C H A P T E R T H I RT Y-O N E

P UMPS

umps are volumetric machines that cause a fluid, such as water, brine, oil, etc., to flow across an external resistance. Pumping energy depends on the volume of fluid moved, the resistance against which the pump works, and the machine efficiency. Pumps are used in almost every type of facility and are usually integral to most industrial process applications.
Horizontal Steam Vertical Reciprocating pumps Horizontal Power Vertical Horizontal Controlled volume

PUMP TYPES
Figure 31-1 provides a comprehensive listing by category and subcategories of types of pumps. Pumps are broadly classified as positive-displacement types (which include reciprocating and rotary pumps) and kinetic or centrifugal types.
Piston Double-acting Plunger Single-acting Double-acting Piston Plunger Duplex Simplex Duplex Multiplex Simplex Duplex Multiplex Manual control Automatic control Simplex

Packed plunger

Blow case Vane Positive displacement Piston Flexible member Rotary pumps Lobe Gear

Packed piston Mechanically coupled Vertical Diaphragm Hydraulically coupled Blade, bucket roller or slipper Axial Radial Flexible tube Flexible vane Flexible liner Single Multiple External Internal Single Multiple Single Multiple Close-coupled Single & two stage Overhung impeller Separately coupled Single & two stage

Circumferential piston Pumps Screw

Centrifugal1 Impeller between bearings Separately coupled Single stage Separately coupled Multistage Vertical type Single & Multistage Turbine type

Kinetic

End suction (including submersibles) In-line In-line Frame mounted Centering support AP1610 Frame mounted ANSI B73.1 Wet pit volute Axial flow impeller (propeller) volute type (horiz. or vert.) Axial (horiz.) split case Radial (vert.) split case Axial (horiz.) split case Radial (vert.) split case Deep well turbine (including submersibles) Barrel or can pump Short setting or close-coupled Axial flow impeller (propeller) or mixed flow type (horizontal or vertical) Single stage Two stage Reversible centrifugal Rotating casing (pitot)

1) Includes radial mixed flow and axial flow designs

Regenerative turbine Special effect

Overhung impeller Impeller between bearings

Fig. 31-1 Types of Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

Reciprocating piston pumps, or power pumps, are characterized by high capital cost and the ability to operate under extremely high pressure. At constant speed, a power pump delivers essentially the same flow at any pressure within the capability of the driver. Power pumps offer high full-load efficiencies and can provide constant delivery at varying pressures. Where applicable, flow rate can be varied by varying driver speed, bypassing the outlet of the pump back to the suction inlet, or varying the stroke length of the pump. Power pumps include horizontal and vertical types, piston and plunger types, and single- or double-acting operation. Figure 31-2 illustrates a horizontal single-acting plunger type, Figure 31-3 illustrates a vertical singleacting plunger type, and Figure 31-4 illustrates a horizontal double-acting piston type.

Fig. 31-4 Horizontal Double-Acting Piston Power Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

In a direct-acting steam pump, a reciprocating pump and a steam engine are built together as a unit. The steam piston is connected to the pump piston and provides power to drive the pump. Steam pumps, while quite inefficient, are known for reliability and long life. They are becoming increasingly less common, but can still be found in operation. Similar units may also be driven by compressed gases, such as air or natural gas. Figure 31-5 is a direct-acting, horizontal, double-acting, piston steam pump.

Fig. 31-2 Horizontal Single-Acting Plunger Power Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

Fig. 31-5 Direct-Acting, Horizontal, Double-Acting, Piston Steam Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

Fig. 31-3 Vertical Single-Acting Plunger Power Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

Figures 31-6 through 31-8 show a variety of vintage pumps. Figure 31-6 shows a simplex valve pot piston pump. This 157 hp (117 kW) pump has a flow range between 0.5 and 450 gpm (1.9 and 1,705 L/m), with a maximum discharge pressure of 600 psi (42 bar). Figure 31-7 shows a forged steel simplex hydraulic plunger pump, built in 1938. This 185 hp (138 kW) pump can produce a maximum flow of 63 gpm (240 L/m) with a discharge pressure of up to 10,000 psi (690 bar). Figure 31-8 shows a 250 hp (186 kW) duplex valve pot piston pump. It has a maximum flow rate of 711 gpm (2,261 L/m) at a maximum discharge pressure of 600 psi (42 bar). Rotary pumps are usually compact, light, simple, and low cost. While they can operate at pressures of up to 5,000 psig (346 bar), typical field applications range from
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rotor with external threads, which are eccentric to the axis of rotation. Screw and wheel pumps (Figure 3110) use a plate wheel to seal the cavity. Multiple screw pumps (Figure 31-11) have multiple external screw threads and may be timed or untimed.

Fig. 31-6 Simplex Valve Pot Piston Pump. Source: Union Pump Co.

Fig. 31-7 Simplex Hydraulic Plunger Pump. Source: Union Pump Co.

Fig. 31-10 Screw and Wheel Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

Fig. 31-8 Duplex Valve Pot Piston Pump. Source: Union Pump Co.

