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2. Explain the relationship between ethics and free speech. 3. List and explain five criteria for ethical public speaking. 4. Define and discuss how best to avoid plagiarism. 5. Explain the relationship between ethics and credibility.
n July 2009, a popular radio host in Austin, Texas, known for his sarcastic humor, used on the air an "insulting and highly offensive" ethnic slur.t Radio station KLBJ cancelled the offender's show, suspended him for two weeks without pay, and permanently removed him from the air. when a station manager announced these actions to the local newspaper, he acknowledged.
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There will be members of the community who feel we did not do enough and think there might be members of the community who feel we did too much.
The reason for the difference in public opinion? Although the radio host exercised his right to free speech, he did not exercise his ethica/ responsibility.
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sponsibility to speak ethically. Ethics are the beliefs, values, and moral principles by which we determine what is right or wrong. Some ethical values appear to be
universal, or nearly so. For example, the major world religions share a remarkably
similar moral code for how people should treat others.2 For Christians, the Golden Rule-"Do unto others as you would have others do unto you"-is a fundamental value. Buddhism teaches a similar value: "One should seek for others the happiness one desires for oneself." Hinduism asks adherents to live by the precept "Do nothing to others which would cause pain if done to you." Judaism teaches, "What is hatefulto you, do not do to others." And lslam declares, "No one of you is a believer until he desires for his brother that which he desires for
himself."
Although the underlying ethic of how to treat others is fundamental to the worldt religions, other ethical principles may reflect cultural norms, professional
standards, or individual beliefs and values. Ethics serve as criteria for many of the decisions we make in our personal and professional lives, andalso forour judgments of others' behavior. The student who refuses to cheat on a test, the employee who will not call in sick to gain an extra day of vacation, and the property owner who does not claim more storm damage than she actually suffered have all made choices based on ethics. We read and hear about ethical issues every
day in the media. Cloning, stem-cell research, and drug testing have engendered heated ethical debates among medical professionals. Advertising by some attorneys has incensed those who believe that an overall increase in frivolous litigation is tarnishing the profession. And in the political arena, debates about reforms of social programs, fiscal responsibility, and the regulation of financial institutions all hinge on ethical issues. Although you are undoubtedly familiar with many of these ethical issues, you may have given less thought to ethics in public speaking. They center on one main concern: ln a country in which free speech is protected by law, the right to speak freely must be balanced by the responsibility to speak ethically. The National Communication Association's Credo for Communication Ethics emphasizes the fundamental nature and far-reaching impact of ethical communication:
Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making, and the development of relationships and communities within and across contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others.3 Ethical considerations should guide every step of the public-speaking process. ethics The beliefs, values, and moral principles by which people determine what is right or wrong
As you determine the goal of your speech, outline your arguments, and select your
supporting material, think about the beliefs, values, and moral principles of your audience, as well as your own. Ethical public speaking is inherently audiencecentered, always taking into account the needs and rights of the listeners.
free speech
Legally protected speech or speech acts
ln our discussion of speaking freely and ethically, we will turn first to free speech-both its protection and its restriction by law and public policy. Then we
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will discuss the ethical practice of free speech by speakers and listeners, providing guidelines to help you balance your right to free speech with your responsibilities as an audience-centered speaker. Within this framework, we will define and discuss plagiarism, one of the most troublesome violations of public-speaking ethics. And finally, we will discuss the relationship between ethics and speaker credibility.
