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J o u r n a l o t ( ' n t n i n a l J u q i c c . V-I 25. Nu 5. pp 397 4(18. 1997 ('op.',right 6,. 1997 Eb, c~ ler ~,clcncc l. td Printed m Ihc t S , \ All righI~ re~,cI~.ed 1X147-2.%52i'17 %17.1X1 . ,[XI

PII S0047-2352(97)00023-8

PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT AND CORRECTIONAL PERSONNEL: A STUDY OF THE PERCEIVED ATMOSPHERE FOR PARTICIPATION IN CORRECTIONAL DECISION MAKING AND ITS IMPACT ON EMPLOYEE STRESS AND THOUGHTS ABOUT QUITTING

RISDON N. SLAItDepartment of Criminal Justice Florida Southern College lmkeland, Florida 33803

RONAI,D E. VOGEL Department of Criminal Justice California State University. Long Beach Long Beach. California 91184(I

ABSTRACT Participatory management has been identified in the empirical literature as a technique to alleviate job related stress in criminal justice organizations. Although many advantages have been notecL ./~,w criminal justice agencies have developed programs to c~qfitalize on the ben<fits rC employee participation in decision making. This article Jocuses on the perceptions of correctional (~fficers regarding their participation in decision making and the relationship between organizatiemal strew.< physi~al sttwss, and thoughts about quitting the job. Four hundred eighty-six emph,yees were surveyed J)'om seven correctional institutions in the Southeast United States. A structural model, which e.tplained 31 percent ~/ the variation, showed that as employee participation increased, physical and occupational stres.~ &'creased. Thoughts about quitting were associated with higher levels of physical stress, occupational stress, and the perception o f a negative atmo.v~hereJbr participation. The re~ults lend support for the use and development of participatory management programs in the.field (~/corrections. 1997 Elsevier Science l.td INTRODUCTION Goals (1973) recommended the use of participatory management techniques in correctional institutions across the country. Although these recommendations were largely ignored, sup-

As early as 1973. the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and

397

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R.N. SLATE and R. E. VOGEL

porters of participatory management continued to laud its many benefits, including the reduction of organizational stress, which, according to Burke (1992), is an area that continues to be neglected. Although the sources of stress in correctional institutions have been explored, the causes appear to be complex and inconsistent (e.g., Blau, Light, and Chamlin, 1986; Brodsky. 1982; Cheek and Miller, 1983; Cullen et al., 1985; Dembo and Dertke, 1986; Freeman and Johnson, 1982; Gerstein, Topp, and Correll, 1987; Guenther and Guenther, 1974; Huckabee, 1992; Lindquist and Whitehead, 1986; Patterson, 1992; Stalgaitis, Meyers, and Kriska, 1982; Honnold and Stinchcombe, 1985). This article focuses on correctional officer stress as it relates to participatory management and thoughts about ending employment, which are central factors related to employee turnover (Kirschenbaum and Weisberg, 1990: Stohr, Lovrich, and Wilson, 1994; Stohr, Sell, and Lovrich, 1992: Steel and Ovalle, 1984). As noted by Cullen et al. (1985), stress is inextricably connected to the quality of correctional officer employment and can be linked to job performance and poor health. Cheek (1984) reported that the average life span of correctional officers was filly-nine years, which is sixteen years less than the national average. Also, she revealed that correctional officers have divorce rates twice that of the national average and high rates of alcoholism, suicide, and family problems. According to Adwell and Miller (1985), prison personnel are more prone than the public to heart attacks, high blocnt pressure, and ulcers. Morris (1986) found that stress is also related to high turnover rates, absenteeism, and disability claims.

OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Over the past decade, approximately 300 articles have been published on the subject of work stress (Ganster and Schaubroeck, 1991), including studies related to stress and its relationship to health problems (Cooper and Watson, 1991 ; Johnson and Johansson, 1991 ; Karasek and Theorell, 1990). Research findings suggest that work place stress is associated with morbidity and mortality rates (Brandt and Nielsen,

1992; Falk et al., 1992; Homer, Sherman, and Siegel, 1990: Johnson, Hall, and Theorell, 1989; Palmer, 1989), heart disease, hypertension, upper respiratory infections, peptic ulcers, reduced immunity, migraines, alcoholism, depression, suicidal tendencies, anxiety, alcoholism, and other mental disorders (DeCarlo and Gruenfeld, 1989; Ivancevich, Matteson, and Richards, 1985: Muntaner et al., 1991). Recently, Cornell University Medical College found that exposure to job strain increases the probability of high blood pressure (Schnall et al., 1990) and increased heart mass (Schnall, 1990). The pernicious effects of stress are well documented and, according to the American Institute of Stress, it is estimated that almost one-half of all employee absences and 75-85 percent of all industrial accidents involve workers under stress (DeCarlo and Gruenfeld, 1989). While the personal effects of stress can be devastating to the individual, organizations are" also negatively impacted. Stress can prove costly in terms of decreased prtnluctivity, turnover, health care costs, disability payments, sick leave, and absenteeism. It is estimated that of the 550 million work days lost to absenteeism in U.S. industry, over 54 percent are related to stress (Elkin and Rosch, 1990). Overall, the cost of stress incurred by American organizations is in excess of $150 billion a ycar (Karasek and Theorell, 1990). In addition, it is estimated that 40 percent of job turnover is stress induced (DeCarlo and Gruenfeld, 1989). In corrections, the annual turnover rate of correctional officers has been reported to range from 16.2 percent to 40 percent (Jurik and Winn, 1987). High absenteeism and job turnover are cited as two of the most readily identifiable measures of the amount of burnout in a working environment (Brown, 1986). Among correctional employees, front line personnel have been tbund to be the most susceptible to stress (Robinson, Porporino, and Simourd, 1996). Stress and Participative Management in Criminal Justice Lack of control of social support over one's job has been found to be a predictor of both physiological and psychological stress for correctional personnel (Brodsky, 1982; Dollard

Participative Management and Correctional Personnel

399

and Winefield, 1995; Honnold and Stinchcomb, 1985). Also, Cullen et al. (1985) have shown that job dissatisfaction, role conflict, and anabiguity experienced by correctional officers is a stressor, which is consistent with earlier organizational and correctional studies. In other correctional research, the chain of command (Lindquist and Whitehead, 1986), the lack of social support (Dollard and Winefield, 1995), unclear supervisory expectations (Cheek and Miller, 1983; Rosefield, 1981: Whitehead and Lindquist, 1986), trait anxiety (Morrison et al.. 1992), poor communication among line and supervisory personnel (Lombardo, 1981 ), a lack of participation in institutional decision making (Honnold and Stinchcomb, 1985: Lasky, Gordon, and Strebalus, 1986; Lindquist and Whitehead, 1986; Lombardo, 1981: Patterson, 1992), work experience (Cullen et al., 1985: Jurik and Halemba, 1984: Lanuay and Fielding, 1989), custody versus treatment orientation (Cullen et al., 1985; Liou, 1995; Poole and Pogrebin, 1988), and a host of other organizationally related factors (see Black, 1982: Cheek and Miller, 1983; Digham, Barrera, and West, 1986; Grossi, 1990: Grossi and Berg, 1991; Lombardo, 1981; Rosefield, 1981: Weinberg et al., 1985) are linked to stress among correctional personnel. To address some of these issues, it has been suggested that guards be allowed input into decision making within the institution (Brodsky, 1982; Hepburn and Jurik, 1986: Katsampes, 1975; Poole and Regoli, 1983: Toch and Klofas, 1982; Smith. Meister, and Klofas, 1985). Criminal justice personnel who are allowed to participate in various participatory management programs have been found to be consistently more committed and motivated to attain agency goals than dissimilarly situated cohorts (Honnold and Stinchcomb. 1985). Correctional employee participation in work place decision making has been cited as a means for bolstering social support on the job and as a mechanism for reducing factors that have been found to contribute to burnout IWhitehead, 1981 ). Touting the benefits of participatory management, Stohr et al. (1994)conducted a study of five jails and found the institutions that focused on "employee investment" had officers who were more motivated, satisfied, committed, and less stressed.