25 to 500 psig (2.7 to 35.5 bar). Efficiencies are generally lower than those of power pumps, ranging from 60 to 85%. Rotary pumps are most commonly used for pumping oils or other liquids with high viscosity. There are several designs as listed below, all constant-capacity machines at a given speed. In screw type rotary pumps, fluid is carried in spaces between screw threads and is displaced axially as they mesh. Single screw pumps (Figure 31-9), which are commonly called progressing cavity pumps, have a

Fig. 31-11 Multiple (Two) Screw Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

Vane type pumps (Figures 31-12 and 31-13) include buckets, blades, rollers, or slippers that operate with a cam to draw fluid across the pump chamber. These pumps may be made with vanes in either the rotor or stator and with radial hydraulic forces on the rotor

Fig. 31-9 Single Screw Pump (progressing cavity). Source: Hydraulic Institute

Fig. 31-12 Sliding Vane Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

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Fig. 31-13 External Vane Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

Fig. 31-15 Flexible Liner Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

Fig. 31-14 Axial Piston Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

balanced or unbalanced. In the axial piston pump shown in Figure 31-14, valving is accomplished by rotation of the pistons and cylinders relative to the ports. In flexible member type pumps (Figure 31-15), the sealing action depends on the elasticity of a flexible tube, vane, or liner. In lobe type pumps (Figures 31-16 and 31-17), fluid is carried between rotor lobe surfaces and the pumping chamber, with the rotor surfaces providing continuos sealing. In circumferential piston type pumps (Figure 31-18), fluid is carried in spaces between piston surfaces. There are no sealing contacts between rotor surfaces. In gear type pumps (Figures 31-19 and 31-20), fluid is carried between gear teeth and displaced when they mesh, with the surfaces of the rotors providing continuos sealing. Each rotor is capable of driving the other. Internal gear pumps have one rotor with internally cut gear teeth meshing with an externally cut gear.

Fig. 31-16 Single Lobe Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

Fig. 31-17 Three-Lobe Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

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Fig. 31-18 Circumferential Piston Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

Fig. 31-21 Radial Flow Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

Fig. 31-19 External Gear Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

Fig. 31-20 Internal Gear Pump (with Crescent). Source: Hydraulic Institute

Centrifugal pumps produce a pressure increase within a rapidly spinning vaned impeller by centrifugal action. Fluid enters the center of the impeller, called the eye, flows radially outward, and is discharged around the entire circumference into a casing. They typically operate at higher volume and lower head than positive displacement pumps, although higher head can be obtained by using multiple stages in series on a single shaft. Centrifugal pumps are classified according to impeller type and direction of flow as radial (centrifugal) flow, mixed flow, and axial flow. Radial flow pumps, as shown in Figure 31-21, usually have the lowest specific speed range of the three classes of centrifugal pumps. Figure 3122 illustrates a mixed flow pump having a single inlet impeller with the flow entering axially and discharging in an axial and radial direction. Pumps of this type usually have an intermediate speed range. Figure 31-23 illustrates an axial flow pump, sometimes referred to as a propeller pump, having a single inlet impeller with the flow entering axially and discharging nearly axially. Axial flow pumps usually have a relatively high specific speed range. Centrifugal pumps may also be classified as either volute pumps or diffuser pumps. In the volute pump, the impeller is surrounded by a spiral case, with the curved outer boundary called a volute. The absolute velocity of the fluid leaving the impeller is reduced in the volute casing, with a resulting increase in pressure. In the diffuser pump, the impeller is surrounded by diffuser vanes that provide gradually increasing passages to produce a gradual reduction in velocity. Figures 31-24 and 31-25 are cutaway illustrations of centrifugal pumps. Figure 31-24 is a double-suction type

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Fig. 31-22 Mixed Flow Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

single-stage axial (horizontal) split case. Figure 31-25 is a multistage radial (vertical) split case.

Figure 31-26 shows a radially split single-stage double-suction centrifugal pump with mechanical seals and bearing end caps not yet installed. On the right is the thrust end of the pump and on the left is the radial, or coupling, end showing the shaft extension. This pump is designed for a maximum flow rate of 1,850 gpm (7,002 L/m) against a head of 550 ft (16.4 bar), with a brake power requirement of 360 hp (268 kW). Figure 31-27 is a horizontally split heavy-duty multistage opposed impeller centrifugal pump driven by a 200 hp (149 kW) non-condensing steam turbine. The pump operates at 3,560 rpm and delivers 280 gpm (1,060 L/m) of 250F (121C) condensate in a high-pressure coolant application. Similar to a centrifugal pump is a turbine pump, which uses a regenerative effect to increase pressure at the periphery of a closed impeller inside a casing with swirl inducing chambers. Turbine pumps have been successfully employed in applications requiring high head pressures from a pump with small dimensions.