Speaking Freely
In April 2007, CBS radio fired controversial talk-radio host Don lmus for derogatory comments he had made on the air
about members of the Rutgers University women's basketball team. In a commencement address at Queen's College two months later, author Susan lsaacs questioned the firing. "He is pretty much a pig|' lsaacs agreed. "But the demands for his ouster were wrong." She went on to explain,
lf you get rid of one talk show host, next to go is an offensive comedy show such as South Park, shockjock Howard Stern and conservative host Rush Limbaugh. Then it's your turn (to be
quieted).4
Since the 1700s, court rulings and laws have continued, and will continue, to shape our interpretatton of the First Amendment. The Amendment protects free speech,
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First Amendment
The amendment to the U.S. Constitution that guarantees free speech; the first of the ten
definition of slander, or false speech that harms someone. The Court ruled that before a public official can recover
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with "actual malice."6 Another 1964 boost for free speech occurred not in the
courts but on a university campus. In December of that year, more than I,000 students at the University of California in Berkeley took over three floors of Sproul Hall to protest the recent arrest of outspoken student activists. The Berkeley Free Speech Movement that arose from the incident permanently changed the political climate of u.S. college campuses. In a statement on the thirty-year anniversary of the protest, Berkeley's vice chancellor Carol Christ wrote, "Today it is difficult to imagine life in a university where there are serious restrictions on the rights of
political advocacy."T
Free speech gained protection in the last two decades of the twentieth century, when the Supreme Court found "virtually all attempts to restrain speech in advance . . . unconstitutional," regardless of how hateful or disgusting the speech may seem to some.t In 1989, the Supreme Court defended the burning of the U.S. flag as a "speech act" protected by the First Amendment. In 1997, the Court struck down the highly controversial federal Communications Decency Act of 1996, which had imposed penalties for creating, transmitting, or receiving obscene material on the Internet. The Court ruled that "the interest in encouraging freedom of expression in a democratic society outweighs any theoretical but unproven ben' efit of censorship."e Perhaps no test of free speech received more publicity than the sensational 1998 lawsuit brought by four Texas cattlemen against popular talk-show host Oprah Winfrey. In a show on "mad cow disease," Winfrey had declared that she would never eat
another hamburger. Charging that her statement caused cattle prices to plummet, the cattlemen sued for damages; however, Winfrey's attorneys successfully argued that the case was an important test of free speech. Emerging from the courtroom after the verdict in her favor, winfrey shouted, "My reaction is that free speech not only lives, it rocks!"ro
speech act
The pendulum swung back in |une 2010, when the exercise of free speech created controversy for and hastened the retirement of veteran White House correspondent Helen Thomas. Asked by a rabbi to comment on Israel, Thomas responded that the Israelis should get out of Palestine. Although Thomas later both apologized and resigned from the white House Press corps, her right to free speech was upheld by former cBS News foreign correspondent Terry Phillips, who noted wryly,'Apparently, journalists are now only willing to defend free speech when it is safe."r3 We summarize the history of the First Amendment in Thble 2. 1. There can be little doubt that in the months and years to come, the United States and its citizens will
Speaking Ethically
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1791 1798 1919 1920 1940 1964 1989 1997 1998 2001 2006 2010
September 1 I terrorist attacks spark passage of the Patriot Act and new debate over the balance between national security and free speech
State of Montana pardons those convicted under the Montana Sedition Act of 1918 White House correspondent Helen Thomas retires amid controversy over what somg saw as her exercise of free speech
continue to debate the First Amendment as we try to achieve "balance among national security, free speech, and patriotism."la
Speaking Ethically
As the boundaries of free speech expand, the importance of ethical speech increases. Although there is no definitive ethical creed for a public speaker, teaihers and practitioners of public speaking generally agree that an ethical speaker is one who has a clear, responsible goal; uses sound evidence and reasoning; is sensitive to and tolerant of differences; is honest; and avoids plagiarism. In the discussion that follows, we offer suggestions for observing these ethical guidelines.
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thoughts they hate."16 Even those who defend a broad legal right to free speech recognize that they are defending the right to unethical, as well as ethical, speech. For example, faculty, administrators, and regents of the University of Colorado have for years debated the case of ethnic studies professor Ward Churchill, who, immediately following the 2001 terrorist attacks, compared some of those who died at the World Tiade Center to Holocaust architect Adolf Eichmann. Even as the university's president and the governor of Colorado recommended Churchill's dismissal, others staunchly defended his right to speak fueely.t7
male,
The first conclusion, based on insufficient evidence, reinforces sexist stereotypes with an inflammatory overgeneralization. The second, more qualified conclusion is more ethical.
Speaking
One last, but important, requirement for the ethical use of evidence and reasoning is to share with an audience all information that might help them reach a sound decision, including information that may be potentially damaging to your case. Even if you proceed to refute the opposing evidence and arguments, you have fulfilled your ethical responsibility by presenting the perspective of the other side. And you make your own arguments more convincing by anticipating and answering counterarguments and opposing evidence.
