantics, design, electronics, and software programming. A prototype is designed to test and trial a new design to enhance precision by system analysts and users. Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical one.

Design and Modelling

In many fields, there is great uncertainty as to whether a new design will actually do what is desired. New designs often have unexpected problems. A prototype is often used as part of the product design process to allow engineers and designers the ability to explore design alternatives, test theories and confirm performance prior to starting production of a new product. Engineers use their experience to tailor the prototype according to the specific unknowns still present in the intended design. For example, some prototypes are used to confirm and verify consumer interest in a proposed design whereas other prototypes will attempt to verify the performance or suitability of a specific design approach. In general, an iterative series of prototypes will be designed, constructed and tested as the final design emerges and is prepared for production. With rare exceptions, multiple iterations of prototypes are used to progressively refine the design. A common strategy is to design, test, evaluate and then modify the design based on analysis of the prototype. In many products it is common to assign the prototype iterations Greek letters. For example, a first iteration prototype may be called an "Alpha" prototype. Often this iteration is not expected to perform as intended and some amount of failures or issues are anticipated. Subsequent prototyping iterations (Beta, Gamma, etc.) will be expected to resolve issues and perform closer to the final production intent.

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In many product development organizations, prototyping specialists are employed - individuals with specialized skills and training in general fabrication techniques that can help bridge between theoretical designs and the fabrication of prototypes.

Basic Prototype Categories

There is no general agreement on what constitutes a "prototype" and the word is often used interchangeably with the word "model" which can cause confusion. In general, "prototypes" fall into five basic categories: 1. Proof-of-Principle Prototype (Model) (in electronics sometimes built on a breadboard). A Proof of concept prototype is used to test some aspect of the intended design without attempting to exactly simulate the visual appearance, choice of materials or intended manufacturing process. Such prototypes can be used to "prove" out a potential design approach such as range of motion, mechanics, sensors, architecture, etc. These types of models are often used to identify which design options will not work, or where further development and testing is necessary.

2. Form Study Prototype (Model). This type of prototype will allow designers to explore the basic size, look and feel of a product without simulating the actual function or exact visual appearance of the product. They can help assess ergonomic factors and provide insight into visual aspects of the product's final form. Form Study Prototypes are often hand-carved or machined models from easily sculpted, inexpensive materials (e.g., urethane foam), without representing the intended color, finish, or texture. Due to the materials used, these models are intended for internal decision making and are generally not durable enough or suitable for use by representative users or consumers.

3. User Experience Prototype (Model). A User Experience Model invites active human interaction and is primarily used to support user focused research. While intentionally not addressing possible aesthetic treatments, this type of model does more accurately represent the overall

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size, proportions, interfaces, and articulation of a promising concept. This type of model allows early assessment of how a potential user interacts with various elements, motions, and actions of a concept which define the initial use scenario and overall user experience. As these models are fully intended to be used and handled, more robust construction is key. Materials typically include plywood, REN shape, RP processes and CNC machined components. Construction of user experience models is typically driven by preliminary CAID/CAD which may be constructed from scratch or with methods such as industrial CT scanning.

4. Visual Prototype (Model) will capture the intended design aesthetic and simulate the appearance, color and surface textures of the intended product but will not actually embody the function(s) of the final product. These models will be suitable for use in market research, executive reviews and approval, packaging mock-ups, and photo shoots for sales literature.

5. Functional Prototype (Model) (also called a working prototype) will, to the greatest extent practical, attempt to simulate the final design, aesthetics, materials and functionality of the intended design. The functional prototype may be reduced in size (scaled down) in order to reduce costs. The construction of a fully working full-scale prototype and the ultimate test of concept, is the engineers' final check for design flaws and allows last-minute improvements to be made before larger production runs are ordered.

Differences Between A Prototype And A Production Design

In general, prototypes will differ from the final production variant in three fundamental ways: Materials. Production materials may require manufacturing processes involving higher capital costs than what is practical for prototyping. Instead, engineers or prototyping specialists will attempt to substitute materials with properties that simulate the intended final material.

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Processes. Often expensive and time consuming unique tooling is required to fabricate a custom design. Prototypes will often compromise by using more variable processes, repeatable or controlled methods; substandard, inefficient, or substandard technology sources; or insufficient testing for technology maturity.

Lower fidelity. Final production designs often require extensive effort to capture high volume manufacturing detail. Such detail is generally unwarranted for prototypes as some refinement to the design is to be expected. Often prototypes are built using very limited engineering detail as compared to final production intent, which often uses statistical process controls and rigorous testing.

Characteristics And Limitations Of Prototypes

Engineers and prototyping specialists seek to understand the limitations of prototypes to exactly simulate the characteristics of their intended design. It is important to realize that by their very definition, prototypes will represent some compromise from the final production design. Due to differences in materials, processes and design fidelity, it is possible that a prototype may fail to perform acceptably whereas the production design may have been sound. A counter-intuitive idea is that prototypes may actually perform acceptably whereas the production design may be flawed since prototyping materials and processes may occasionally outperform their production counterparts. In general, it can be expected that individual prototype costs will be substantially greater than the final production costs due to inefficiencies in materials and processes. Prototypes are also used to revise the design for the purposes of reducing costs through optimization and refinement. It is possible to use prototype testing to reduce the risk that a design may not perform as intended, however prototypes generally cannot eliminate all risk. There are pragmatic and practical limitations to the ability of a prototype to match the intended final performance of the product and some allowances and engineering judgement are often required before moving forward with a production design.

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Building the full design is often expensive and can be time-consuming, especially when repeated several timesbuilding the full design, figuring out what the problems are and how to solve them, then building another full design. As an alternative, "rapid-prototyping" or "rapid application development" techniques are used for the initial prototypes, which implement part, but not all, of the complete design. This allows designers and manufacturers to rapidly and inexpensively test the parts of the design that are most likely to have problems, solve those problems, and then build the full design. This counter-intuitive idea that the quickest way to build something is, first to build something else is shared by scaffolding and the telescope rule.

Electronics Prototyping
In electronics, prototyping means building an actual circuit to a theoretical design to verify that it works, and to provide a physical platform for debugging it if it does not. The prototype is often constructed using techniques such as wire wrap or using veroboard or breadboard, that create an electrically correct circuit, but one that is not physically identical to the final product. Open-source tools exist to document electronic prototypes (especially the breadboard-based ones) and move forward toward production such as Fritzing and Arduino. A technician can build a prototype (and make additions and modifications) much more quickly with these techniques however, it is much faster and usually cheaper to mass-produce custom printed circuit boards than these other kinds of prototype boards. This is for the same reasons that writing a poem is fastest by hand for one or two, but faster by printing press if you need several thousand copies. The proliferation of quick-turn pcb fab companies and quick-turn pcb assembly houses has enabled the concepts of rapid prototyping to be applied to electronic circuit design. It is now possible, even with the smallest passive components and largest fine-pitch packages, to have boards fabbed and parts assembled in a matter of days.

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