PUMP FORMULAS

AND

AFFINITY LAWS

Fig. 31-23 Axial Flow Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

Energy must be converted to work if a liquid is to be moved and this is the function of a pump. The work may be lifting the liquid against gravity from one elevation to another or forcing it into a pressurized vessel. In addition to these fixed or static resistances to flow, there is also a dynamic component that varies with velocity of flow, i.e., frictional losses to be overcome in the pipe, fittings, heat exchangers, spray heads, and other equipment and
1A 1B 2 6 7 8 14 16 18 20 22 31 32 33 35 37 40 65 80 Casing, lower half Casing, upper half Impeller Shaft Ring, casing Ring, impeller Sleeve, shaft Bearing, inboard Bearing, outboard Nut, shaft sleeve Locknut Housing, bearing inboard Key, impeller Housing, bearing outboard Cover, bearing inboard Cover, bearing outboard Deflector Seal, mechanical stationary element Seal, mechanical rotating element

Fig. 31-24 Cutaway Illustration of Double-Suction Axial Centrifugal Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

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1 2 5 6 7 16 18 22 31 32 33 35 37 40 56 63 65 73 80 83 123 Fig. 31-25 Multistage (Radial) Centrifugal Pump. Source: Hydraulic Institute

Casing Impeller Diffuser Shaft Ring, casing Bearing, inboard Bearing, outboard Locknut, bearing Housing, bearing inboard Key, impeller Housing, bearing, outboard Cover, bearing inboard Cover, bearing outboard Deflector Disc or drum, balancing Bushing, stuffing-box Seal, mechanical, stationary element Gasket Seal, mechanical, rotating element Stuffing-box Cover, bearing end

materials. To make calculations easier, all of these quantities are reduced to a coherent format with the same dimensions, know as head. Head (h) can be expressed in several ways. For example, the specific energy (energy per unit mass) imparted on the medium by the pump is a function of the pressure difference between the outlet and the inlet of the pump and the specific volume of the fluid pumped. Neglecting the velocity and elevation differences between the inlet and outlet of the pump, the head is expressed as the length of a vertical column of the pumped fluid and calculated as:
Fig. 31-26 Radially Split Single-Stage Double-Suction Centrifugal Pump Showing Thrust and Coupling Ends. Source: Goulds Pumps Inc.

h=

(p1 p2 ) g

(31-1)

Fig. 31-27 Steam Turbine-Driven Horizontally Split Opposed Impeller Centrifugal Pump. Source: Goulds Pumps Inc.

Where: p1 = Inlet pressure p2 = Outlet pressure = Fluid density g = Acceleration due to gravity The fluid flow, both liquid and gas, through pipe is impeded by frictional resistance that causes a pressure or head loss, which can be evaluated by application of pipe friction equations, which can be found in piping design handbooks (refer to Fannings or the Darcy Weisbach equation and to Hazen and Williams formula). Consideration must also be given to the roughness of the pipe surface, as friction will vary widely depending on the type of material used. The head losses associated with flow through fittings

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can also be significant and will vary depending on the size and construction of the fitting. For example, a circular bend with corrugated inner radius will have a friction loss from 1.3 to 1.6 times greater than that of an equivalent smooth elbow or bend. As velocities increase, so do the dynamic losses and the power consumption. Roughness factors and friction losses in standard fittings are also listed in piping design handbooks. Once the total head is determined, input power may be calculated for a known discharge flow rate as follows: (31-2) Where: P = Power q = Discharge rate = Specific weight of fluid hT = Total head G = q = Mass rate of flow In English system units, if q is in cf/s, is in lbm/cf, hT is in ft of head, and G is in lbm/s, then the theoretical hp, also known as the hydraulic hp requirement, can be expressed as: (31-3) 550 550 In SI units, when hT is in kPa and G is in kg/s, the hydraulic power equation becomes: hyd hp = = 1,000 (31-3a) When q is expressed in gpm, the hydraulic power equation becomes: qhT SG hyd hp = (31-4) 3,960 Where: SG = Fluid specific gravity In SI units, if q is in L/m and hT is in kPa, the hydraulic power equation becomes: qhT SG hyd kW = (31-4a) 60,000 Considering total pump efficiency (p), the required power input in bhp that must be imparted to the shaft at a given flow (in gpm), at a specific gravity of the liquid being pumped and total head is: hyd kW = GhT qhT GhT

bhp =

qhT SG 3,960
P

(31-5)

In SI units, where flow is in L/m, the power input, expressed in bkW, becomes: qhT SG bkW = (31-5a) 60,000 P To determine the capacity or energy input rating of the driver required to impart to the shaft of the pump the required power, the drivers efficiency (D) or ability to convert energy into shaft brake power, must also be considered.

