Process Instrumentation and Control

John Cuffe Unit: Safety

University of Manchester

Slide 1

Process Instrumentation & Control

It is necessary for the design engineer to understand the plant control philosophy even at the Schematic/ Flowsheet/ PFD stage This lecture is an overview of control for design purposes

University of Manchester

Slide 2

Process Instrumentation & Control

Basics of process control Process instrumentation Control of unit operations Process safety instrumentation

University of Manchester

Slide 3

Basics of Process Control

Why is Process Control important? Are we wasting time & money on it?

University of Manchester

Slide 4

Objectives of Process Control

Ensure stable process operation
h h

Particularly, keep the plant operating under safe conditions Minimize damage to equipment due to variation in plant conditions

Ensure operation meets product specifications Minimize impact of external disturbances

h

Example: change in ambient temperature Maintain process throughput Minimize operating costs

Optimize process performance

h h

University of Manchester

Slide 5

Control Loop Components

Instrument line Alarms

Actuator

PV

PT

PAH PIC PAL

Controller Process or utility stream Final control element Sensing element

The sensing instrument detects the measured variable and sends a signal to a controller, which signals the actuator to close or open a control valve and adjust the manipulated variable (usually a flow rate)

University of Manchester

Slide 6

Control Valve

University of Manchester

Slide 7

Control Valves
The final control element is usually a control valve
h

Actuator

Exceptions: electric heaters, mixers, variable speed drives

Valve

The actuator is either a motor or a bellows that opens or closes the valve in response to the signal

Source: Valve Manufacturers Association, www.vma.org

University of Manchester

Slide 8

Types of Control Loop

Feedback
h

Feed Forward
h

Control system measures changes in a process output and then adjusts manipulated variable to return output to set point Can be slow if process response time is long
Disturbance

Control system measures disturbance and adjusts manipulated variable to compensate for it so that controlled output is not affected Requires greater knowledge of system response

Disturbance
Manipulated variable Process Controlled output

Controller Manipulated variable Process Controlled output

Controller

University of Manchester

Slide 9

Feedback Control
Control system measures changes in a process output and then adjusts manipulated variable to return output to set point Can be slow if process response time is long

Disturbance

Manipulated variable

Process

Controlled output

Controller

University of Manchester

Slide 10

Feed Forward Control

Control system measures disturbance and adjusts manipulated variable to compensate for it so that controlled output is not affected Requires greater knowledge of system response Disturbance

Controller

Manipulated variable

Process

Controlled output

University of Manchester

Slide 11

Feedback Control
Error signal Input Sensing element Measured variable Process Controller Function generator Output Final control element Manipulated variable

Set point

Controller computes error between input and set point and adjusts output based on a control algorithm

University of Manchester

Slide 12

Ratio Control

One stream is controlled in ratio to another Often used for controlling feed rates to try to maintain stoichiometry Also used in some types of distillation column control to set reflux ratios

FT

FFC

FFV FT

University of Manchester

Slide 13

Cascade Control
One primary controller is used to adjust the set point of a second secondary controller Used to minimize outside load variations and increase process stability Example: reactor temperature (primary controller) cascades onto coolant flow controller (secondary) to control reactor temperature
M

TIC

FIC

TT

TE FT FV

Coolant

University of Manchester

Slide 14

Process Instrumentation & Control

Basics of process control Process instrumentation Control of unit operations Process safety instrumentation

University of Manchester

Slide 15

What Can Be Measured? (& How Easily)

Easy
Temperature Pressure Flow rate V/L Level Pressure difference Conductivity

Difficult
L/L level pH Certain components
h

oxygen, sulphur, hydrogen, CO

Composition Density Voidage

Easy means cheap, reliable instrument with fast response time and accurate measurement
University of Manchester
Slide 16

Temperature Measurement: Thermocouples

When a junction between dissimilar wires is heated, an EMF (voltage) is developed, which can be read by a millivolt transmitter The junction is usually housed in a thermowell

