Tructural Design: Final Report

SMALL AIRCRAFT (4-5PASEENGER, 1-5TONS) WHICH CAN FLY FROM SMALL AIRPORTS(<2KM)
11/16/2011
STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
BY TEAM 2 (B.TECH)AE08B006, AE08B007,
AE08B008,AE08B009, AE08B010
Final Report
January 17, 2011
SMALL AIRCRAFT (4-5PASEENGER, 1-5TONS) WHICH CAN FLY FROM SMALL AIRPORTS(<2KM) BY TEAM 2 (B.TECH) AE08B006,AE08B007,AE08B008,AE08B009,AE08B010
CONTENTS
Parameters carried from aerodynamic design ................................................................................................................................... 4 Details of aircraft ............................................................................................................................................................................ 4 Wing Details .................................................................................................................................................................................... 4 Wing structure details ..................................................................................................................................................................... 4 Tail details ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 4 Horizontal tail details: ................................................................................................................................................................. 4 Vertical tail details: ......................................................................................................................................................................... 5 FUSELAGE DETAILS: ......................................................................................................................................................................... 5 FUEL STORAGE: ............................................................................................................................................................................... 5 LANDING GEAR: .............................................................................................................................................................................. 5 Engine Details.................................................................................................................................................................................. 5 Layout Details ................................................................................................................................................................................. 6 3-View of Aircraft ............................................................................................................................................................................ 6 Internal view ............................................................................................................................................................................... 6 External view ............................................................................................................................................................................... 6 V-N diagram ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 9 Various maneuvers an aircraft can do ............................................................................................................................................ 9 ASCENt ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 9 Descent ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 9 Cruise ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 10 Level turn .................................................................................................................................................................................. 11 G Limits ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 12 Lift Limits ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 12 maneuvering envelope ................................................................................................................................................................. 13 Gust envelope ............................................................................................................................................................................... 14 V-n diagram for Take-Off weight .................................................................................................................................................. 14 V-n diagram for empty weight ...................................................................................................................................................... 15
Diwakar Das AE08B006GajjalaDileep Kumar AE08B007S. Kannabiran AE08B008P. Karthik AE08B009KattaDivya AE08B010
January 17, 2011
Gust calculations ........................................................................................................................................................................... 16 Lift and Drag Distribution .................................................................................................................................................................. 17 Schrenks method ......................................................................................................................................................................... 17 DESIGN OF WING SECTION ............................................................................................................................................................... 20 Double Cantilever Beam Approximation ...................................................................................................................................... 20 Stresses ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 20 Section Centroid and Moments of Inertia ................................................................................................................................ 21 Bending Stresses ....................................................................................................................................................................... 22 Shear Flow..................................................................................................................................................................................... 22 Panel Idealization ...................................................................................................................................................................... 23 Combined Flexural and Torsional Shear Flow ........................................................................................................................... 23 Pure Torsional Flow .................................................................................................................................................................. 25 Failure Criteria .............................................................................................................................................................................. 26 Von Mises Failure Criteria ......................................................................................................................................................... 26 Buckling Analysis & Calculations ................................................................................................................................................... 26 Compressive Column Buckling .................................................................................................................................................. 26 Compressive Plate Buckling ...................................................................................................................................................... 28 Plate Shear Buckling .................................................................................................................................................................. 29 Shear Flow on Open Section: ........................................................................................................................................................ 30 WING SECTION: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 30 Shear Flow Calculations: ............................................................................................................................................................... 31 Moment Equilibrium: .................................................................................................................................................................... 31 Twist Equation: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 31 Calculation of Shear Flow with Stringers: ..................................................................................................................................... 32 Calculation of Margin of Safety:.................................................................................................................................................... 33 SFD AND BMD OF FUSELAGE: ........................................................................................................................................................... 19 FUSELAGE: ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 19 For SFD & BMD: ............................................................................................................................................................................ 19 Calculation of Lift of Tail: .............................................................................................................................................................. 37
January 17, 2011
Figure 1 Internal View of Aircraft ........................................................................................................................................................ 6 Figure 2 Front View of Aircraft (External) ........................................................................................................................................... 7 Figure 3 Side View of Aircraft (External) ............................................................................................................................................. 7 Figure 4 Plan View of Aircraft (External) ............................................................................................................................................. 8 Figure 5 Generic V - n diagram for a human powered Aircraft (colour coding is for clarity) ............................................................ 13 Figure 6 plate buckling coefficients for shear ................................................................................................................................... 30
January 17, 2011
PARAMETERS CARRIED FROM AERODYNAMIC DESIGN DETAILS OF AIRCRAFT Type of Aircraft No of passengers T/O loading Range CLmax Cruise Altitude Cruise Speed Mach Maximum Velocity Rate of Climb WING DETAILS Type of wing Planform WING STRUCTURE DETAILS Span Area Mean Aerodynamic chord Sweep Back Dihedral Taper Ratio Flap Area Aileron Area Aspect Ratio Wing Loading TAIL DETAILS HORIZONTAL TAIL DETAILS: 12.32m 20.22m2 1.86m 20 3 0.22 2.53m2 3.03m2 7.5 1620 N/m2 Low wing Sweep Back Business jet 5+2 3450Kg 2100Km 1.2 11km 147.7m/s 0.5 221.6m/s 48m/s
1. Area 2.Span 3. Taper ratio 4.Sweep 5.Aspect Ratio 6.Elevator Area 7.Root Chord
8.7 6 0.45 30 4 1 2
m2 m Deg m2 m
January 17, 2011
VERTICAL TAIL DETAILS:
1. Area 2.Span 3. Taper ratio 4.Sweep 5.Aspect Ratio 6.Root Chord