Affinity Laws
Capacity (q) or rate of flow varies directly with the speed of the pump. Thus, the effect of a change of speed from N1 to N2 on pump capacity can be expressed as: q1 N1 = q2 N2 (31-6)

Total head (hT) varies in proportion to the square of the flow rate and of the speed. Thus: hT1 hT2 =

( )( )
= = q1 q2
3

q1 q2

N1 N2

(31-7)

Hydraulic power input varies in proportion to the cube of the flow rate and of the speed. Thus: hyd p1 hyd p2 and: q1 hT1 = q2 hT2

( )( )
= N1 N2

(31-8)

( )( )
q1 q2 = N1 N2

(31-9)

PUMP SELECTION
Pump selection is based on required fluid flow rate and total head against which the pump must operate, including friction losses and net vertical lift. A selection is made from among alternatives to optimize hydraulic efficiency and meet other operating requirements. Figures 31-28 through 31-30 show three sets of performance curves for a selected pump, operating at speeds of 3,500, 1,700, and 1,170 rpm, respectively. Table 31-1 provides data from a system curve showing the relation between head loss (HL) and fluid flow rate

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for a given piping system. As an example, for a required flow rate of 2,350 gpm (8,895 L/m) at 365 ft (111 m) head loss, an impeller size of 10.5 in. (26.7 cm) has been selected. On the 3,500 rpm pump curve shown in Figure 31-25, the brake power is calculated, based on Equation 31-5, as follows: bhp = HL x gpm 3,960 x
P

Table 31-1
HL (ft) Flow (gpm) HL (ft) Flow (gpm) HL (ft) Flow (gpm)

365 x 2,350 3,960 x 0.83

= 261.0 bhp (194.6 kW)

The affinity laws can also be used to calculate performance of the selected pump at reduced speed. For example, at 1,750 rpm, flow rate would be calculated using Equation 31-6 as follows: N1 q 2,350 3500 = 1 = = N2 q2 N2 1,770 From Equation 31-8, power requirement at 1,750 rpm would be: N1 3 bhp1 3,500 3 261 = ; = = N2 bhp2 bhp2 1770

447 413 381 350 306 278 251 226 202

2,600 2,500 2,400 2,300 2,150 2,050 1,950 1,850 1,750

180 159 139 120 103 87 73 60 48

1,650 1,550 1,450 1,350 1,250 1,150 1,050 950 850

37 28 20 13 8 4 1 0 0

750 650 550 450 350 250 150 50 0

numerical summary of the relationship. As shown, a 20% reduction in speed (and flow) will result in a 50% reduction in required power. It is important to note, however, that the indicated power reduction may not be fully achievable in practice due to pressure losses in piping runs, throttling at individual loads, or hydraulic lift requirements.

( )

( )

PUMP DRIVER OPTIONS

As with most mechanical drive applications, ac electric induction motors predominate, particularly in smaller capacities. Speed control can be accomplished with a dc motor, a multiple-speed ac motor, or by equipping an ac motor with a variable frequency drive (VFD). VFDs can control speed precisely over a wide range of operation,

Thus, bhp2 = 33.7 bhp (25.1 kW) Figure 31-31 is a generic representation of a speed versus power curve that indicates the potential benefits of variable speed operation. Table 31-2 provides a

Fig. 31-28 3,500 rpm Pump Performance Curves. Source: Bell & Gossett

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Fig. 31-29 1,700 rpm Pump Performance Curves. Source: Bell & Gossett

typically from 40 to 100% of full load. While far less costly and easier to install than prime mover drives, VFDs do not provide electrical demand savings during operation at full speed. Under certain circumstances, investment in prime

mover drives is justified on a life-cycle economic basis or by the need for backup in the event of an electric service outage. Along with the ability to provide speed control, prime mover drives provide electrical demand savings and the potential for heat recovery. Pumps may also be pneu-

Fig. 31-30 1,170 rpm Pump Performance Curves. Source: Bell & Gossett

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100 90 80 Percent Maximum Power Input 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 20% Reduction in Speed

50% Reduction in Required Power

Steam turbines have been commonly used throughout this century for driving pumps in various industrial process and central plant applications. Figure 31-32 shows a multistage steam turbine driving a decoking pump. Figure 31-33 shows a compact packaged steam turbine process pump drive rated at 1,750 hp (1,300 kW). The design includes a forced-feed lubrication system, a separate oil pump, twin coolers and filters, rotor vibration and axial position monitoring system, and radial bearing temperature monitoring system.

Fig. 31-32 Multistage Steam Turbine in Decoking Pump Drive Application. Source: Dresser-Rand

Percent Speed Fig. 31-31 Representative Speed vs. Power Curve.

Table 31-2 Numerical Description of Affinity Laws Speed Flow Required Power (%) (%) (%) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 100 73 50 34 22 13 6 3

Combustion engines are far less common for stationary pump applications, though they are used for remote field applications. Reciprocating engine-driven pumps are commonly applied in irrigation and district or pipeline pumping applications. In such cases, reciprocating engines offer relatively high simple-cycle thermal fuel efficiency and the ability to operate efficiently under variable load conditions. Figure 31-34 shows ten reciprocating engines used to drive large propeller pumps in a flood control station.

matically or hydraulically driven. This can be effective, for example, when the pump location cannot support the weight or size of the driver. For remote applications, as still found in several rural farms, windmills are sometimes used to drive pumps. In other areas, water turbines are used. While wind and water turbine applications are not very common, they can be practical and cost-effective, especially when electric service is not readily available or cost-prohibitive.