THERMOCOUPLE HEAD A B A B + -

LEAD WIRE Cu Cu

MILLIVOLT TRANSMITTER

HOT JUNCTION (T 1) COLD JUNCTION (T 2)

ISA TYPE

E J K T

A (+) CHROMEL IRON CHROMEL COPPER

B (-) CONSTANTAN CONSTANTAN ALUMEL CONSTANTAN

University of Manchester

Slide 17

Temperature Measurement: Thermocouples

Response depends on thermowell location and heat transfer
h h

Instrument error is usually 1 to 2 C There may be additional offsets if the thermowell is incorrectly located

Response is fast if located in a flowing stream so location is important Sometimes thermocouples are also strapped to walls of vessels
h

For high temperature processes or processes with large exotherms

University of Manchester
Slide 18

Pressure Measurement
Pressure instruments usually measure differential pressure If one side is atmospheric pressure then the difference is the process gauge pressure (usually written bar or psi), not absolute pressure (bara, psia)

University of Manchester

Slide 19

Pressure Measurement
Several possible methods:
h h h h

Mechanical: measure displacement of a bellows or Bourdon tube Electrical: attach a strain gauge to a bellows Capacitance: diaphragm moves capacitor plate (most common type) Piezoelectric: measures change in semiconductor conductivity

Pressure measurement devices respond quickly and accurately Differential pressure measurement is used as the basis for flow and level measurement
University of Manchester
Slide 20

Flow Rate Measurement

Place a restriction in the flow path and measure the resulting pressure drop using a differential pressure (PD) cell If fluid properties are known, results can be calibrated to flow rates

PD

PD

Orifice Meter

Venturi Meter

University of Manchester

Slide 21

Orifice Plate

University of Manchester

Slide 22

Level Measurement
Displacement
Displacer moves up and down with level due to bouyancy Displacer movement is detected via mechanical or magnetic linkage

Differential Pressure
Measures static head of liquid using a differential pressure cell Density of the liquid and vapor must be known and constant

Sensor element
PD

University of Manchester

Slide 23

Process Instrumentation & Control

Basics of process control Process instrumentation Control of unit operations Process safety instrumentation

University of Manchester

Slide 24

Flow Control Design Problem

The flow in a line containing a centrifugal pump or compressor is required to be controlled How would you control this proposed arrangement?

University of Manchester

Slide 25

Flow Control Solution

Most common arrangement is a control valve downstream of a pump or compressor Using a variable speed drive is a more efficient method, but higher capital cost

FIC FV PI FT M PI

FIC

FT

University of Manchester

Slide 26

Level Control Design Problem

A process is to include a tank which is to be continually filled but the level within it must be maintained within certain limits On the bottom outlet there is to be a pump running constantly during normal operation How would you control this proposed arrangement?
Slide 27

University of Manchester

Level Control Solution

Level control is needed whenever there is a V/L or L/L interface Level control sets inventories in process equipment Many smaller vessels are sized based on level control response time

LAH LT LAL

LIC

LV

University of Manchester

Slide 28

Pressure Control Design Problem

A gas is to be continually generated within a vessel at above atmospheric pressure. The pressure within the vessel must be maintained at a certain level. How would you control this proposed arrangement?

University of Manchester

Slide 29

Pressure Control
Pressure control is usually by venting a gas or vapor
PV

In hydrocarbon processes, off-gas is often vented to fuel

PT PIC

In other processes, nitrogen may be brought in to maintain pressure and vented via scrubbers Most common arrangement is direct venting (shown)

University of Manchester

Slide 30

Pressure Control Design Problem

The previous process changes and the gas now contains a large amount of condensable material Again the pressure must be maintained at a certain level. What changes would you make?

University of Manchester

Slide 31

Pressure Control - Condensables Solution

If vapour has a high loading of condensable material, then pressure control is on the vent gas stream from the condenser

PV

PIC

PT

University of Manchester

Slide 32

Temperature Control Design Problem

A process stream is to be heated/cooled using a heat exchanger. How would you control this proposed arrangement?

University of Manchester

Slide 33

Temperature Control: Single Stream

Heaters and coolers are usually controlled by manipulating the flow rate of the hot or cold utility stream Final control element can be on inlet or outlet of utility side
University of Manchester
Slide 34

Hot or cold utility Process

TE TT TIC

TV

Process Instrumentation & Control

Basics of process control Process instrumentation Reading a P&ID Control of unit operations Process safety instrumentation

University of Manchester

Slide 35

Role of Controls in Process Safety

Control system is involved in three levels of process safety
h h
Emergency Response in Community Emergency Response in Process Unit PressureRelief System Automatic Automatic Safety Safety Shutdowns Shutdowns

Keeping plant operation steady Sounding alarms to notify operator when variables are out of limits Automatically shutting the plant down when necessary

Critical Alarms & Operator Intervention Basic Process Control Basic Process Control Plant Design (Inherent Safety)

University of Manchester

Slide 36

Process Control, Alarms and Shutdowns

Controlled parameters naturally fluctuate around set point
Variable AH Set point AL Shutdown

time

If the measured variable exceeds a preset limit an alarm should alert the operator to take appropriate action
h

Alarm limits should be set far enough from normal process variation to avoid nuisance alarms

If the measured variable exceeds a safe operating limit then an automatic plant shutdown may be necessary
h h

Shutdown limit should be set far enough from alarm limit that the operator has a chance to respond to the alarm But not so far that no time is left to safely shut the plant down

University of Manchester

Slide 37

Standards for Safety Instrumentation

ISA S84.01 Safety Instrumented Systems
h h

U.S. standard for emergency shutdown systems Primary goal is to protect people, not plant or profits IEC = International Electrotechnical Commission International standards for safety instrumented systems

IEC 61508 & 61511

h h

Standards define requirements for sensors, solvers (logic), and final elements (valves, switches) Consult most recent version of standards for current best practices Other standards also recommend best practices for alarm levels, vessel sizing to allow adequate control, etc.
University of Manchester
Slide 38

Safety Integrity Levels

ISA S84.01 defines three levels of safety integrity depending on the availability of the Safety Systems Availability = time the system is available / total time Safety Integrity Levels
SIL SIL 1 SIL 2 SIL 3 Availability 90 99% 99 99.9% 99.9 99.99% System redundancy Non-redundant Partially redundant Totally redundant

Redundant system means instrumentation is duplicated

University of Manchester
Slide 39

Safety Integrity Level

SIL should be determined during a process hazard analysis SIL required depends on risk of operator exposure and injury
h

Can be calculated using fault trees

SIL determines the type of instrumentation that should be used

University of Manchester

Slide 40

Process Alarms and Shutdown Trips

LT LIC LAL LT LIC LAL

TRIP LSL LAL

UC A

UC A

Software alarms can be set on instruments and controllers through the digital control system and show up on shared displays Separate alarm and shutdown instrumentation can also be used, for higher redundancy
University of Manchester
Slide 41

Caution on Software Alarms

There is a temptation to put lots of software alarms in digital control systems If there are too many alarms then they can become a distraction to the operators
h h

Increasing the chance of human error Increasing the chance that the operator will ignore the alarm, switch it off, or acknowledge it without taking action

Alarms should be carefully placed and calibrated to make sure that they serve the purpose of the designer Operators should be trained to understand the importance of every alarm on the plant
University of Manchester
Slide 42

Valve Failure Positions

Fails open

Fails closed

Fails locked in current position

Failure mode indeterminate

It is important to specify what happens to a control valve if the signal fails The final valve position has an impact on process safety and pressure relief scenarios and may affect other instrumentation
University of Manchester
Slide 43

Shared Display Devices

Most plant control rooms now use shared display devices that show the outputs of multiple instruments on a screen Operator can see a flow diagram that identifies where the instrument is and can enter set points Software also allows data to be plotted as trends Data can be accessed remotely Data is collected and logged for process records

Source: UOP
University of Manchester
Slide 44