FUSELAGE DETAILS: Overall length Overall width Base width CG location Weight of fuselage
7.35 3.5 0.5 45 1 2.8
m2 m degree M
8m 2m 2m X 4.62 m 250 kg
Z 0
FUEL STORAGE: Fuel weight Fuel location 664.5 kg X 5.71 m
Z 0
LANDING GEAR: Type Location Weight ENGINE DETAILS Type of Engine No. Of Engines Length Dry Weight (each) SFC Thrust to Weight Ratio Turbofan 2 1.12m 181.44 Kg 0.7 Kg/Kg/hr 5:1 Tri cycle X 5.88 m 113 kg
Z -1.32 m
January 17, 2011
LAYOUT DETAILS
Component Wing Horizontal tail Vertical tail Fuselage Engine Landing gear Payload Fuel Miscellaneous Total
C.G.
Weight(kg) 118.3 82 70 250 585 113 600 664.5 962.8

3445.6
X Position(m) 6.33106945 10.6078161 8.872 4.62 6.75 5.88 4.62 6.33106945 4.62 5.641
Z position(m) 0 3 0.667 0 1 -1.32 0 0 0 0.2114
3-VIEW OF AIRCRAFT INTERNAL VIEW
Figure 1 Internal View of Aircraft
EXTERNAL VIEW FRONT VIEW
January 17, 2011
Figure 2 Front View of Aircraft (External)
SIDE VIEW
Figure 3 Side View of Aircraft (External)
January 17, 2011
PLAN VIEW
Figure 4 Plan View of Aircraft (External)
January 17, 2011
V-N DIAGRAM VARIOUS MANEUVERS AN AIRCRAFT CAN DO
ASCENT
L=nW n>1
DESCENT
L=nW n<1
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CRUISE
L=nW n=1
January 17, 2011
LEVEL TURN
L=nW n>1 The V-n diagram shows the airplane's maneuver envelope. The right side of the maneuver envelope is a vertical line that crosses the V-axis at the airplane's Vne speed. Vne is the never-exceed airspeed, which is marked by a red line on the airspeed indicator. Flying faster than redline-at any load factor-can cause flutter, stability, control, or a host of other problems with potentially drastic consequences. Remember, airspeed values on the V-n diagram are calibrated or indicated airspeed, not true airspeed or groundspeed. It's OK if your true airspeed is faster than redline as long as the airspeed needle points to a value less than redline. The same is true for groundspeed. A tailwind can yield a groundspeed in excess of the red-line airspeed while the airspeed needle shows a safe speed below redline.
January 17, 2011
G LIMITS
The top of the maneuver envelope for our imaginary airplane is a horizontal line, representing the maximum load factor at which the airplane should be flown. This is called the limit load factor. If the line is extended to the left, it intersects the n-axis. For Normal category airplanes, the maximum load factor needs to be no larger than 3.8. Some airplanes can be operated in the Normal or Utility category. The Utility category allows intentional spins and some mild aerobatics, but the Normal category does not. The minimum-acceptable limit load factor for the Utility category is 4.4. The significance of this limit load factor concerns the strength of the airplane's structure. As long as the airplane is flown within the maneuver envelope, no structural damage should occur. There is also a 50-percent safety factor built into the design. For our Normal category airplane, the limit load factor is 3.8, and the ultimate load factor is 5.7 (1.5 x 3.8, or 50 percent more than 3.8). When an airplane is operated above the limit load factor but below the ultimate load factor, permanent structural deformation can occur. If the pilot of our example airplane carelessly pulls 4.5 Gs, the airplane should remain intact, but parts of its structure may be bent or wrinkled. Should a pilot manage to exceed the ultimate load factor, structural failure is likely. That means wings folding or engine mounts cracking.
LIFT LIMITS
The left side of the maneuver envelope is a curved line extending from the left end of the limit load factor line to the origin of the plot where both V and n equal zero. This is the maximum-lift line or stall line. Notice that the portion of the line below 51 knots is dashed. That's because the 1-G stall speed for this airplane is 51 kt. The dashed line helps to show how this maximum-lift line fits into the overall picture. The shape of the maximum-lift or stall line shows that the greater the load factor, the higher the airplane's stall speed. Lift is determined by air density, wing area, lift coefficient, and airspeed. Let's say that you perform a 1-G stall, then a 3-G stall. Atmospheric conditions haven't changed, so the air density is the same during both stalls. The wing area is the same. The lift coefficient is also the same because it is determined by the angle of attack and the wing always stalls at the same angle of attack. Although the lift coefficient is the same during both stalls, the overall lift produced is not. During the 3-G stall, the airplane generates three times as much lift as it does during the 1-G stall. Since air density, wing area, and lift coefficient are unchanged, the stall airspeed must change to balance the three-fold increase in lift during the 3-G stall. The 3-G stall speed is not three times the 1-G stall speed because lift depends on the square of the airspeed. The 3-G stall speed is 1.73 times the 1-G stall airspeed (1.73 squared is 3). Draw a vertical line up from the attempted stall airspeed, and if you see that it intersects the limit load factor line-not the stall line. This attempt will result in overstressing the airplane.
January 17, 2011
MANEUVERING ENVELOPE
The maneuvering envelope defines the limits within which the aircraft can safely fly. It is usually drawn as a V-n diagram (Velocity against load factor or g factor
Figure 5 Generic V - n diagram for a human powered Aircraft (colour coding is for clarity)
V0 = Zero velocity - Zero speed, zero aerodynamic forces on aircraft. It should, however be able to supports its own weight without falling to pieces. Vs = Stall velocity - The aircrafts lowest flying speed reached when Cl is at its maximum, just before stalling. This is the first point that the aircraft can be off the ground on take-off or alternatively, if it is already in the air, any slower and it will descend. Vc = Cruise velocity - Normal flying speed Vne= Never exceed velocity. The speed where effects like flutter are likely to destroy the aircraft. In the green section the aircraft is safe to fly, it will not result in structural damage. In the yellow section structural damage may occur, This is more and more likely the greater the loading. In the red section structural failure is expected.
January 17, 2011
The only realistic way a HPA can get into the red section is by diving. Diving from low altitude is very likely to result in a crash and so it does not matter if the aircraft gets close to or exceeds its designed maximum speed, it will be severely damaged by impact with the ground. At the cruise speed, the load factor is greater than 1, this is because the wing is assumed to be at just stalling. This is not the case in normal cruse and the load factor should be 1 with the aircraft flying level. The negative part of the diagram is a nominal loading, HPAs (Human Powered Aircraft) do not fly upside down in normal circumstances and so would not be expected to experience negative loads in flight, landing is a different matter.
GUST ENVELOPE Loads associated with vertical gusts must also be evaluated over the range of speeds.The FAR's describe the calculation of these loads in some detail. Here is a summary of the method for constructing the V-n diagram. Because some of the speeds (e.g. VB) are determined by the gust loads, the process may be iterative. Be careful to consider the alternative specifications for speeds such as VB. The gust load may be computed from the expression given in FAR Part 25. This formula is the result of considering a vertical gust of specified speed and computing the resulting change in lift. The associated incremental load factor is then multiplied by a load alleviation factor that accounts primarily for the aircraft dynamics in a gust.
with: a = (dCL/da) Ue = equivalent gust velocity (in ft/sec) Ve = equivalent airspeed (in knots) Kg = gust alleviation factor
Note that c is the mean geometric chord here.
V-N DIAGRAM FOR TAKE-OFF WEIGHT