Fig. 31-33 Packaged 1,750 hp Steam Turbine-Driven Process Pump Drive. Source: Tuthill Corp. Coppus Turbine Division

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Fig. 31-34 Reciprocating Engine Pump Drives Applied in Flood Control Station. Source: Fairbanks Morse Engine Div.

Gas turbine drives are generally used only for very large capacity remote pumping applications. Figure 31-35 shows a two-shaft design applied in a pumping application requiring 10,000 hp (7,500 kW). Pumps are generally not pre-packaged with prime movers because applications and equipment types are too diverse. There are three basic drive configurations: a single prime mover drive, a hybrid setup using one pump and two drivers on a shaft, and a hybrid setup using two driver/pump sets.

Fig. 31-35 Two-Shaft Gas Turbine Featured in Large Pumping Application. Source: Solar Turbines

It may also be less costly to purchase a hybrid unit rather than two entirely separate pump/driver sets. Dualshaft, or common single-shaft, pumps, which allow operation from two different types of drivers, are often used in prime mover drive applications. An electric motor can be included along with a prime mover drive, such as a backpressure steam turbine. In the case of the failure of one driver, the other driver can easily take over. The electric drive could also be used when back-pressure steam loads are insufficient, or during inexpensive off-peak rate periods. When two pumps are desired to provide increased reliability, a hybrid system may be appropriate. Boiler feedwater pumps are a particularly attractive back-pressure turbine application. As feedwater flow is reduced, turbine steam flow and available back-pressure steam are also reduced. Turbine discharge is used for feedwater heating, which varies in direct proportion to feedwater flow. Because feedwater pumps are critical for plant operation, multiple pumps or drivers are usually installed. Often, hybrid systems are used, with one or more electric motors and prime movers. Figure 31-36 shows a boiler feed pump driven by a steam turbine. The 26 hp (19 kW) turbine serves a 40,000 lbm/h (18,000 kg/h) steam boiler and operates at 3,553 rpm, with an inlet steam condition of 195 psig (14.5 bar) dry saturated steam. Turbine exhaust steam at 5 psig (1.4 bar) feeds a deaerator tank. Figure 31-37 shows a 375 hp (280 kW) vertical turbine pump driven by a gas-fired reciprocating engine. This system is part of four pumping stations that move water through 14 miles (22.5 kilometers) of pipeline from a desert to a New Mexico municipality. The pump specification required variable speed operation to meet the following head-capacity requirements: 1,600 gpm at 380 ft of head (6,056 L/m at 11.3 bar) 2,900 gpm at 410 ft of head (10,977 L/m at 12.3 bar) 2,550 gpm at 490 ft of head (9,652 L/m at 14.6 bar) 2,070 gpm at 552 ft of head (7,835 L/m at 16.5 bar) The system design called for maximum efficiency to be obtained when pumping 2,900 gpm (10,977 L/m) at 410 ft of head (12.3 bar) operating under a maximum ambient temperature condition of 100F (38C) at an elevation of about 6,000 ft (1,829 m). An exhaust silencer was also required, designed to maintain a 60 dba sound emission level at a distance of 25 ft (7.6 m). Figure 31-38 shows the performance curves for the featured engine over the range of operating speeds.

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Back-pressure steam turbine Natural gas spark-ignition industrial-grade reciprocating engine Variable frequency drive (VFD) electric motor All three options are compared to a base case consisting of a constant speed electric motor. A natural gas cost of $4.00/Mcf is assumed for each of the fuel-driven options. Electricity costs are based on a time-of-use (TOU) rate with the following components:
Demand, $/kW/Month Peak, $/kWh Shoulder, $/kWh
Fig. 31-36 26 hp Steam Turbine-Driven Boiler Feed Pump. Source: UTC Sikorsky Aircraft

$14.67 $0.0506 $0.0403 $0.0279

Off-peak, $/kWh

The driver is a turbocharged and intercooled, lean combustion, eight cylinder, four cycle, natural gas-fired engine with an 11:1 compression ratio. Operation is between 1,400 and 1,750 rpm to deliver between 205 and 375 hp (153 to 280 kW). Dimensions are 7.9 ft (2.4 m) long by 4.5 ft (1.4 m) wide by 5.6 ft (1.7 m) high, with a dry weight of 7,200 lbm (3,300 kg) and a piston displacement of 1,462 cubic inches (24 L). The engine is equipped with a 24 volt dc starting and charging system and necessary controls for automatic operation.