Ethically 4l
Be Sensitive
The filmmaker who ate nothing but McDonald's meals for his Oscar-nominated movie Super Size Me apologized for a profanity-laced, politically incorrect speech at a suburban Philadelphia school. Among other things, Morgan Spurlock joked about the intelligence of McDonald's employees and teachers smoking pot while he was speaking at HatboroHorsham High School. . . . Spurlock, 35, told The Philadelphia lnquier in a telephone interview that he "didn't think of the audience" and could have chosen his words better.2o
As we noted in Chapter 1, being audience-centered requires that you become as aware as possible of others' feelings, needs, interests, and backgrounds. Spurlock violated
this ethical principle in his remarks. Sometimes called accommodation, sensitivity to differences does not mean that speakers must abandon their own convictions for those of their audience members. It does mean that speakers should demonstrate a willingness to listen to opposing viewpoints and learn about different beliefs and values. Such willingness not only communicates respect; it can also help a speaker to select a topic, formulate a purpose, and design strategies to motivate an audience. Your authors are currently involved in an informal educational exchange with a
professor from the St. Petersburg Cultural Institute in Russia, and we recently had a chance to visit the professor and her family in St. Petersburg. In talking with the professor's talented teenage daughter, we inquired about her plans after she finished her university education. Smiling at us in both amusement and amazement, she replied, "Americans are always planning what they are going to do several years in the future. In Russia, we do not plan beyond two or three weeks. Life is too uncertain here." Having gained this insight into Russian life, we know now that it would raise false hopes to attempt to motivate Russian audiences with promises of benefits far in the future. Our new understanding not only helps us see that speaking of immediate, deliverable rewards is a more realistic and ethical approach to communication with our Russian friends, but it has broader implications as well. DePaul University Communication Professor Kathy Fitzpatrick notes,
Our success in public diplomacy will turn on our ability to speak in ways that recognize and appreciate how [our audiences] will interpret our messages.2l
A speaker who is sensitive to differences also avoids language that might be interpreted as being biased or offensive. Although it may seem fairly simple and a matter of common sense to avoid overtfy abusive language, it is not so easy to avoid language that discriminates more subtly. In Chapter 10, we look at specific words and phrases that can be unintentionally offensive and that ethical speakers should avoid.
Be Honest
Knowingly offering false or misleading information to an audience is an ethical violation. In 2003, President George W. Bush and members of his staff accepted responsibility for having told the public that Iraq was getting nuclear fuel from Africa, even after intelligence reports several months earlier had discredited the
accommodation Sensitivity to the feelings, needs, interests, and backgroLrnds of other people
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Speaking Freely and Ethically claim. In 1999, Toronto Blue Jays manager Tim |ohnson was fired after it was revealed that the stories he had told to his team about his combat experiences in Vietnam were false. During the war, it turned out, he had played ball while serving with the Reserves in California.22 Perhaps most famously, in |anuary 1998, President Bill Clinton's finger-wagging declaration that "I did not have sexual relations with that woman-Miss Lewinsky" was a serious breach of ethics that came back to haunt him. Many Americans were willing to forgive the inappropriate relationship; fewer could forgive the dishonesty. A seeming exception to the dictum to avoid false information is the use of hypothetical illustrations-illustrations that never actually occurred but that might happen. Many speakers rely on such illustrations to clarif, or enhance their speeches. As long as a speaker makes clear to the audience that the illustration is indeed
Remember That You Will Look More Confident Than You May Feel
you listen to other people presenting speeches, you will note that most speakers don't appear to be nervous. They are not dishonestly trying to hide their apprehension; most people simply do not appear outwardly as nervous as they may feel. This means that when you deliver your presentation, your listeners will not know that you feel nervous. You may feel some apprehension, but it is completely ethical to keep those feelings to yourself. Unless you tell your audience that you're nervous, it's unlikely that they will notice it.
As
hypothetical-for example, prefacing the illustration with such as "Imagine that . . ."-sqqfi use is ethical.
a phrase
Honesty also requires that speakers give credit for ideas and in-
formation that are not their own. The Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association states that "authors do not present the work of another as if it were their own work. This can extend to ideas as weli as written words."23 Presenting the words and
ideas
Don't Plagiarize
Although some cultures mayview unacknowledged borrowing from sources as a sign of respect and humility and an attempt to be audience-centered, in the United States and most other Western cultures, using the words, sentence structures, and/or ideas of another person without crediting the source is a serious breach of ethics. Yet even people who would never think of stealing money or shopliftingmay feel justified in plagiarizing-stealing words and/or ideas. One student commencement speaker who plagiarized a speech by the writer Barbara Kingsolver explained his action as resulting from the "expectation to produce something amazingi'2a
Even if you've never plagiarized public as a commencement address, perhaps you can remember copying a grade-school report directly from the encyclopedia; or maybe you ve even purchased or "borrowed" a paper to submit for an assignment in high school or college. These are obvious forms of plagiarism. Less obvious forms include plagiaphrasingIacing a speech with compelling phrases you find in a source; failing to give credit to a source or adequate information in a citation; or relying too heavily on the vocabuIary or sentence structure of a source.
