statistics

Definition 1

Branch of mathematics concerned with collection, classification, analysis, and

interpretation of numerical facts, for drawing inferences on the basis of their
quantifiable likelihood (probability). Statistics can interpret aggregates of data
too large to be intelligible by ordinary observation because such data (unlike
individual quantities) tend to behave in regular, predictable manner. It is
subdivided into descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

Descriptive statistics are used to describe the main features of a collection of

data in quantitative terms. Descriptive statistics are distinguished from
inductive statistics in that they aim to quantitatively summarize a data set,
rather than being used to support statements about the population that the data
are thought to represent. Even when a data analysis draws its main conclusions
using inductive statistical analysis, descriptive statistics are generally
presented along with more formal analyses, to give the audience an overall sense
of the data being analyzed.
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Statistical inference or statistical induction comprises the use of statistics and

random sampling to make inferences concerning some unknown aspect of a population.
It is distinguished from descriptive statistics.

Two schools of statistical inference are frequency probability and Bayesian

inference.

History
Main article: History of statistics

Some scholars pinpoint the origin of statistics to 1662, with the publication of
Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality by John Graunt.[5]
Early applications of statistical thinking revolved around the needs of states to
base policy on demographic and economic data, hence its stat- etymology. The scope
of the discipline of statistics broadened in the early 19th century to include the
collection and analysis of data in general. Today, statistics is widely employed
in government, business, and the natural and social sciences.

Because of its empirical roots and its focus on applications, statistics is

usually considered to be a distinct mathematical science rather than a branch of
mathematics.[6][7] Its mathematical foundations were laid in the 17th century with
the development of probability theory by Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat.
Probability theory arose from the study of games of chance. The method of least
squares was first described by Carl Friedrich Gauss around 1794. The use of modern
computers has expedited large-scale statistical computation, and has also made
possible new methods that are impractical to perform manually.

Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research

outside of the physical sciences, and also finds applications within the physical
sciences, such as in statistical mechanics. Statistical methods are used
extensively within fields such as economics, social sciences and biology.
Quantitative research using statistical methods starts with the collection of
data, based on the hypothesis or theory. Usually a big sample of data is collected
- this would require varification, validation and recording before the analysis
can take place. Software packages such as PSPP and R are typically used for this
purpose. Causal relationships are studied by manipulating factors thought to
influence the phenomena of interest while controlling other variables relevant to
the experimental outcomes. In the field of health, for example, researchers might
measure and study the relationship between dietary intake and measurable
physiological effects such as weight loss, controlling for other key variables
such as exercise. Quantitatively based opinion surveys are widely used in the
media, with statistics such as the proportion of respondents in favor of a
position commonly reported. In opinion surveys, respondents are asked a set of
structured questions and their responses are tabulated. In the field of climate
science, researchers compile and compare statistics such as temperature or
atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide.

Empirical relationships and associations are also frequently studied by using some
form of General linear model, non-linear model, or by using factor analysis. A
fundamental principle in quantitative research is that correlation does not imply
causation. This principle follows from the fact that it is always possible a
spurious relationship exists for variables between which covariance is found in
some degree. Associations may be examined between any combination of continuous
and categorical variables using methods of statistics.

Qualitative data

The term qualitative is used to describe certain types of information. Qualitative

data are described in terms of quality (that is, 'informal' or relative
characteristics such as warmth and flavour). This is the converse of quantitative,
which more precisely describes data in terms of quantity and often using a
numerical figure to represent something in a statement.

Quantitative data falls into two broad categories: Discrete (or attribute) data
and Continuous (or variable) data. Discrete data generally falls into three
categories: Category data (eg. car type), Bi-nomial data (eg. pass/fail), and
Count / Poisson data (eg. # of hairs on your head).

Qualitative data are generally (but not always) of less value to scientific
research than quantitative data, due to their subjective and intangible nature.

It is possible to approximate quantitative data from qualitative data - for

instance, asking people to rate their perception of a sensation on a Likert scale.