According to Weiner (1988), if work environments are created where correctional officers are valued and respected for their work, they should be allowed to participate in decisions directly affecting them. Democratic managers who are generally open to and encourage employee participation in decision making provide work environments that have less stress and an atmosphere where employees have higher morale and job satisfaction (DeCarlo and Gruenfeld, 1989). Johnson (1987) theorizes that as line officers begin to have input and establish collaborative networks within correctional organizations, the enigma of the prison bureaucracy can be demystified for more efficient delivery of services to inmates. This shift can be mutually beneficial for correctional officers and inmates because the reduction of stress in one area may lead to the alleviation of stress in others. Correctional officers often express the desire to change and contribute to "'the overall running of the institution" (Johnson, 1987:141). In a recent study, conducted by Dollar& Winefield and McGuirk (1993), correctional officers stated that some of their job pressures were caused by superiors giving more credence to what inmates had to say versus line officers. As indicated by Taylor and Card (1985), providing employees with a voice in the affairs of" the organization is a powerful way Irbr managers to indicate the worth of individuals. Toch (1988) believes that creating administrative opportunities for correctional officers to demonstrate their competence may reduce the effects of stress. Archambeault and Archambeault (1982). however, noted that it is dilficult to get correctional administrators to relinquish power and commit to participatory management programs. Though the practical merits of participatory management are well documented in the criminal .justice literature (Klofas, Stojkovic. and Kalinich, 1990: Melancon, 1984). their use in correctional settings is in its infancy (Duffee, 198t)). One well-known example was a project carried out by Toch and Grant (1982) in the New York prison system. The results of this intervention provided "'evidence that correctional officers arc less alienated and more likely to take creative and innovative approaches to goals of prison order when they perceive that managers value their

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ideas and seek their participation in decisions" (Duffee, 1989:459). In summary, the criminal justice literature provides several examples of organizational interventions and theoretical perspectives to help alleviate stress and improve the working environment. In the field of corrections, with its rigid autocratic organizational structures, little has been done to promote participatory management schemes to attack organizational stress. Maslach (1982) maintains that it is senseless to identify bad people in terms of organizational stress. She laments that focusing on the individual is analogous to examining the "personality of cucumbers to discover why they turned into sour pickles without analyzing the vinegar barrels in which they had been submerged" (Maslach, 1982:10). In support of Maslach (1982), Brodsky (1982) and Jurik and Winn (1987) also recommended focusing on organizations instead of individuals when exploring the etiology of organizational stress. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The specific objectives of this research were narrowly defined. The purpose was to explore the relationships between stress levels of correctional employees, their perceptions of involvement in work place decision making, and thoughts about quitting their jobs. Other variables, gleaned from the literature as pertinent to the investigation, were also examined. The definition of stress used in this study included the physiological and emotional arousal that stems from perceptions or demands and the attempts to endure those demands and emotional reactions (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). The accumulation of such stress may deplete one's ability to cope and may lead to illness, injury, or psychological disorder (e.g., Cohen and Williamson, 1991; Coyne and Downey, 1991; Pcarlin, 1989). METHODOLOGY

