2.Filtering Idealfrequencyselectivefiltersarefiltersthatletfrequencycomponentsoveragivenfrequencybandpassthrough undistorted,whilecomponentsatotherfrequenciesarecompletelycutoff. Filteringisneededwhennoiseisaddedtoasignalbutthenoisehasmostofitsenergyatfrequenciesoutsideofthe bandwidthofthesignal.Wewanttorecoverthesignalfromitsnoisymeasurement.

Ideallowpassfilter

Theoutput y (t ) ofthesystemforaninput x(t ) is givenby, F .T . y (t ) = x(t ) h(t ) H ( j ) X ( j ) . The step response of the ideal lowpass filter is the running integral of the sinc function. Its plot indicates that there are potentially undesirable oscillations beforeandafterthediscontinuity.

The impulse response of an ideal lowpass filter is not realizable as it is noncausal. Approximation of the ideal lowpass filter can be realized by the causal LTI filters. Butterworth filter is one of them. The magnitude response of an Nth order B>W> filter with cutofffrequency c isgivenby,

TheplotofthemagnituderesponseofBWfilterforN=2isshownbelow.

3.Sampling Samplingistheacquisitionofacontinuoussignalatdiscretetimeintervals.TheprocessisshowninFigurebelow.

Inthefrequencydomain,

Sampling theorem: A bandlimited signal x(t ) with X ( ) = 0 for > M is uniquely determined from its samples

2 isthesamplingfrequency. T Given the signal samples, we can recover x(t ) by filtering x p (t ) using an ideal lowpass filter with dc gain T and cut

x(nT ) if s > 2M where s =

offfrequencybetween s and s M .

The original spectrum centered at = 0 can be recovered undistorted if it does not overlap with its neighboring replicas. Sampling using ZOH: The zero order hold (ZOH) retains the value of the signal sample up until the following sample instant. It basically produces staircase signals from the samples. We can view ZOH as a filter with impulse response h0 (t ) asshowninFigurebelow.

ThefrequencyresponseofaZOHwithimpulseresponse h0 (t ) isgivenby,

H 0 ( ) = Te
Theinverseof H 0 ( ) is, H1 ( ) =

T 2

T T 2 j 2 T sin sinc = e . 2 2

1 j T e 2 . 2 sin(T / 2)

Thereconstructionfilteristhecascadeoftheinversefilterandthelowpassfilter. H r ( ) = TH lp ( ) H1 ( ) ThemagnitudeandthephaseplotofthereconstructionfilterisshowninFigurebelow.

 Thisfrequencyresponsecannotberealizedexactlyinpractice.Butitcanbeapproximatedwithacausalfilter. ThewholeprocessisshowninFigurebelow.

Example 1. A periodic signal x(t ) is given as an input of a 2nd order Butterworth filter as shown below. What should be the outputofthefilter?Given, T1 = T / 4 , T = 0.001 s , R =

1 500 , L = 2 H and C = 106 F . 4 2

Thedifferentialequationrelatingtheoutputandinputofthefilteris,

LC

d 2 y L dy + + y (t ) = x(t ) . dt 2 R dt

Y ( ) 1 = X ( ) LC ( j ) 2 + L j + 1 R 1 k ak = sinc 2 2 2.FindtheinverseF.T. x (t ) of X ( ) whosemagnitudeandphaseareshownbelow.

Thefrequencyresponseofthefilterisgivenby,

H ( ) =

Ifthephasefunctionwere0,then x(t ) wouldbeastandardsincfunction x0 (t ) .

x0 (t ) = 5

Wt sin c .

Here,theslopeofthephaseplotis

.Hence, x(t ) = x0 (t

)== 5

W sin c t . W

3.ConsiderthecausalLTIsystemshowninFigurebelow.Findthefrequencyresponseoftheoverallsystem.

1 ( j + 1) H ( ) = H1 ( ) H 2 ( ) = 2 ( j ) + 2 j + 1
H ( ) =

2 1 2 . +1 4.PlottheFouriertransformofthesignal x(t ) = sin1000 t + cos1200 t .Whatshouldbethesamplingperiodthat

2 +1
4

and, H ( ) = + tan 1 + tan 1

wouldensurenoaliasing?

2 1 = s Noaliasingwilloccurifthesamplingfrequencyis, s > 2400 i.e., T < 2400 1200

[Ans]