Gross weight at take off = 3450 kg For passenger aircraft , ,
At stall, At cruise altitude (= 11km) Density = 0.38kg/m

3
Temperature, T=216.6K For calculating the maximum allowable speed, we choose the maximum level speed
January 17, 2011
T=D Given, K=0.064 Thrust=1814.7 Kgf T/W=0.526 In level flight,
We get, CL=0.125 V= 310m/s
V-N DIAGRAM FOR EMPTY WEIGHT

Empty weight = 2325kg For passenger aircraft, nmax=3, nmin=-1 At stall,
At cruise altitude (= 11km) Density = 0.38kg/m

3
Temperature, T=216.6K
For maximum level speed, T=D Given, K=0.064 In level flight, CL=0.039 V= 383.86m/s
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GUST CALCULATIONS
The new lift produced due to a gust of wind is L new=L+L
Where,
Ngust=1n
CL,=4.71 n=5.524x10
-4
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LIFT AND DRAG DISTRIBUTION SCHRENKS METHOD
=> ( Where S wing gross area b-wing span Cell-chord of equivalent ellipse C- local chord Cl-local lift coefficient CL-mean lift coefficient Draw a mean line between the actual trapezoidal form and the equivalent elliptical planform. The ordinate gives CxC l for CL=1 ( ) ) ( ( ) )
) )
Then calculate CL for the case under consideration
C.CL= Calculations S=20.22m ; b=12.32m =>

2
( ( )( ( ) )
( ) )
Equation for chord distribution for elliptical planform is
January 17, 2011
Cactual= 1.346-0.17y
( Considering , (n,V)=(3,161.1) or CL max=1.29 L=nW
Estimate absolute angle of attack a R from any reference plane at each section of the wing. We can consider linear variation from root to tip ( )
January 17, 2011
SFD AND BMD OF FUSELAGE: FUSELAGE:

The fuselage is the main structure, or body, of the aircraft. It provides space for personnel, cargo, controls, and most of the accessories. The power plant, wings, stabilizers, and landing gear are attached to it. There are two general types of fuselage constructionwelded steel truss and monocoque designs. The welded steel truss was used in smaller Navy aircraft, and it is still being used in some helicopters. The monocoque design relies largely on the strength of the skin, or covering, to carry various loads. The monocoque design may be divided into threeclasses monocoque, semimonocoque, and reinforced shell. The true monocoque construction usesformers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage. However, the skin carries the primary stresses. Since no bracing members are present, the skin must be strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid. The biggest problem in monocoque construction is maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within limits. Semimonocoque design overcomes thestrength-to-weight problem of monocoqueconstruction. In addition to having formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads, the semimonocoque construction has the skin reinforced by longitudinal members. The reinforced shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework of structural members. Different portions of the same fuselage maybe long to any one of the three classes. Most are considered to be of semimonocoque-type construction. The semimonocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of aluminum alloy, although steel and titanium are found in hightemperature areas. Primary bending loads are taken by the longerons, which usually extend across several points of support. The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members known as stringers. Stringers are more numerous and lightweight than longerons. The vertical structural members are referred to asbulkheads, frames, and formers. The heavier vertical members are located at intervals to allow for concentrated loads. These members are also found at points where fittings are used to attach other units, such as the wings and stabilizers. The stringers are smaller and lighter than longerons and serve as fill-ins. They have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of skin. The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers. The bulkheads and formers hold the stringers. They join together to form a rigid fuselage framework. Stringers and longerons prevent tension and compression stresses from bending the fuselage. The skin is attached to the longerons, bulkheads, and other structural members and carries part of the load. The fuselage skin thickness varies with the load carried and the stresses sustained at particular location. There are a number of advantages in using the semimonocoque fuselage. 1. 2. The bulkhead, frames, stringers, and longerons aid in the design and construction of streamlined fuselage. They add to the strength and rigidity of the structure. The main advantage of the semimonocoque construction is that it depends on many structural members for strength and rigidity. Because of its stressed skin construction, a semimonocoque fuselage can withstand damage and still be strong enough to hold together.
FOR SFD & BMD:

We divide Fuselage of Aircraft in two sections from the two spars in the wing section. From nose tip to first Spar is called Section-1 and from the second Spar to the end of the Aircraft we will called as Section-2. We assume these two sections as Cantilever Beams with Distributive and Point loads. In Cantilever 1: Only distributive load (Weight of Fuselage section 1) is only acting but no point loads here IN Cantilever 2: here we have point loads(Engine and Tail), distributive load is weight of the Fuselage Section
January 17, 2011
DESIGN OF WING SECTION DOUBLE CANTILEVER BEAM APPROXIMATION The preliminary sizing of the wing structure is based on an important approximation. Since the spars carry the majority of the bending load these are the objects of the first sizing process. They are assumed to be two I-Section cantilever beams whose height is determined by the airfoils thickness and whose width is to be determined. The location where the maximum bending moment acts is the wing root section. The starting point for the analysis is the de Saint Venant relation for composed bending on symmetric section beams, shown in Equation
y is the tensile or compressive stress in a particular beam location, Mz and Mx are the bending moments at the root chord and Iz and Ix are the sections moments of inertia. The moments of inertia used at this point are the resultants of the contribution of both beams. They can be expressed as a function of the spar width, t. The highest stress is located at the farthest point from the sections centroid that means and that is the position where the yield has to be evaluated . The maximum allowable value of y,max is found from the aluminum yield stress (assumed to be 71000 psi for aluminum 7475-T61) and the factor of safety, FOS. It is now possible to express the spar thickness as a function of other known parameters (spar dimensions, maximum allowable stress and bending moments). Solving for t gives the preliminary sizing of the spars. This process has to be repeated for all twelve conditions given by the V-N diagrams, giving the final result shown below.
h1=0.17 m and h2=0.14m where h1 and h2 are the first and second spars height respectively. The spar web thickness t still looks pretty high, but further optimizations will lead to better values. ,max FOS 1. 25
STRESSES The stress calculations are performed in the same conventional Cartesian coordinate system: x Chord-wise axis pointing towards the trailing edge y Span-wise axis oriented from wing tip to wing root z Perpendicular axis pointing upwards to complete the right-hand frame of reference
January 17, 2011
The axis origin is usually located at the airfoil leading edge. The text will specifically say if the system is centered at the airfoils centroid.
Figure : Body-fixed coordinate system used in calculations
SECTION CENTROID AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA For a more accurate sizing of the wing the section centroid and the moments of inertia have to be computed for the actual wing section. This task is performed splitting the sections skin in many small rectangular panels. The area of these elements is calculated and then attributed to point masses whose distance from the axes origin (the airfoil leading edge) is the same as that of the rectangles. With a sum of these distances weighted on the areas gives the centroid location. This calculation must be performed for both the x and z-directions, as indicated by Equations 4.1 and 4.2.
Here, xc and zc represent the x and z-coordinates of the centroid location while n represents the number of elements over which the centroid is to be computed, and xi, zi, and Ai represent the coordinates and area of the elements, respectively. Also, the moments of inertia were calculated. Since each small section of area was considered to be a point area, the actual moment of inertia of that section is negligible. However, a non-negligible contribution comes when the moment of inertia is moved from the element centroid to the centroid of the whole structure. This contribution is found using the parallel axis theorem, defined by Equations
January 17, 2011
Where Ix,i and Iz,i are the area moments of inertia about the centroid, and Ix,i and Iz,i are the area moments of inertia of the elements with respect to their own centroid. Also, the parallel moment of inertia is calculated. Again the contribution of the elements themselves is negligible, and the parallel axis theorem is defined by Equation Accounting for the negligible element area moment of inertia, the area moments of inertia of the whole wing about the centroid are given by Equation
BENDING STRESSES The stresses, y, due to the bending moments in the structure are oriented in the span-wise direction y. These are therefore normal stresses, perpendicular to the wing cross section. Since the wing section is not exactly symmetric about both axes a more complicated equation is required to compute these y. Along with the moments of inertia about the x and z axis, Ix and Iz respectively, also the product of inertia, Ixz, is included in the expression in order to account for the structures asymmetry, as shown in Equation
where Mx and Mz are the bending moments in the structure (about x and z axis respectively) and x and z are the coordinates (relative to the centroid) of the position that has to be evaluated . It is easy to see that y is strongly dependant on the distance from the sections centroid. There is a line, called the neutral axis, passing through the centroid on whose points the normal bending stresses are zero. Mx and Mz vary with the location along the wing span and are maximum at the root, which is the critical section where yield or failure has to be evaluated.
SHEAR FLOW To compute the shear stresses acting along the plane of any cross-section of the wing, Megson and Suns thin-web shear flow theory is implemented. Shear flow is simply a shear force per unit length. The shear stress in a skin or spar panel can be computed from the shear flow thickness of the panel. For this theory to be applicable, the wing structure must be idealized into an arrangement of axial stress-carrying booms with finite cross sectional area and tangential shear stress-carrying panels with a very small but finite thickness. So long as the direct-stress carrying capacity of the skin sections are incorporated as additional area to stringers and spar caps, the approximation of constant shear flow between any two adjacent stringers or spar caps can be made. Such an approximation greatly facilitates the computation of the shear flow in the wing section. The total shear flow computation requires a three-step process. First, the flexural shear flow component of each skin or spar panel due to the shear loads induced by the aerodynamic forces on the wing section is computed. Given these values, the torsional component of this same load is computed. Lastly, the moment about the aerodynamic center due to the wings camber is incorporated as a pure torque, inducing an additional torsional flow on the wing panels. These three sets of shear flows are then summed to produce the total shear flow distribution in the wing section.
January 17, 2011
PANEL IDEALIZATION A panel with finite thickness is idealized as an infinitely thin web with two finite-area booms on both sides, as shown in Figure 4.1. The effective boom areas must incorporate the effect of a gradient in the direct-stress along the panel by ensuring that the moment about any arbitrary point due to the net bending stress of the actual panel is equivalent to the moment induced by the idealized panel. Doing so, the boom areas B1 and B2 shown in Equations 4.8 and 4.9 are obtained [3].
tD is the panel thickness, b is the panel width, and 1 and 2 are the axial stresses at booms 1 and 2 respectively. The approximation of constant shear flow between adjacent booms can be made only when booms are spaced sufficiently close from each other. Since optimizing the wing requires minimizing the number of stringers in the wing section, the spacing between stringers may not be sufficient for this spacing requirement to be met. Thus, the panels between any two adjacent stringers and spar caps are additionally subdivided into 10 sections. The boom areas between panel subdivisions are computed from Equations above and panel subdivisions adjacent to stringers or spar caps must incorporate this additional effective boom area into the adjacent stringer or spar cap.
COMBINED FLEXURAL AND TORSIONAL SHEAR FLOW First, the stresses due to the shear loads on the wing section are computed. The new centroid and the moment of inertias about this centroid are computed for this idealized arrangement of booms using Equations presented previously. The coordinate system used throughout the shear flow calculation is centered at this centroid. Since the wing consists of a closed multi-cell structure, the shear flow computation requires a special two-step process. First, hypothetical cuts are made at arbitrary points in the wing section. The number of cuts is equal to the number of cells in the section, and the cuts must be placed in such a way that ensures that no cell is completely enclosed. These cuts effectively convert a closed cell into an open cell and thus the structure can only hold flexural stresses and cannot support torsional stresses. This flexural shear flow component is computed first. Next, the resulting torsional shear flow component is computed by considering the torque induced by the shear load location being offset from the center of twist . The three hypothetical cuts are chosen to be located at the upper right panel of each cell i.e. the panel in between the upper right spar cap of each cell and the boom area immediately to the left.
January 17, 2011
Since these specific panels contain a cut, the flexural shear flow components are assumed to be 0 in these panels. Moving along in a counterclockwise direction for each cell, each successive panel contains a constant shear flow given by Equation 4.10 and is only a function of the shear flow qb,i-1 in the previous panel and the location and area of the boom between the panel in question and the previous panel.
Ixx and Izz are the area moment of inertias about the x-axis and z-axis respectively, assuming centroid-centered axes, Ixz is the polar area moment of inertia, Vx and Vz are the shear loads at this particular cross-section of the wing in the x and z directions respectively, x and z are the x and z-locations of the boom, and A is the area of the boom. At junctions where more than two panels intersect, a slight modification must be made. The shear flow entering the junction must be equivalent to the shear flow exiting the junction, ensuring that the boom area at the center of the junction is still incorporated into the total shear flow. Thus, instead of a single qb,i-1 term at the end of Equation, additional shear flow terms from other panels entering or exiting the junction must be included. The signs of these additional shear flows must match the counterclockwise convention for each cell mentioned earlier. Following this process for all panels, the flexural shear flow component throughout the wing structure can be computed
The torsional shear flow component is constant in each cell except along panels that are common to more than one cell (i.e. the spars). The wing twist angle per unit spanwise length for a cell is computed using Equation which involves the integration of the flexural and torsional shear flow components around the cell with respect to the tangential distance along the panel. Note that the torsional component is initially an unknown in this equation, though it will be solved later in the process. Idealized wing structure with constant shear flow in the panels, the integration can be broken up into a summation of the shear flow components in all N panels of the cell, also shown in Equation