It is assumed that the pump would operate continuously throughout the year under varying flow requirements. Maximum flow condition is 2,230 gpm (8,441 L/M) against a total dynamic head (TDH) of 140 ft (43 m), and minimum required head is 30 ft (9 m). Pumping energy requirement, pump efficiency, and driver efficiency all vary with load and speed. Required flow rate during the various electric billing periods is shown in Figure 31-39. The constant speed motor drives the pump at 1,750 rpm and flow control at the load is achieved by by-passing a varying fraction of the discharge flow. Input power is assumed constant at 74.3 kW, as indicated in Figure 31-40. Figure 31-41 shows the calculation of annual operating cost. The first-cost premium for the VFD driver versus the constant speed motor was assumed to be $15,000, with no incremental O&M cost. Input power is indicated in Figure 31-42, based on representative pump curves and the pump affinity laws. An additional 5% peak power requirement was added to account for the power draw of the VFD itself. Operating costs are calculated in Figure 31-43. Notice that while total kWh usage is about 45% that of the constant speed electric motor, demand charges actually increase due to the power draw of the VFD itself. Simple payback versus the base case is 1.6 years, as shown in Figure 31-44. The first-cost premium for the back-pressure steam turbine driver versus the constant-speed motor was

Base Case Constant Speed Motor Option

SIMPLIFIED ECONOMIC ANALYSIS PUMP DRIVER OPTIONS

OF

Following are simplified comparative analyses for mechanical service application of three alternative pump drivers:

VFD Option

Back-Pressure Steam Turbine Option

Fig. 31-37 375 hp Vertical Turbine Pump Driven by Reciprocating Engine in Pumping Station Application. Source: Waukesha Engine Div.

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Fig. 31-38 Full- and Part-Load Performance Curves for Engine Pump Driver. Source: Waukesha Engine Division
Load Flow rate 2,230 2,007 1,784 1,561 1,338 1,115 892 Hours Total 400 950 1,550 1,600 1,600 1,350 1,310 8,760

% Capacity On-Peak Shoulder Off-Peak 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 200 350 500 500 310 190 40 2,090 80 300 450 480 400 250 130 2,090 120 300 600 620 890 910 1,140 4,580

requirement remains constant at 2,546 Btu/bhp, even though the turbine mechanical efficiency would decrease significantly under lower load at lower speed. This is due to the fact that all unused steam energy from the topping cycle is passed on to process. The simple payback for the steam turbine driver versus the constant-speed motor base case is 2.0 years, as shown in Figure 31-46.

Reciprocating Engine Option

The first-cost premium of the reciprocating engine Fig. 31-39 Flow Rate During Electric Billing Periods. versus the constant-speed motor is assumed to be $70,000, with an annual incremental O&M cost of assumed to be $60,000, with an incremental O&M cost $0.01/bhp-h. It is assumed that no heat is recovered from of $2,500. Steam boiler efficiency is 83% and it is the engine. Figure 31-47 calculates reciprocating engine assumed that all back-pressure steam is passed on to energy requirement and operating cost. In this case, the process. Energy requirement and operating cost are calcu- minimum flow and TDH is limited by the reciprocating lated in Figure 31-45. Notice the net steam energy engine minimum operating speed, which is assumed to be 50% of the design rating of 1,800 Input rpm. The simple payback versus the % Load Bypass TDH, Pumpage Pump Power Pump Motor Capacity (gpm) (gpm) (ft) hp (kW) hp Eff. Eff. base case is shown in Figure 31-48 to be 3.6 years. 100% 2,230 140 78.5 83% 94.6 95% 74.3
90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 2,007 1,784 1,561 1,338 1,115 892 223 446 669 892 1,115 1,338 140 140 140 140 140 140 78.5 78.5 78.5 78.5 78.5 78.5 83% 83% 83% 83% 83% 83% 94.6 94.6 94.6 94.6 94.6 94.6 95% 95% 95% 95% 95% 95% 74.3 74.3 74.3 74.3 74.3 74.3

Driver Option Comparison

Fig. 31-40 Load and Power Requirement for Constant Speed Motor.

All three driver options show excellent economic performance in these simplified analyses. The VFD option produces a very short simple payback period of 1.6 years, making

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Consumption kWh/Year % Capacity 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% Power (kW) 74.3 74.3 74.3 74.3 74.3 74.3 74.3 TOTALS

Cost $/Year

On-Peak 14,858 26,002 37,145 37,145 23,030 14,115 2,972 155,267

Shoulder 5,943 22,287 33,431 35,660 29,716 18,573 9,658 155,267 Demand

Off-Peak 8,915 22,287 44,574 46,060 66,119 67,604 84,691 340,251

Total 29,716 70,576 115,151 118,865 118,865 100,292 97,321 650,786

On-Peak $ 753 $ 1,317 $ 1,882 $ 1,882 $ 1,167 $ 715 $ 151 $ 7,867

Shoulder $ $ 240 899

Off-Peak $ $ 250 624 $ $ $ $ $ $

Total 1,242 2,840 4,478 4,610 4,217 3,357

$ 1,348 $ 1,438 $ 1,199 $ 749 $ 390 $ 6,262 Total Cost

$ 1,248 $ 1,290 $ 1,851 $ 1,893 $ 2,371 $ 9,527

$ 2,911 $ 23,656 $ 13,024 $ 36,680

Max kW x $14.67/kW/Month x 12 Month/Year

Fig. 31-41 Operating Cost for Constant Speed Motor.