anlthing
plagiaphrasing Failing to give credit for compelling phrases taken from another source
Center for Academic Integrity reports that 75 percent of college students admit to having cheated at least once.'s The Educational Testing Service has found that one Web site offering free term papers gets some 80,000 hits per day. Ironically, at least one such site claims to provide "non-plagiarized term papers"-ironic, because using any such paper is exactly what constitutes plagiarism!26 And communication researcher Todd Holm reports that more than 50 percent of 300 students surveyed reported cheating in some way in a public speaking class.27 Despite the near-epidemic occurrence of plagiarism, most colleges impose stiff penalties on students who plagiarize. Plagiarists almost always fail the assignment in question, frequently fail the course, and are sometimes put on academic probation or
Speaking
even expelled. And the risk of being caught is much greater than you might suspect. Many colleges subscribe to a Web-based plagiarism detection company such as Turnitin; other professors routinely use free detection sites such as Grammarly or even a search engine such as Google. A few years ago, one ofyour authors heard an excellent student speech on the importance of detecting cancer early. The only problem was that she heard the same
Ethically
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speech again
in the following
class period!
Reader's Digest article that was several years old-both students were certain that they had discovered a surefire shortcut to an A. Instead, they failed the assignment,
ruined their course grades, and lost your author's trust. The consequences of plagiarism in other arenas can be even more dire, including the loss of a job or the end of a promising career.
Do Your Own Work The most flagrant cases of plagiarism result from not doing your own work. For example, while you are poking around the library for ideas to use in a speech assignment, you may discover an entire speech or perhaps an article that could easily be made into a speech. However tempting it may be to use this material, and however certain you are that no audience member could possibly have seen it, resist any urge to plagiarize. You will only be doing yourself a disservice if you do not learn how to compose a speech on your own. After all, you are in college to acquire
new skills.
Another way speakers may attempt to shortcut the speech preparation task is to ask another person to edit a speech so extensively that it becomes more that other person's work than their own. This is another form of plagiarism and another way of cheating themselves out of the skills they need to develop.
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Direct quotations, even if they are only brief phrases Opinions, assertions, or ideas ofothers, even ifyou paraphrase rather than quote them verbatim
Statistics
To be able to acknowledge your sources, you must first practice careful and systematic note-taking. Indicate with quotation marks any phrases or sentences that you photocopy or copy by hand verbatim from a source, and be sure to record the author, title, publisher or Web site, publication date, and page numbers for all sources from which you take quotations, ideas, statistics, or visual materials. Additional suggestions for systematic note-taking are offered in Chapter 6. In addition to keeping careful records of your sources, you must also know how to cite sources for your audience, both orally and in writing. Oral Citations. Perhaps you have heard a speaker say "Quote" while holding up both hands with index and middle fingers curved to indicate quotation marks. This is an artificial and distracting way to cite a source; an oral citation can be integrated
oral citation
The oral presentation of such information about a source as the author, title, and year of
more smoothly into a speech. For example, you might use the approach illustrated in the sample oral citation above. The publication date and author of a source are usually sufficient information
publication
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"a preventable viral disease of mammals most often transmitted through the bite of a rabid animal."
written citation
The written presentation of such information about a source as the author, title, and year of publication, usually formatted according to a conventional style
for an oral citation. In the example, the speaker also mentions the type of resource (Web page) and the title of the fact sheet (Rabies). Follow your instructor's preferences for the level of detail to include in your oral citations. Note that when you include an oral citation in a speech, the beginning and end of the qr,roted passage are indicated by pauses. The sample preparation outline in Chapter 9 gives additional examples of oral citations. Written Citations. You can also provide a written citation for a source. In fact, your public-speaking instructor may ask you to provide a bibliography of sources along with the outline or other written materials he or she requires for each speech. Instructors who require a bibliography will usually specify the format in which they want the citations; if they do not, you can use a style guide such as that published by the MLA (Modern Language Association) or the APA (American Psychological Association), both of which are available online as well as in traditional print format. Here is an example of a written citation in MLA format for the source quoted in the sample oral citation:
Rabies. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1 June 2010. Web. 21 June
2010.
guide
Notice that the citation provides two dates: the date the material was posted online and the date it was accessed by the researcher. If you are unable to find the date the material was posted-or any other single element of information-proceed directly to the next item in the citation.