AR is the area enclosed by cell R, is the torsional shear flow component in cell R, is the shear modulus of the material used for panel i, is the thickness of panel i, and is the arc length of panel i. Note that for the spar panels of the cell, the term involves the difference between the torsional shear flow component of the two cells that the spar panel is common to. The arc length for each panel is computed by breaking up the panel into very small subdivisions so that each subdivision can be approximated as a straight panel. The simple distance formula is used to compute the length of each subdivision, and then these lengths are summed to produce the arc length of the entire panel. Given that the wing section possesses three cells, Equation 4.11 will yield three equations of which there are a total of four unknowns (the torsional shear flows and the twist per unit length). The fourth equation is obtained by equating the moment produced by the shear loads and the moment produced by the shear flows in all the panels.
January 17, 2011
This moment balance is shown in Equation 4.12 and the moments are taken about the top of the first spar. Here, N represents the total number of panels in the entire wing section while M represents the number of cells.
is the x-location of the Vz shear force relative to the top of the first spar, is the z-location of the Vx shear force relative to the top of the first spar, and is the area enclosed by the top of the first spar and the panel in question [4]. The term can essentially be interpreted as the area swept by the line connecting the top of the first spar and a point along the panel that traverses the length of the panel. The sweep area is computed by breaking up the panel into very small subdivisions so that each subdivision of the panel can be assumed to be approximately straight. The sweep area over each subdivision can then be reduced to computing the area of a triangle. The lengths of the three sides of the triangle are computed by the simple distance formula, and then the area of the triangle is computed by using Herons Formula, shown in Equation. The sweep areas from each subdivision are then summed to produce the entire sweep area of the panel in question. Where a, b, and c are the lengths of the three sides of the triangle, and s is half of the perimeter of the triangle. Simultaneously solving this system of four equations will yield the torsional shear flow values for the three cells and the twist angle per unit span induced by the shear loads. The flexural shear flow component and the torsional shear flow component can then be summed for each panel to obtain the total shear flow distribution throughout the wing section
PURE TORSIONAL FLOW Aerodynamic loads also produce a torsional torque, My, to act on the structure. This torque is assumed to be constant throughout the wing span and is computed using Equation where is the air density, v is the airplane velocity, S is the reference surface area (wing surface area), c is the chord length and CM,0 is the moment coefficient at the airfoils aerodynamic center obtained through CFD analysis. The torque computed this way produces shear stresses in the structure that require a shear flow calculation to estimate them. For shear flow purposes the wing is seen as a three-cell beam. An expression for the twist angle per unit length, , can be developed for the generic cell i. If the shear flow, q, is constant in each cell the twist angle per unit length is given by Equation
where Ai is the cross sectional area included in the i-th cell, G is the materials shear modulus, q is the shear flow in the cell and t is the skin thickness both functions of the curved coordinate s. Since the structural integrity has to be guaranteed, a condition to the twist angles is imposed: they have to be the same in each cell. This relation in addition to the summation of moments in the cross section provides a set of three equations in three unknowns, the shear flows in the three cells. These are shown in
Solving this system of linear equations leads to the knowledge of the shear flows in the structure a nd then the shear stresses, xz, are easily estimated with Equation
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where t is thickness.
FAILURE CRITERIA VON MISES FAILURE CRITERIA Using the Von Mises stress computed in Section 4.4, the yield and fracture verification can be done using the Factor of Safety (FOS, 1.25 for yield and 1.5 for fracture) and that shown in Equation
. where yield and u are the materials yield and ultimate stresses respectively. yield u VM VM yield u FOS FOS
BUCKLING ANALYSIS & CALCULATIONS Buckling refers to a variety of failure modes wherein a flat plate or column fails at stresses that are less than the material yield stress under conditions of compressive or shear loading. In an aircraft wing, the skin is prone to buckling which tends to impair the aerodynamic properties of the airfoil. Hence stringers are placed strategically within the wing in order to minimize the risk of skin buckling. However, the stringers themselves are prone to buckling, which leads to the inclusion of ribs spaced throughout the wing structure, which stiffen the stringers by reducing their length. Therefore buckling is almost purely a function of wing geometry and material properties. The analysis presented in this section deals with the buckling of wing sections due to both compressive as well as shear loads and puts forward the necessary calculations in order to calculate critical stresses which, if surpassed, result in buckling. This information was then used to develop the criteria for a successful wing design within the optimization procedure.
COMPRESSIVE COLUMN BUCKLING As the wing structure bends due to the aerodynamic forces, compressive loads develop on surfaces (generally this loading is complex, but in a simplified sense the top of the wing is in compression and the bottom in tension). Within the wing, the structures that are most prone to column buckling are the skin and stringers. Since both the skin and the stringers carry this compressive load, they were considered together for column buckling calculations. Skin panels are divided between stringers in the chordwise direction and ribs in the spanwise direction. The geometry of the stringer/skin combination is shown in Figure 1. In it, each stringer was considered individually along with the skin whose chordwise length was determined by half of the distance to the nearest adjacent stringer (or spar cap). For convenience, this analysis is performed in a different coordinate system local to each stringer: the x axis is parallel to the plate connected to the stringer, while z is now running along the span and y is perpendicular to the first two, as shown in Figure Figure
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In order to calculate the column buckling stress, the centroid of the stringer/skin geometry was first calculated, given by Equations
Where xc and yc represent the x and y-coordinates of the total centroid, xi and yi represent the centroid of each of the seven flat plate components that make up the geometry, and Ai represents the cross-sectional area of each of these flat plate components. Next the area moment of inertia about the local centroid was calculated for each stringer section. This process was simplified by again assuming that the local stringer/skin cross section can be broken into seven distinct flat plates (2 contributions from the skin sections and 5 faces of the stringer). Then the moment of inertia of each of these plates was calculated individually about its local centroid and then moved to the section centroid via the Parallel Axis Theorem and finally all seven moments of inertia were summed linearly to find the area moment of inertia of the whole wing/skin cross-section.
Where Ii,x is the local rectangular plate area moment of inertia, b is the width of the rectangle along the axis the moment of inertia is taken about, and h is the height of the plate perpendicular to the axis of the area moment of inertia.
Where Ix is the area moment of inertia about the x-axis passing through the stringer/skin cross-sectional centroid, Ii,x is the area moment of inertia of the individual component and Ai is the area of the component, while y is the distance in the y-direction between the component and structure centroids [6]. Once the area moment of inertia is known, it can be combined with material properties and the prescribed rib spacing to calculate the critical pressure that can be applied to the structure. Equation 6.6 gives this calculation
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Here PCR is the critical pressure, E is the Youngs modulus, Ix is the area moment of inertia, and Lrib is the rib spacing. The critical pressure can be converted into a stress using Equation
Where CR,section is the critical stress and Atot represents the combined cross-sectional area of the stringer and local skin sections.
COMPRESSIVE PLATE BUCKLING In addition to checking that the stringer/skin section will not fail from compressive loads, it is necessary to check that the individual plates that make up the stringer will not buckle. For this calculation, it was assumed that each plate was clamped on all four sides. The critical buckling load was then computed using Equation
Where k is the buckling coefficient, E is the Youngs modulus, t is the plate thickness, b is the plate length (in cross section), and is the Poisson ratio. The buckling coefficient k comes experimentally from section geometry and end conditions and was programmed approximately as a piecewise function. The complete buckling coefficient for compressive loading is shown in Figure 6.2. With the critical load for each section calculated, the total compressive plate buckling stress was then calculated using Equation
Where is the total compressive plate buckling stress allowable, is the compressive load allowed on the individual stringer sections, and Astringer is the total cross-sectional area of the stringer. At each section, the critical stress due to axial loads to be considered is the lesser of the column buckling critical stress and the ate compressive critical stress.
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PLATE SHEAR BUCKLING The final buckling problem considered was that of plate shear buckling on the wings skin. This calculation again uses Equation 6.8, however in this case the buckling coefficient k is altered to reflect plate shear buckling [3]. Again, this coefficient is calculated from experimental data and was programmed to be evaluated approximately as a piecewise function. The actual plate buckling coefficients for shear loading are shown in Figure 6.3. For each panel of skin in the wing section, the buckling coefficient and then the buckling stress were calculated. If the calculated shear stresses in the skin section exceeded the buckling shear stress, it would result in failure, and hence was considered unacceptable for any proposed structure
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Figure 6 plate buckling coefficients for shear
SHEAR FLOW ON OPEN SECTION:
WING SECTION:
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Front Spar at 0.4c from L.E Rear Spar at 0.7c from L.E Where c is chord at root=1.76m Centroid=0.533c from L.E Section is symmetric about X-axisIxy=0 Ixx=4.56*10^-6 m^4 Iyy=4.09*10^-6 m^4
SHEAR FLOW CALCULATIONS:
Where Sx=4500 N -> Shear Force in horizontal direction Sy=40000 N -> Shear Force in Vertical direction Since Sx is fairly less by a factor of 10 when compared with Sy, we neglect it when it comes to shear force calculations. ---------(1) Where is Shear Flow in 1 Web Shear Flow in between two webs. Similarly For 2 section
nd st
--------- (2)
Now, we have relations for Shear Flow in all webs from which we can obtain two linear equations using Moment equilibrium and Twist equation.
MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM:
We shall now consider moments acting about particular point, let say O (L.E) Finally, we get
TWIST EQUATION:
Where G=Torsion co-efficient T=Thickness A=Area Enclosed
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Twist in the both sections is same so, we get From eq.(3) and eq.(4), we get 80410.8 N/m By assuming, t=1 mm Shear Stress=Shear Flow/Thickness We get Shear Stress (tau_1)=95.22 MPa for Section (1) Shear Stress (tau_2)=80.41 MPa for Section (2) Tau=q/t=KE(t/b)^2 Assuming (a/b) =2 K=5.34+4/(a/b)^2 = 6.34 b=t/(tau/KE)^0.5 ---->(5) For Section (1): b=0.109 m from eq.(5) Where b is Spacing between stringers/plate width
No. of Stringers=Circumference /b No. of stringers=14.36= 15 (app) Spacing between Stringers = 0.109 m For Section (2): b=0.119 m from eq.(5) No. of stringers= 8.87 = 9 (app) Spacing between Stringers = 0.119 m
CALCULATION OF SHEAR FLOW WITH STRINGERS:

Section 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Shear Flow(*10^4 N/m) 2.2721 29139 3.5226 4.0777 4.5602 4.9537 5.2447 5.4223 5.4836 5.4233 5.2447 4.9537 4.5602 4.0777 3.5226 2.9139 2.2721 7.1626 6.4905 5.7993 Spectrum of Margin of Safety 3.83 2.98 2.47 2.13 1.91 1.76 1.66 1.60 1.59 1.60 1.66 1.76 1.91 2.13 2.47 2.98 3.83 1.22 1.34 1.50
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21 22 23
5.0888 4.3591 3.6102
1.71 1.99 2.41
So, from the above calculations, the Maximum Shear Flow found=716*10^3 pa/m Corresponding Shear stress=q/t=716 Mpa.
CALCULATION OF MARGIN OF SAFETY:

From Maximum Shear Stress obtained, tau_critical/tau_max = 1.22 Margin of Safety=1.22 Stringer section-> now we look to match area of stringer Ixx of a stringer and the radius of gyration Now we find ixx for different models of Stringers and match it in the radius of gyration. We use a T-section of the following dimensions Where h=b/3 T=b/12 and then we find b=1.25 cm = 12.5 mm Therefore h=0.417 cm and t=0.104
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UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING
In the previous case, we only considered the force acting along Y-direction (Sy). It was an idealization done to simplify calculations. Also, Sx was substantially lesser than Sy, thus justifying the approximation. However, for a more rigorous analysis, we need to consider the contributions of both Sx and Sy, because as a result of ignoring/neglecting Sx, we also simultaneously neglected Ixy and Iyy and hence solved the problem for a basic symmetric bending case. Now, we solve for the case of unsymmetrical bending, considering all moments of Inertia and both the Shear Forces Sx and Sy. Symmetrical bending of a beam, also known as uniaxial bending, occurs when the load plane coincides with one of the main axes of the beam cross-section. The beam then deflects along/in the direction of the load and can hence be described by elastic lines. In unsymmetrical bending, the main axes of the cross-section do not coincide with the direction of loading. To prevent torsion, the line of application of load must pass through shear centre.
The stress z on an element dA at (x,y) can be given by
To find the neutral axes, we can write z = 0. Now, if the beam cross-section has either (or both) axes of symmetry, then the product second moment of area Ixy = 0 and the equation reduces to:
Further, if Mx or My are zero, then
Now, in general case, we find Neutral Axis by equating z to zero
=>
SHEAR CENTRE
For an open section beam of arbitrary section to support shear loads Sx and Sy, such that there is no twisting of the beam crosssection, the shear loads (both) must pass through a particular point in the cross-section known as the Shear Centre.
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For a closed section, the shear loads may be applied through points in the cross-section other than the shear centre so that torsional as well as shear effects are included. This is possible since shear stresses produced by torsion in closed section beams are of the same form as that due to shear forces unlike in open sections. Shear loads which are not applied through the shear centre of a closed section beam cause cross-sections to twist or warp, i.e. other than rotation, they suffer out-of-plane axial displacements.
Shear flow for unsymmetrical bending of closed section beams
using the above relation, we go ahead to find the shear flow in different sections, and we tabulate our results in the following tabular column.
SECTION 1 2 3 4
SHEAR FLOW 218493.33 259921.51 299835.59 336868.71 369752.12 397358.3984 418739.8 433160.59 440122.0527 439379.4874 430950.56
SHEAR FORCE 198630300.9 236292280.6 272577805.5 306224279.1 336138293.5 361234907.6 380672549.8 393782358 400110957 399435897.6 391773231.6
FACTOR OF SAFETY 4.38 3.68 3.19 2.84 2.59 2.41 2.29 2.21 2.17 2.18 2.22
Elliptical Region
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
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12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
415114.66 392403.45 363582.7 329626.22 291682.75 251036.76 730509.8 688483.22 646381.1 604162.24 561766.64 519117.49 476123.81 432683.55 388687.05 344020.8 298571.28 437733.04
377376965.6 356730410.5 330529723.7 299660201.8 265166132.7 228215234.2 664099820.4 664893839.8 587619180.2 549238402.5 510696946.6 471924990.4 432839826.5 393348679.5 353351865.1 312746184.6 271428439.3 397939131.6
2.3 2.44 2.63 2.9 3.28 3.81 1.31 1.39 1.48 1.58 1.7 1.84 2.01 2.21 2.46 2.78 3.21 2.19
Trapezoidal Region
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
I-Section 1 I-Section 2
253731.28
2306654803
3.77
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CALCULATION OF LIFT OF TAIL:
Iteration No. L Lt
1 108168 -11190.3
2 108824.3 -11846.7
3 108888.3 -11910.6
4 108894.5 -11916.9
5 108895.1 -11917.5
6 108895.2 -11917.5
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SHEAR FLOW CALCULATION & STIFFENER DISTRIBUTION FOR FUSELAGE