Pump Speed (rpm) 1,750 1,610 1,470 1,330 1,190 1,050 910 Drive/ Motor Eff. 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 85% 80% Input Power (kW) 78.4 60.0 45.0 32.9 25.2 20.2 15.3

% Capacity 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40%

Load (gpm) 2,230 2,007 1,784 1,561 1,338 1,115 892

TDH (ft) 140 119 100 84 70 58 48

Pumpage hp 78.5 60.1 45.0 32.9 23.4 16.1 10.7

Pump Eff. 83% 83% 83% 83% 77% 70% 65%

Pump bhp 94.6 72.4 54.3 39.7 30.4 23.0 16.4

Fig. 31-42 Load and Power Requirement for VFD Motor Option.
Consumption kWh/Year % Capacity 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% Power (kW) 78.4 60.0 45.0 32.9 25.2 20.2 15.3 Totals On-Peak 15,684 21,014 22,495 16,448 7,816 3,841 613 87,911 Shoulder 6,273 18,012 20,245 15,790 10,085 5,054 1,992 77,453 Demand Off-Peak 9,410 18,012 26,994 20,396 22,440 18,398 17,465 133,115 Total 31,367 57,038 69,734 52,634 40,342 27,294 20,070 298,479 On-Peak $ 795 $ 1,065 $ 1,140 $ $ $ $ 833 396 195 31 Cost $/Year Shoulder $ $ $ $ $ $ $ 253 726 817 637 407 204 80 Off-Peak $ $ $ $ $ $ $ 263 504 756 571 628 515 489 $ $ $ $ $ $ $ Total 1,311 2,296 2,712 2,041 1,431 914 600

$ 4,454

$ 3,124 Total Cost

$ 3,727

$ 11,305 $ 13,802 $ 25,107

Max kW x $14.67/kW/Month x 12 Month/Year

Fig. 31-43 Electric Usage and Cost Breakdown for VFD Motor Option.

Reduction in Cost: VFD Compared with Bypass Control, Per Year $ 11,573 Incremental Capital Cost of VFD Over Bypass Control $ 15,000 Simple Payback of VFD Over Bypass Control, Years

Fig. 31-44 Simple Payback on Investment in VFD Motor vs. Base Case.

it a highly attractive option. The back-pressure steam turbine, produces a 2.0 year payback versus the base case and a 2.4 year incremental payback versus the VFD option, while the reciprocating engine produces a 3.6 year payback versus the base case and a 7.1 year incremental payback versus the VFD option. These results indicate that the additional investment in the more costly prime mover drive options would merit serious consideration.

It is important to note that in these cases, project economics are particularly attractive because the pumping loads vary considerably and the 1.6 demand component of the electric rate is relatively high. With an alternative electric rate in which the demand component were lower but the commodity cost (per kWh) were higher, the electric VFD motor would show even better economic performance. Under such a rate structure, the two prime mover options would show similar payback periods versus the base case option, but would show higher incremental payback periods versus the VFD option. It is also important to note that the capital cost

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

Capacity 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40%

Load (gpm) 2,230 2,007 1,784 1,561 1,338 1,115 892

TDH (ft) 140 119 100 84 70 58 48

Pump Speed (rpm) 1,750 1,610 1,470 1,330 1,190 1,050 910

Pump bhp 94.6 72.4 54.3 39.7 30.4 23.0 16.4

Turbine, Btu/bhp-h 2,546 2,546 2,546 2,546 2,546 2,546 2,546

Fuel Rate (Mcf/h) 0.282 0.216 0.162 0.118 0.091 0.069 0.049 Totals

Hours per Year 400 950 1,550 1,600 1,600 1,350 1,310 8,760

Fuel Use (Mcf/Yr) 113 205 251 189 145 93 64 1,059 $

Fuel Cost ($/Yr) 451 $ 820 $ 1,002 $ 756 $ 580 $ 370 $ 256 $ 4,236

Annual O&M Cost $ 2,500 Total Cost $ 6,736

Fig. 31-45 Load and Operating Cost Breakdown for Steam Turbine Drive.

Reduction in Cost: Turbine Compared with Bypass Control, Per Year Incremental Capital Cost of Turbine Over Bypass Control Simple Payback of Turbine Over Bypass Control, Years Reduction in Cost: Turbine Compared with VFD, Per Year Incremental Capital Cost of Turbine Over VFD Simple Payback of Turbine Over VFD, Years

$ 29,945 $ 60,000 2.0 $ 18,371 $ 45,000 2.4

Fig. 31-46 Paybacks for Steam Turbine Drive vs. Base Case and VFD Option.

requirement for the two prime mover options are based on somewhat optimal installation conditions. Pricing is based on the assumption of a logistically straight-forward installation. Any additional system modifications required for the installation would add to the capital cost and, therefore, increase the payback period. In the case of the steam turbine driver, it is assumed that all of the rejected heat, in the form of low-pressure steam, can be effectively used without any significant system modifications. If all of the heat cannot be used during each period of operation, or if system modifications were required to allow for the use of this heat, such as a requirement for additional piping, economic performance would be decreased. In the case of the reciprocating engine driver, no consideration has been given to heat recovery. If heat recovery
Load (gpm) 2,230 2,007 1,784 1,561 1,338 1,115 Pump Speed (rpm) 1,750 1,610 1,470 1,330 1,190 1,050 Engine, Btu/bhp-h 10,099 8,848 8,464 8,948 10,299 12,516

was included in the analysis, the capital cost would be increased to account for the heat recovery system and the annual O&M cost would also be increased. However, the annual fuel consumption would be decreased by as much as half. The net impact would be improved economic performance, demonstrated by a shorter payback period on the incremental investment. Still, while these are just simplified examples, based on only one set of assumptions, the general conclusion holds true that alternative driver options that feature variable speed control can produce attractive economics for pumping applications.