the southern region of the United States, The correctional institutions were selected on the basis of their diversity in terms of maximum, medium, and minimum security. In addition, one private institution was included to ensure a diversity of management styles. Difficulty gaining access to the prisons was anticipated, but permission was eventually granted from all the selected institutions. To obtain a sample from the six traditional institutions (nonprivate), personnel were addressed at each shift roll call and asked to participate. One of the authors was present to explain the purpose of the research, distribute questionnaires, and inform participants of the anonymous and voluntary nature of the survey. All employees were asked to return the survey at the end of their shift. Participants were also instructed to place the completed survey in a sealed envelope, which was provided, and to drop the envelope in any of the centrally located drop boxes. Disseminating surveys to security personnel in the privately operated, minimum security facility differed from the approach used in the traditional institutions. Due to administration dictates, the surveys with envelopes and instructions were left with the facility director for distribution. Of the 1,647 security related personnel in the seven institutions, approximately 1,131 employees were addressed and had surveys distributed to them. Four hundred eighty-six were returned for a 42.8 percent completion rate. This response rate is fairly low and the results may not be generalizable to the greater population. As a result of this limitation, the results should be regarded as suggestive rather than definitive. This stated, a comparison of demographic characteristics between the total populations of the seven institutions and the samples drawn from each facility revealed few differences. ~ Even though the population parameters regarding certain demographic variables closely mirrored those of the samples, care must be taken in interpreting the results.

The Sample
A purposive sample of employees was taken from seven different correctional institutions in

The Questionnaire
A questionnaire was used to assess the level of occupational and physical stress of correc-

Participative Management and Correctional Personnel

401

tional officers in a variety of institutional environments in relationship to participative management practices, thoughts about quitting one's job, as well as a variety of demographic variables. A short description of the scales used and demographic variables included in the survey are provided below. To measure stress, the Occupational Environment Scale. a subscale of the Occupational Stress Inventory, was utilized. Designed by Osipow and Spokane (1983), their scale had a reported overall mean score of 137.64, a standard deviation of 26.59, and an alpha coefficient for internal consistency calculated at .89. The sixtyitem Likert-scaled questionnaire also revealed an overall range in scores from 60 to 300. Larger scores suggested more significant levels of occupational stress and psychological strain encountered by employees across occupations. This scale has been used to study over 160 occupations including criminal justice agencies (e.g., Tabor, 1987; Wiggins, 1989). For the current study, the Cronbach alpha was calculated at .71, which suggests a moderately strong level of internal consistency. The Attitudes on Participation Survey was developed to measure attitudes about participation in the work place. The questions were developed and refined on the basis of a review of pertinent literature. For each question that comprised the scale, a Likert-type format was used with response categories that ranged from five (strongly agree) to one (strongly disagree). Two subscales emerged from the survey: atmosphere for participation and attitudes about participation. A reliability analysis of both subscales was conducted for this study using the Cronbach alpha. The atmosphere scale yielded a moderately high reliability coefficient of .85 and the attitudes subscale was .81. The questionnaire items that formed the atmosphere for participation subscale included: My superiors ask me ti~r input on decisions that affect me at work. I am encouraged to offer my opinions at work. There is opportunity for me to have a say in the running of this institution on matters that concern me.

From past experience at this institution, 1 feel it is a waste of time and energy to tell the management anything. I reel comfortable about offering my opinion to supervisors at work. Those who actually do the work are involved in the writing of the policies at this institution. The attitudes about participation subscale included the following items: The quality of decisions increase as worker participation in decision making increases. Participation in decision making tends to make one feel better about one's sell'. Participation in decision making tends to make individuals feel they have a stake in running the organization. Participation in decision making tends to make individuals feel more a part of the team. Everyone should be allowed to participate in decision making in the work place on maners that affect them. The Selye Health Scale, developed by Check and Miller (1982b). is a fifty-four-item l+ikertscaled questionnaire that ranks the severity of physical symptoms and illnesses reported by respondents. The severity of the symptoms and illnesses increase as one progresses through the survey and is weighted and scored accordingly: the range of possible scores is 54-324. This instrument has been previously used in correctional officer stress research ICheek and Miller, 1982a" Cheek, 1984). The demographic questions in this survey were also included on the basis of a review of the literature. These variables included sex, race, age. marital status, educational level, years of correctional experience, and military experience. Other items on the questionnaire included security level worked, type of inmates supervised, custody or rehabilitation orientation, how often one thinks about quitting correctional service, and other employment related questions.

The Dependent (Criterion) Variable

The dependent variable was measured by a single-item measure with a Likert-type fivelevel response format, which asked respondents about the amount of time they thought about quitting their jobs. The question ranged from

Management responds in a satisfactory manner to what I have to say.

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R.N. SLATE and R. E. VOGEL

rarely or never thinking about quitting to having such thoughts most of the time. While the efficacy of using employee intentions to predict turnover has been questioned, it has been reported that the "predictive ability of most turnover models emanates from a key construct measuring a worker's intention to withdraw from a work organization" (Kirschenbaum and Weisberg, 1990:829). According to Steel and Ovalle (1984), the relationship between behavioral intentions and employee turnover is believed to be an important avenue to inquiry in turnover research. An added benefit cited tor using turnover intentions as opposed to actual turnover is that intentions are under more individual control than turnover (Shore and Martin, 1989). Furthermore, reliance on current organizational records of actual employee turnover for research purposes is viewed as highly suspect due to the questioned accuracy and depth of such records (Campion, 1991 ).

level were retained lbr inclusion in the model. Variables that made a significant direct contribution to the criterion variable or were found to be predictive of other variables that directly contributed to the criterion variable were retained lor inclusion in the model.
Included and Fxcluded Variables

CONSTRUCTION OF THE STRUCTURAL MODEL A structural model was developed that first involved screening variables for their contribution in predicting the dependent variable (frequency of thoughts about quitting one's job). Hierarchical regression was used to select variables appropriate for inclusion in the model. This approach allows the author to make decisions about variable selection and causal ordering based on theoretical assumptions and previous empirical findings. Based on the literature, the variables were entered in the following order: demographic variables, variables perceived as not being caused by other variables, variables related to the organizational milieu (i.e., security level of the institution, type of contact with inmates, amount of correctional experience, and the atmosphere for participation in the work place), and physical stress and occupational stress level scores. Because the sample was large and numerous variables were examined, restrictive criteria tor inclusion in the model were adopted. Only variables that produced path coefficients larger than. 10 and were found to be statistically significant at the p < .001

Of the twenty-five independent variables considered, six were retained for inclusion in the model. Listwise deletion was used to ensure that only cases with valid values on all variables were used. This restrictive technique reduced the sample size to 424 cases. From the initial list of demographic variables, only sex (male = 0: female = I) was found to merit inclusion in the model. Race, age, marital status, educational attainment, and military experience were all dropped from subsequent analysis. Organizational milieu variables found to warrant inclusion in the model were one's position within the institution, handling of security, and the atmosphere for participation in work place decision making. Position within the organization was dummy coded (management/supervisory = 0; nonmanagement/nonsupervisory = 1), as well as handling of security (tight handling of security = 0; loose handling of security = 1). The atmosphere for participation in the work place was measured by the mean of the responses to the Likert-type questionnaire items. Variables in the organizational milieu that did not meet the specification for inclusion in the structural model were the amount of correctional experience: shift worked; type of inmate contact; custody level of inmates supervised; supervision of special inmates; facility where employed; correctional philosophy (rehabilitation versus custody); whether handling of inmates was considered adequate: attitudes of respondents toward participatory management: and the number of reported days off in the previous year for vacation, sickness, disability, and suspension. Both measures of physical and occupational stress were significantly and directly predictive of the criterion variable. Therefore, both variables were included in the model.

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403

TABLE 1 CORRELATIONS BETWEEN PREDICTOR VARIABLES INCLUDED IN THE MODEL AND THOUGHTS ABOUT QUITTING ONE'S JOB

Y1
Y1 X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 Thoughts of quitting Female Line officer L o o s e handling of security A t m o s p h e r e for participation Physical stress Occupational stress p .001 (two-tailed). n 424. 1.00 .01 .13 .17" -.41 * .39* .48*

X1
1.00 .07 .05 -.06 .20" -.06

X2

)(3

)(4

)(5

)(6

1.00 -.01 -.32 .05 - .03

1.00 -.27* .13 .28"

1.00 -.3 t - .46

1.00 .44"

1.00

RESULTS

Demographics
An analysis of the demographic variables in the sample revealed that 78 percent were males and 20 percent were females. The majority of respondents were married (58 percent), 22 percent reported never being married, and 20 percent indicated they were divorced or widowed. The mean age was thirty-six, with a range from twenty-one to sixty-five and a median of thirtyfour. Years of education ranged from seven to nineteen, with a mean of thirteen and a median of twelve. Fifty percent of the sample were African American, 47 percent were Caucasian, and the remainder classified themselves as other.

cause of the simultaneous effects among the variables, path analysis was used to disentangle the direct, indirect, and spurious relationships.

Causal Analysis
The causal effects were estimated tbr the model of the current study using the variables in Table 1. Starting with the supervisory versus nonsupervisory variable, the arrangement was from top to bottom as shown in Figure 1. Each variable entered was perceived to be a potential cause of those variables that came after it in the model. All six independent variables were predictors of the thoughts about quitting one's job or a predictor of a variable that made a direct contribution to the criterion variable. As previously indicated, only variables with path coefficients that had values o f . 10 (p < .001 ) or greater were included in the model. The three variables with direct paths to the dependent variable accounted for 31 percent of the variance in the criterion variable (p < .001). Table 2 shows the direct, indirect, and spurious effects of the variables. Table 2 and Figure 1 show that the correlation of sex with thoughts about quitting is insignificant and is primarily manifested through physical and occupational stress levels. One's status within the organization (as a supervisor or a line officer) revealed an insignificant correlation and path coefficient with the criterion variable, which was Iound to be more indirect in nature. With a direct path coefficient ( - . 3 2 ) from supervisory status to atmosphere for participation, line officers were more likely to perceive the atmosphere for participation in the

Correlations Among Predictor Variables

Pearson correlations among the six independent variables and the dependent variable are shown in Table 1. As noted, cases with any missing data were excluded from the analysis. As can be observed in the first column (Y 1), the criterion variable (thoughts of quitting the job) was most closely associated with higher levels of occupational stress, perceived negative atmosphere for participation in work place decision making, and higher levels of physical stress. A weak. yet significant correlation of institutional handling of security suggests that those correctional personnel who felt that security was handled loosely were more prone to having lYequent thoughts of quitting their jobs. The correlations in the first column (Y1) reveal the strength of the linear relationships. Be-

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R.N. SLATE and R. E. VOGEL

Handling of Security loose)

Nonsupervisory versus Supervisory

Sex

(Female) -.32

- 26

Atmosphere for Participation

I[-'3
l .34

Physical Stress

. .18

1,1

Occupational Stress

[.-.35

-.15

.29 Thoughts of Quitting

Figure 1. Structural Model of Thoughts about Quitting the Job.

work place as negative when compared to supervisory personnel. Handling of security was weakly correlated with thoughts about quitting (r = .17, p < .001). Also, an insignificant, direct path coefficient (.01) was found. The correlation with the

criterion variable was almost exclusively explained by indirect effects (.16). The loose handling of security was a significant, direct contributor to views regarding a negative atmosphere for participation in the work place (-.26) and increased occupational stress (. 15). The analysis

TABLE 2 SUMMARY OF DIRECT, INDIRECT, AND SPURIOUS EFFECTS ON THOUGHTSABOUT QUI'I-I'ING ONE'S JOB

Predictor
Xl X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 .001 Female Line o f f i c e r L o o s e handling of s e c u r i t y A t m o s p h e r e f o r participation Physical stress O c c u p a t i o n a l stress

Correlation
.01 .13 .17" - .41 * .39" .48"

Direct
-.03 .05 .01 - . 19" .21 * .29"

Indirect
.04 .08 .16 -.12 .13 --

Spurious
----.10 .05 .19

Notes: Tests of significance are for correlations and direct effects only. n = 424. Cumulative R2 = .31. Adjusted R2 = .30. *p <

Participative Management and Correctional Personnel

405

suggests that perceived loose handling of security is an important variable, in that the participatory atmosphere and occupational stress levels of employees were determined to be significant, direct predictors of personnel having thoughts about quitting their jobs. The atmosphere for participation variable, as anticipated, proved to be a rather pivotal variable in the structural model. Of the variables entered, it was the first to demonstrate a significant, direct effect upon the criterion variable ( - . 1 9 ) . Spurious effects ( - . 1 0 ) , however, accounted for some of the explanation. Indirect effects ( - . 1 2 ) accounted for the remainder of the correlation (r = - . 4 1 ) between the atmosphere for participation and thoughts about quitting. Significant direct path coefficients from atmosphere for participation to physical stress ( - . 3 1 ) and occupational stress ( - . 3 5 ) accounted for the indirect effects. Physical stress levels were determined to have a moderate correlation with the criterion variable (r = .39). The majority of this effect (.21 ) was found to have a significant, direct impact upon the criterion variable. Physical stress effects on thoughts of quitting were mediated indirectly by the intervention of occupational stress with a calculated indirect effect of .13. Spurious effects (.05) explained only a small portion of the impact of physical stress on the criterion. The direct effects of occupational stress (.29) explain the majority of the correlation (r = .48) with thoughts about quitting one's job. Prior causal variables, such as physical stress and atmosphere for participation, combined to create the largest spurious effect (. 19) in the model, a predictable result of being the last variable entered into the model. Overall. a number of significant relationships were found among the variables included in the structural model. First, females were found to be significantly more physically stressed than males in the institutions surveyed (r = .20; direct effect = . 18). Although a significant direct path coefficient emerged between females and occupational stress ( - . 15), the correlation { r = - . 0 6 ) was insignificant. Second, line officers were more likely than supervisors Ir = - . 3 2 : direct effect = - . 3 2 ) to view the at-

mosphere for participation in work place decision making as negative. Third, respondents who felt that security was handled loosely at their respective institutions were more likely to view the atmosphere for participation as negative (r = - . 2 7 ; direct effect = - . 2 6 ) and were more likely to have increased levels of occupational stress (r = .28: direct effect = . 15). Fourth, the atmosphere lor participation in decision making was directly predictive of each variable that followed in the model. In a series of inverse relationships, it was found that respondents who perceived a negative atmosphere for participation in decision making were more likely to have higher physical stress levels (r = - . 3 I: direct effect = -.31), higher occupational stress levels (r = - . 4 6 : direct effect = -.35), and more frequent thoughts about quitting their job (r = - . 4 1 : direct effect = - . 19). Finally, as physical stress increased, occupational stress significantly increased Ir = .44: direct effect = .34) as did thoughts about quitting the job (r = .39: direct effect = .21). All prior variables, except supervisory status, produced significant direct path coefficients to occupational stress.

CONCLUSION Over two decades have passed since the 1973 National Advisory Commission on Standards and Goals advised managers not to simply dictate rules and allow all organizational wisdom to flow from the top down. The advice was echoed by McConkie (1975) and Katsampes (1979) who believed that involvement and cornmitment of the total organization was the optimal means for implementing participatory management. As the body of literature supporting participative management continued to grow and mature throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the concept was overlooked or ignored by most correctional administrators. Simply stated, the correctional system's paramilitary organizational structure was and remains antithetic to participative management. Typically, policies and directives flow from the top down. and line officers are expected to obey the commands of their superiors. This rigid, status quo approach to

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R.N. SLATE and R. E. VOGEL

prison administration may curtail innovative change, but researchers continue to laud the many benefits of participatory management and establish causal links between employee input into decision making and the reduction of correctional officer stress (DeCarlo and Gruenfeld, 1989; Huckabee, 1992; Whitehead, 1981; Toch, 1988). The results of the current study clearly support these findings. The most pivotal variable that merits consideration regarding organizational intervention appears to be the atmosphere for employee participation. Specifically, as opportunities for employee participation in decision making increased, physical stress, occupational stress, and thoughts about quitting decreased. It is the opinion of the authors that participatory management is not appropriate for situations that occur on a day-to-day basis in correctional institutions. Allowing employees input into policy issues that profoundly impact their work environment is reasonable, beneficial, and would not foreshadow radical change. Reisig (1996) found that flexible correctional environments were associated with higher levels of job satisfaction and lower levels of role strain than their cohorts from more paramilitaristic institutions. From a management perspective, it is economically beneficial to reduce the stress of correctional employees, but it is clear that more research is necessary to ascertain the type and amount of employee input that reduces stress. Furthermore, as suggested by Robinson, Porporino, and Simourd (1996), future research would do well to assess differences across occupational roles within corrections. Some researchers maintain that longitudinal studies are crucial for understanding occupational stress. Whatever direction future research on participatory management in corrections takes, commitment on the part of administrators will be essential. This stated, it has been noted that gaining access to prisons is difficult (Dilulio, 1987) and the "'inside is not discerned easily" (Philliber, 1987:10). In summary, the authors recommend that correctional administrators begin exploring the benefits of participatory management. As long as correctional employees are considered to be

expendable soldiers in the paramilitary structure, the system will lack the impetus to change. When and if the correctional system seeks changes, the prescription for successful implementation of participative management is available. The concept has come of age and the outcome of policy changes could have many positive benefits tbr the overall correctional system.

NOTE 1. Bivariatetests of significance(chi-square) were used to determinedifferences between the populationparameters and the sample statistics. Genderand race were the key variables analyzed to establish an argument for the sample's representativeness. The findings did not reveal significant differences, with one exception. In one institution,African Americans were significantly(p = .I)5) underrepresentedin the sample (59 percent compared to 75 percent). Realizing the limitationsof the sample size and design in this study, it appears that the sample approached representativeness.

REFERENCES Adwell, S. T., and Miller, L. E. (1985). Occupationalburnout. Corrections Today 47:70, 72. Archambeault,W. G.. and Archambeauh,B. J. (1982). Correctional supervisory management: Principles of organization, policy, and law. Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice

Hall. Inc. Black. R. (1982) Stress and the correctional officer. Police Stress (February):I0-16. Blau, J. R., Light S. C., and Chamlin, M. (1986). Individual and contextual effects on stress and job .satisfaction: A study of prison staff. Work and Occupations 13(1): 131-56. Brandt. L. P. A., and Nielsen, C. V. (1992). Job stress and adverse outcome of pregnancy: A causal link or recall bias. American Journal of Epidemiology 135:302-I 1. Brodsky, C. M. (1982). Work stress in correctional institutions. Journal of Prison Jail Health 2(2):74--102. Brown, P. W. (1986). Probationofficer burnout:An organizational disease/an organizationalcure. Federal Probation 50:4--7. Burke, R. J. (1992). Occupational stress, psychological burnout and anxiety.Anxiety. Stress and Coping 5:3-5. Campion, M. A. ( 1991). Meaningand measurementof turnover: Comparison of alternative measures and recommendations for research. Journal ~f Applied Psychology 76:199-212. Cheek, F. E. (1984). Stress management.tbr correetional ~fricers and their families. College Park, MD: American Correctional Association. Cheek, F. E., and Miller, M. D. (1982a). Managerial stress in correctional facilities handbook. Trenton, NJ: New Jersey Departmentof Corrections. Cheek, F. E., and Miller, M. D. (1982b). Prisoners o.fliJe. Washington, DC: AmericanFederation of State, County and MunicipalEmployees.

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