The Fuselage, while of a different shape with respect to the aerodynamic surfaces, are comprised of members that perform similar functions to their counterparts in the wing and the tail plane. However, there are differences in the generation of the different types of loads. Aerodynamic forces on the fuselage skin are relatively low; on the other hand, the fuselage supports large, concentrated loads like the wing reactions, tail plane reactions, undercarriage reactions and carries payloads of varying sizes and weights which may cause large inertia forces. Furthermore, aircrafts designed for high-altitude flight must withstand internal pressure. The shape of the fuselage cross-section is determined by operational requirements. For example, the most efficient sectional shape for a pressurized fuselage is circular or a combination of circular elements. Irrespective of shape, the basic fuselage structure is essentially a single cell, thin-walled tube comprised of skin, transverse frames and longitudinal stiffeners. The transverse members in fuselages are termed rings or frames or, if they extend across the complete cross-section, bulkheads. Similar roles of reaction, action and interaction are performed by the structural elements in the fuselage as those in the wing. The most important difference arises in the case of pressurized aircraft, where the skin combines with the frames and longitudinal stiffeners to react the hoop and circumferential stresses respectively. From previous reports, we have Sy = 52000 N (for the aft-section) = 420 MPa M = 350000 Nm Number of Longerons = 2 Shear flow across each stiffener is given by
( CALCULATIONS
We choose Aluminum as material for the fuselage, for which we find the maximum stress to be max = 420 MPa considering a Factor of Safety of 1.5, we get allowable = max/1.5 = 280 MPa From the Bending Moment diagram (previous reports), we consider the cross-section where the Bending moment is maximum. M = 350 KNm allowable = My/I, where y = 1 m (as diameter of fuselage is 2m) I = M/ allowable ; Longeron Area = I/2, where I =
S = 52000 N at the cross-section, as obtained from Shear Force Diagram. q = Sy(Longeron Area)/2I E = 70 GPa (for Aluminum) max = 68 MPa allowable = 68/1.5 = 45.3 MPa
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But allowable = KE(t/b)
-> we use this relation to get the stiffener spacing. For this case, we employ a thickness of t = 0.002 m b = 0.182 m N = 36 stiffeners
we thus find out stiffener spacing to be Number of stiffeners = N = 2 x 3.14 x 1/0.182 we thus obtain the number of stiffeners to be Now,
where l/r -> slenderness ratio.
using this, we find out r, which is the radius of gyration r = 0.0162 m -4 2 Area of stiffeners = 3.14 x 0.0162 x 0.0162 = 8.245 x 10 m -5 2 Area of 1 stiffener = Total Area/36 = 2.29 x 10 m and we distribute the stiffeners spaced evenly along the circumference of the Frame. And then, we solve the shear flow equations using MATLAB code and find shear flow distribution along the fuselage cross-section.