CONSIDERATION OF RENEWABLE PUMP DRIVER OPTIONS

While rare in application for commercial, industrial
Hours per Year 400 950 1,550 1,600 1,600 2,660 8,760 Fuel Use (Mcf/Yr) 371 591 691 552 487 745 3,436 $ $ $ $ $ $ Fuel Cost ($/Yr) 1,484 2,365 2,765 2,207 1.947 2,978

Capacity 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

TDH (ft) 140 119 100 84 70 58

Pump bhp 94.6 72.4 54.3 39.7 30.4 23.0

Fuel Rate (Mcf/h) 0.928 0.622 0.446 0.345 0.304 0.280 Totals

$ 13,746

Annual O&M Cost $ 3,642 Total Cost $ 17,388

Fig. 31-47 Load and Operating Cost Breakdown for Reciprocating Engine Drive.

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Pumps

Reduction in Cost: Engine Compared with Bypass Control, Per Year Incremental Capital Cost of Engine Over Bypass Control Simple Payback of Engine Over Bypass Control, Years Reduction in Cost: Engine Compared with VFD, Per Year Incremental Capital Cost of Engine Over VFD Simple Payback of Engine Over VFD, Years

$ 19,292 $ 70,000 3.6 $ 7,719 7.1 $ 55,000

Fig. 31-48 Paybacks for Reciprocating Engine Drive vs. Base Case and VFD Option.

and motor can be eliminated, reducing capital cost and additional mechanical efficiency losses associated with the generator. Figure 31-49 is a layout illustration of a waterturbine driven pumping system, used to provide potable water at a remote location in Sudan. This is a water current turbine that floats on a river with the rotor completely submerged. It is moored in a free stream to a post on one bank to minimize obstruction to river traffic. This run-of-the-river type system operates with no hydraulic head and, therefore, requires no dam or reservoir. The system uses an 11-ft (3.5-m) diameter, 3-blade Garman water current turbine with an inclined-axis rotor design. A two-stage belt transmission links the rotor to a centrifugal pump. The usable power is proportional to the rotor area and the cube of the water speed. The maximum pumping head for a single turbine set such as this one is about 80 ft (25 m). However, by installing turbines side-by-side with their pumps in series, higher heads can be generated. Along with mill grinding, water pumping was historically among the most common applications for windmills. While in great decline following the national electrification movement of the early- and mid-20th Century, windmill water pumping applications were previously found scattered across thousands of farms throughout the United States. Today, most wind power applications are for electric generation, though numerous farm pumping applications can still be found. For grid-connected applications, minimum wind speeds of about 12 miles/hr (5.4 m/s) are required. Non-grid connected electric generation and other mechanical drive applications, however, can be effectively accomplished at lower wind speeds. Figure 31-50 shows a lowwind water-pumping windmill that is still frequently used for pumping water for livestock, irrigation, village water supplies, pond aeration and remote homes and farms where ordinary windmills cannot function because of low available wind speeds. This Oasis windmill pumps water in winds below 5 miles/hr Figure 31-49. Water-Turbine Driven Pump Used to Provide Potable Water in (2.2 m/s), pulls it from very deep wells, and Remote Location. Source: CADDET Renewable IEA/OECD

and institutional facilities, both water and wind power systems merit consideration as pump drivers under certain circumstances. Wheras a century ago these were mainstream pump drivers, water and wind turbines are now predominantly used for electric generation only. Water turbines are certainly effective pumps. Their mechanical efficiency in generating power from rushing water can be equally applied in reverse when used as pumps. In most cases, however, water turbine pumping applications are integrated into hydroelectric plants. Dedicated pump generators-sets are most commonly used, in which turbine-generated electricity is then used to power motor-driven pump sets. In pump storage applications, pumping is commonly accomplished by simply running the water turbine-generator set in reverse. In such cases, the generator operates as a motor and the water turbine as the pump. Still there are some instances where hydropower plants operate exclusively to drive pumps. These are usually in remote locations that do not require much power other than for pumping and have little or no access to electric transmission lines. Hence the electric generator

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

economically pumps large volumes of water. As can be seen from these two examples, the use of wind or water power directly for pumping has become more of the exception to the rule as electric power generation has become the predominate application for these technologies. With available electricity from such applications, standard motor-driven pumps are used. However, given the appropriate set of circumstances, such technology applications are viable and can be practically applied.

Figure 31-50. Low-Wind Water-Pumping Windmill. Source: Peter Michaelis, DoE/National Renewable Energy Laboratory

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Copyright 2003 by The Fairmont Press.