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The Ethical Public Speaker o Has a clear, responsible goal . Uses sound evidence and reasoning o ls sensitive to and tolerant of differences . ls honest o Doesn't plagiarize
Perhaps now you are thinking, "What about those 'gray areasj those times when I am not certain whether information or ideas I am
presenting are common knowledge?" A good rule is this: When in doubt, document. You will never be guilty of plagiarism if you document something you didn t need to, but you could be committing plagiarism if you do not document something you should have
documented.
Speaking Credibly
credibility
An audience's perception of a speaker as competent, knowledgeable, dynamic, and trustworthy
Credibility is a speaker's believability. A credible speaker is one whom an audience perceives to be competent, knowledgeable, dynamic, and trustworthy. The last of those four faslqls-llustworthiness-is dependent in large part on the speaker's known consistent adherence to ethical principles.
Speaking Credibly
You trust people whom you believe to be ethical. In fact, the Greek rhetorician Aristotle used the term ethos-the root word of ethic and ethical-to refer to a speaker's credibility. Quintilian, a Roman teacher of public speaking, believed that an effective public speaker also should be a person of good character, a "good person speaking well." We examine credibility in more detail in Chapter 4, where we discuss analyzing your audience's attitudes toward you; in Chapter 9, where we discuss establishing your credibility in your speech introduction; and in Chapters 14 and 15, where we discuss the role of credibility in persuading an audience. For now, keep in mind that speaking ethically is one key to being perceived by your audience as a credible speaker.
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Ethical speaking is very important in a society that protects free speech. Although Congress and the courts have occasionally limited free speech by law and policy, more often they have protected and broadened its application. The right to free speech has also been upheld by such organizations as the American Civil Liberties Union and
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Why do you think the U.S. Supreme Court has historically considered flag burning and pornography to be "free speech acts"?
sentiment. The shortest Presidential inaugural address up to that time, it was only 700 words long, compared to 3,700 words for the First, and required from 5 to 7 minutes to deliver 28
Which of the following statements should be credited to Braden if you were to use them in a speech? "Lincoln's second inaugural address is sometimes called Lincoln's Sermon on the Mount." "Because he was elected and sworn in for two terms as president, Abraham Lincoln prepared and delivered two inaugural addresses."
"Lincoln's second inaugural address was 700 words and 5 to 7 minutes long."
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knowledging-orally, in writing, or both-the sources for any quotations, ideas, statistics, or visual materials you use in a speech.
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speechwriters ethical? Is it ethical to give credit to the presidents for memorable lines from speeches written by professional speechwriters?
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Ethical public speaking is inherently audiencecentered, always taking into account the needs and rights of the listeners.
The goal of a speech should be clear to the audience.
Speaking ethically allows your audience to trust you. Being trustworthy is an important part of being credible.
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The following Web sites explore and debate issues of free and ethical speech:
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gives the listener choices, whereas an irresponsible, unethical goal is psychologically coercive.
The Ethics Connection. Santa Clara University's Markkula Center for Applied Ethics offers you case studies in ethics, as well as advice on current and perennial ethical issues. www.scu.edu/ethics/ The American Civil Liberties Union. Defending freedom of speech is one of the major activities of the ACLU. www.aclu.org/free-speech
An important requirement for the ethical use of evidence and reasoning is to share with an audience all information that might help them reach a
Avoiding Plagiarism
After you have developed your speech outline and are preparing your speaking notes, use the following questions to make certain that you are properly and ethically giving credit for the ideas, opinions, images, and words of others.
l.
Am I using ideas and sources that are not my own? Specifically, am I using
fl a statistic?
E a nonoriginal visual aid, graph,
table, or picture?
2.
I provided the appropriate oral citation of ideas, images, and words that are not my own? A proper oral citation includes:
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the author ofthe source the title of the source the date ofthe source the type of source (for example, a book, an article,
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