Tructural Design: Final Report

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SMALL AIRCRAFT (4-5PASEENGER, 1-5TONS) WHICH CAN FLY FROM SMALL AIRPORTS(<2KM)

BY TEAM 2 (B.TECH)AE08B006, AE08B007,

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VERTICAL TAIL DETAILS:

1. Area 2.Span 3. Taper ratio 4.Sweep 5.Aspect Ratio 6.Root Chord

7.35 3.5 0.5 45 1 2.8

FUEL STORAGE: Fuel weight Fuel location 664.5 kg X 5.71 m

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Weight(kg) 118.3 82 70 250 585 113 600 664.5 962.8

Z position(m) 0 3 0.667 0 1 -1.32 0 0 0 0.2114

3-VIEW OF AIRCRAFT INTERNAL VIEW

Figure 1 Internal View of Aircraft

EXTERNAL VIEW FRONT VIEW

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Figure 2 Front View of Aircraft (External)

Figure 3 Side View of Aircraft (External)

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Figure 4 Plan View of Aircraft (External)

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V-N DIAGRAM VARIOUS MANEUVERS AN AIRCRAFT CAN DO

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Note that c is the mean geometric chord here.

V-N DIAGRAM FOR TAKE-OFF WEIGHT

At stall, At cruise altitude (= 11km) Density = 0.38kg/m

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T=D Given, K=0.064 Thrust=1814.7 Kgf T/W=0.526 In level flight,

We get, CL=0.125 V= 310m/s

V-N DIAGRAM FOR EMPTY WEIGHT

At cruise altitude (= 11km) Density = 0.38kg/m

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LIFT AND DRAG DISTRIBUTION SCHRENKS METHOD

Then calculate CL for the case under consideration

C.CL= Calculations S=20.22m ; b=12.32m =>

Equation for chord distribution for elliptical planform is

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( Considering , (n,V)=(3,161.1) or CL max=1.29 L=nW

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SFD AND BMD OF FUSELAGE: FUSELAGE:

FOR SFD & BMD:

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Figure : Body-fixed coordinate system used in calculations

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Figure 6 plate buckling coefficients for shear

SHEAR FLOW ON OPEN SECTION: