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Introduction Exploding Reectors Migration Strategies Migration Algorithms Migration Parameters As-
pects of Input data Migration Velocities Migration Principles Kirchho Migration Diraction Summation
Amplitude and Phase Factors Kirchho Summation Finite-Dierence Migration Downward Continuation
Dierencing Schemes Rational Approximations for Implicit Schemes Reverse Time Migration Frequency-Space
Implicit Schemes Frequency-Space Explicit Schemes Frequency-Wavenumber Migration Phase-Shift Migra-
tion Stolt Migration Summary of Domains of Migration Algorithms Kirchho Migration in Practice
Aperture Width Maximum Dip to Migrate Velocity Errors Finite-Dierence Migration in Practice
Depth Step Size Velocity Errors Cascaded Migration Reverse Time Migration Frequency-Space Migra-
tion in Practice Steep-Dip Implicit Methods Depth Step Size Velocity Errors Steep-Dip Explicit Methods
Dip Limits of Extrapolation Filters Velocity Errors Frequency-Wavenumber Migration in Practice
Maximum Dip to Migrate Depth Step Size Velocity Errors Stolt Stretch Factor Wraparound Residual Mi-
gration Further Aspects of Migration in Practice Migration and Spatial Aliasing Migration and Random
Noise Migration and Line Length Migration from Topography Exercises Appendix D: Mathematical
Foundation of Migration Waveeld Extrapolation and Migration Stationary Phase Approximations The
Parabolic Approximation Frequency-Space Implicit Schemes Stable Explicit Extrapolation Optimum Depth
Step Frequency-Wavenumber Migration Residual Migration References
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Migration moves dipping reections to their true sub-
surface positions and collapses diractions, thus increas-
ing spatial resolution and yielding a seismic image of
the subsurface. Figure 4.0-1 shows a CMP-stacked sec-
tion before and after migration. The stacked section in-
dicates the presence of a salt dome anked by gently
dipping strata. Figure 4.0-1 also shows a sketch of two
prominent features the diraction hyperbola D that
originates at the tip of the salt dome, and the reection
B o the ank of the salt dome. After migration, note
that the diraction has collapsed to its apex P and the
dipping event has moved to a subsurface location A,
which is at or near the salt dome ank. In contrast, re-
ections associated with the gently dipping strata have
moved little after migration.
Figure 4.0-2 is an example with a dierent type
of structural feature. The stack contains a zone of near-
horizontal reections down to 1 s. After migration, these
events are virtually unchanged. Note the prominent un-
conformity that represents an ancient erosional surface
just below 1 s. On the stacked section, the unconfor-
mity appears complex, while on the migrated section,
it becomes interpretable. The bowties on the stacked
section are untied and turned into synclines on the mi-
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464 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.0-1. A CMP stack (a) before, (b) after migration; (c) sketch of a prominent diraction D and a dipping event before
(B) and after (A) migration. Migration moves the dipping event B to its assumed true subsurface position A and collapses
the diraction D to its apex P. The dotted line indicates the boundary of a salt dome.
FIG. 4.0-2. A CMP stack (a) before, (b) after migration.
Migration unties the bowties on the stacked section and
turns them into synclines (Taner and Koehler, 1977).
grated section. The deeper event in the neighborhood
of 3 s is the multiple associated with the unconformity
above. When treated as a primary and migrated with
the primary velocity, it is overmigrated.
Figure 4.0-3a shows a stacked section that con-
tains fault-plane reections conicting with the shal-
low gently-dipping reections. Note the accurate posi-
tioning of the fault planes and delineation of the fault
blocks on the migrated section in Figure 4.0-3b. From
the three examples shown in Figures 4.0-1, 4.0-2, and
4.0-3, note that migration moves dipping events in the
updip direction and collapses diractions, thus enabling
us to delineate faults while retaining horizontal events
in their original positions.
The goal of migration is to make the stacked sec-
tion appear similar to the geologic cross-section in depth
along a seismic traverse. The migrated section, however,
commonly is displayed in time. One reason for this is
that velocity estimation based on seismic and other data
always is limited in accuracy. Therefore, depth conver-
sion is not completely accurate. Another reason is that
interpreters prefer to evaluate the validity of migrated
sections by comparing them to the unmigrated data.
Therefore, it is preferable to have both sections dis-
played in time. The migration process that produces
a migrated time section is called time migration. Time
migration, the main theme of Chapter 4, is appropriate
as long as lateral velocity variations are mild to moder-
ate.
When the lateral velocity gradients are signicant,
time migration does not produce the true subsurface im-
age. Instead, we need to use depth migration, the output
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Migration 465
FIG. 4.0-3. A CMP stack (a) before, (b) after migration. Migration collapses subtle diractions associated with the growth
faults, moves the fault-plane reections to the fault positions, and thus makes detailed structural interpretation easier.
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466 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.0-4. A CMP stack (a) before, (b) after time migration. Time migration is adequate for accurate imaging of the
top-salt boundary, whereas depth migration is imperative for accurate imaging of the base-salt boundary (B).
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Migration 467
of which is a depth section. Consider the data from an
area with intense salt tectonics in Figure 4.0-4. Time
migration has produced an acceptable image of the re-
gion above the salt. However, note the crossing of events
that is a manifestation of overmigration of the reection
associated with the base-salt boundary (denoted by B
in Figure 4.0-4b). The improper migration is the result
of inadequate treatment by the time migration of the
eects of severe raypath bendings at the top-salt bound-
ary caused by the strong velocity contrast between the
salt layer and the overlying rocks.
Complex structures associated with salt diapirism,
overthrust tectonics and irregular water-bottom topog-
raphy usually are three dimensional (3-D) in character.
A stacked section really is the seismic response of a 3-
D subsurface on a two-dimensional (2-D) plane of pro-
le. Therefore, 2-D migration is not completely valid
for 3-D data from areas with complex 3-D structures.
Figure 4.0-5a is an inline stacked section from a land
3-D survey. Figure 4.0-5b is a 2-D migration of this
section, while Figure 4.0-5c is the same section after
3-D migration of the entire 3-D survey data. In particu-
lar, note the signicant dierence in the imaging of the
top of salt T and base of salt B. In 2-D migration, we
assume that the stacked section does not contain any
energy that comes from outside the plane of recording
(sideswipe). Three-dimensional imaging of the subsur-
face is discussed in Section 7.3.
Exploding Reectors
When a stacked section is migrated, we use the migra-
tion theory applicable to data recorded with a coin-
cident source and receiver (zero-oset). To develop a
conceptual framework for discussing migration of zero-
oset data, we now examine two types of recording
schemes.
A zero-oset section is recorded by moving a sin-
gle source and a single receiver along the line with no
separation between them (Figure 4.0-6). The recorded
energy follows raypaths that are normal incidence to
reecting interfaces. This recording geometry obviously
is not realizable in practice.
Now consider an alternative geometry (Figure 4.0-
6) that will produce the same seismic section. Imag-
ine exploding sources that are located along the reect-
ing interfaces (Loewenthal et al., 1976). Also, consider
one receiver located on the surface at each CMP lo-
cation along the line. The sources explode in unison
and send out waves that propagate upward. The waves
are recorded by the receivers at the surface. The earth
model described by this experiment is referred to as the
exploding reectors model.
FIG. 4.0-5. A 2-D CMP stack (a) represents a 2-D cross-
section of a 3-D waveeld. Thus, it can contain energy from
outside the plane of the 2-D line traverse. A 2-D migra-
tion (b) is inadequate when this kind of energy is present
on the 2-D CMP-stacked section. (c) Clear imaging of the
salt structure requires both 3-D data collection and 3-D mi-
gration (Section 7.3). (Data courtesy Nederlandse Aardolie
Maatschappij B.V.)
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468 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.0-6. Geometry of zero-oset recording (left), and hypothetical simulation of the zero-oset experiment using exploding
reectors (right) (Claerbout, 1985).
The seismic section that results from the exploding
reectors model is largely equivalent to the zero-oset
section, with one important distinction. The zero-oset
section is recorded as two-way traveltime (from source
to reection point to receiver), while the exploding re-
ectors model is recorded as one-way traveltime (from
the reection point at which the source is located to
the receiver). To make the sections compatible, we can
imagine that the velocity of propagation is half the true
medium velocity for the exploding reectors model.
The equivalence between the zero-oset section and
the exploding reectors model is not quite exact, par-
ticularly in the presence of strong lateral velocity vari-
ations (Kjartansson and Rocca, 1979).
These concepts now are applied to the velocity-
depth model in Figure 4.0-7. Consider source-receiver
pairs placed along the earths surface at every tenth
midpoint. In this case, a zero-oset section is mod-
eled. At midpoint 130, ve dierent arrivals are asso-
ciated with rays that are normal incidence to the rst
interface. Alternatively, imagine receivers placed along
the earths surface at every tenth midpoint and sources
placed along the interface where the rays emerge at the
right angle to the interface (equivalent to the normal-
incidence rays of the zero-oset section). In the latter
case, the velocities indicated in Figure 4.0-7 must be
halved to match the time axis with that associated with
the zero-oset section.
The interface can be sampled more densely by plac-
ing receivers and sources at closer spacing (Figure 4.0-
8a). The next deeper interface can be modeled; that is,
FIG. 4.0-7. A velocity-depth model (top) and the zero-
oset traveltime response (bottom) of the water-bottom re-
ector. Shown also are the normal-incidence rays used to
compute the zero-oset traveltime trajectory. Note the ve
arrivals A, B, C, D, and E at CMP 130 all from the water
bottom.
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Migration 469
FIG. 4.0-8. Exploding-reector modeling of zero-oset traveltimes associated with (a) a water bottom, (b) a at, and (c)
a dipping reector. (d) The superposition of the normal-incidence traveltime responses in (a), (b), and (c). Shown on the
velocity-depth models in the left-hand column are the normal-incidence rays used to compute the traveltime trajectories.
The time sections shown on the right-hand column are equivalent to a zero-oset traveltime section with the vertical axis in
two-way time.
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470 Seismic Data Analysis
the traveltime trajectory can be computed by placing
sources along this interface and leaving the receivers
where they were on the surface (Figure 4.0-8b). Finally,
the same experiment can be repeated for the third inter-
face (Figure 4.0-8c). To derive the composite response
from the velocity-depth model in Figure 4.0-8d (the left-
hand column), individual responses shown in Figures
4.0-8a, 4.0-8b and 4.0-8c from each interface are su-
perimposed. The result is shown in Figure 4.0-8d (the
right-hand column). We can imagine that sources were
placed at all three interfaces and turned on simultane-
ously. Such an experiment would cause the rays emerg-
ing from the three interfaces to be recorded at receivers
placed on the surface, along the line.
Actually, Figure 4.0-8d (the right-hand column)
represents the modeled zero-oset traveltime section.
Seismic waveelds, however, are represented not only
by wave traveltimes but also by wave amplitudes. Figure
4.0-9a shows the modeled zero-oset waveeld section
based on the same velocity-depth model in Figure 4.0-
8d (the left-hand column). The shallow complex inter-
face (horizon 1 in Figure 4.0-8a) caused the complicated
response of the two simple interfaces (horizons 2 and 3)
in this zero-oset traveltime section.
How valid is the assumption that a stacked sec-
tion is equivalent to a zero-oset section? The conven-
tional CMP recording geometry provides the waveeld
at nonzero osets. During processing, we collapse the
oset axis by stacking the data onto the midpoint-time
plane at zero oset. For CMP stacking, we normally as-
sume hyperbolic moveout. Figure 4.0-10 shows selected
CMP gathers modeled from the velocity-depth model
in Figure 4.0-8d (the left-hand column). Because of the
presence of strong lateral velocity variations, the hy-
perbolic assumption may not be appropriate for some
reections on some CMP gathers (Figure 4.0-10a); how-
ever, it may be valid for others (Figure 4.0-10b). We ob-
tain a stacked section (Figure 4.0-9b) that resembles the
zero-oset section (Figure 4.0-9a) to the extent that the
hyperbolic moveout assumption is valid. The assump-
tion that a conventional stacked section is equivalent to
a zero-oset section also is violated to varying degrees
in the presence of strong multiples and conicting dips
with dierent stacking velocities (Chapter 5). While mi-
gration of unstacked data is discussed in Chapter 5, our
main focus in this chapter is on migration after stack.
Migration Strategies
In practice, migration of seismic data requires decision
making with regards to:
(a) an appropriate migration strategy,
(b) a migration algorithm compatible with the strat-
egy,
(c) appropriate parameters for the algorithm,
(d) issues concerning the input data, and
(e) migration velocities.
Migration strategies include:
(a) 2-D versus 3-D migration,
(b) post- versus prestack migration, and
(c) time versus depth migration.
The spectrum of migration strategies extend from 2-D
poststack time migration to 3-D prestack depth migra-
tion. Depending on the nature of the subsurface geol-
ogy, any other in-between combination can be selected.
In practice, 2-D/3-D poststack time migration is used
most often for a good reason it is the least sensitive
to velocity errors, and it often yields results acceptable
for a reliable interpretation. Table 4-1 is an overview of
dierent migration strategies applied to dierent types
of seismic data (2-D, 3-D, stacked, and unstacked).
Choice of an appropriate migration strategy re-
quires input from the interpreter as to the structural
geology and stratigraphy in an area. Dipping events on a
stacked section call for time migration. Conicting dips
with dierent stacking velocities is one case in which a
conventional stacked section diers from a zero-oset
section. Thus, strictly speaking, poststack migration
Table 4-1. Migration strategies.
Case Migration
dipping events time migration
conicting dips with prestack migration
dierent stacking velocities
3-D behavior of 3-D migration
fault planes and salt anks
Case Migration
strong lateral velocity depth migration
variations associated with
complex overburden structures
complex nonhyperbolic moveout prestack migration
3-D structures 3-D migration
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Migration 471
FIG. 4.0-9. (a) The zero-oset waveeld section equivalent
to the zero-oset traveltime section in Figure 4.0-8d (the
right-hand column); (b) the CMP stack generated from the
CMP gathers as in Figure 4.0-10. (Modeling by Deregowski
and Barley, 1981.)
which assumes that the stacked section is equivalent to
a zero-oset section is not valid to handle the case of
conicting dips. Instead, one needs to do prestack time
migration.
Conicting dips often are associated with salt
anks and fault planes, which can have 3-D characteris-
tics. This then requires 3-D prestack time migration. In
Section 5.3, we shall discuss a practical alternative to
2-D prestack time migration strategies. The alternative
sequence includes the application of normal-moveout
(NMO) correction using velocities appropriate for at
events followed by 2-D dip moveout correction (DMO)
to correct for the dip and source-receiver azimuth ef-
fects on stacking velocities. As a result, conicting dips
are preserved during stacking, and thus, imaging can be
deferred until after stacking using 2-D poststack time
migration strategies. This series of processing steps is
largely equivalent to 2-D prestack time migration and
results often are comparable. The same workow also is
applicable to 3-D prestack time migration (Section 7.4).
Accurate imaging of targets beneath complex
structures with strong lateral velocity variations re-
quires depth migration. Aside from the problem of con-
icting dips with dierent stacking velocities, strong lat-
eral velocity variations associated with complex over-
burden structures usually cause conventional stacking
based on the hyperbolic moveout assumption to fail.
Therefore, a case of complex overburden structures calls
for depth migration before stacking the data.
Furthermore, complex overburden structures, en-
countered in areas with salt tectonics, overthrust tec-
tonics and irregular water-bottom topographies can
often exhibit 3-D characteristics. Thus, imaging such
structures may require 3-D prestack depth migration.
Field surveys are designed such that line orienta-
tions are, as much as possible, along the dominant strike
and dip directions, so as to minimize 3-D eects. Un-
der these circumstances, the 2-D assumption for migra-
tion can be acceptable. However, if the subsurface has
a truly 3-D geometry, without a dominant dip or strike
direction, then it is imperative to do 3-D migration of
3-D data. In such cases, 2-D migration (whether post-
stack or prestack, time or depth) can lead to potential
problems in interpretation.
A practical alternative to 2-D prestack depth mi-
gration can be a prestack layer replacement to cor-
rect for the complex nonhyperbolic moveout followed
by time migration after stack. This, however, is appli-
cable to situations involving a single overburden layer,
such as irregular water-bottom topography for it to be
reasonably practical.
Migration Algorithms
The one-way-in-depth scalar wave equation is the ba-
sis for common migration algorithms. These algorithms
do not explicitly model multiple reections, converted
waves, surface waves, or noise. Any such energy present
in data input to migration is treated as primary re-
ections. Migration algorithms can be classied under
three main categories:
(a) those that are based on the integral solution to the
scalar wave equation,
(b) those that are based on the nite-dierence solu-
tions, and
(c) those that are based on frequency-wavenumber im-
plementations.
Whatever the algorithm, it should desirably:
(a) handle steep dips with sucient accuracy,
(b) handle lateral and vertical velocity variations, and
(c) be implemented, eciently.
Figure 4.0-11 is a migrated CMP stacked section
with a major unconformity. The undermigration in-
complete imaging of the unconformity, is not because of
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472 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.0-10. Selected CMP gathers modeled from the velocity-depth model in Figure 4.0-8d (the left-hand column). (a)
Gathers from the complex part of the velocity-depth model, (b) gathers from the simpler part of the velocity-depth model.
CMP locations are indicated in Figure 4.0-8d. The CMP stack is shown in Figure 4.0-9b. (Modeling by Deregowski and Barley,
1981.)
erroneously too low velocities. Although we should al-
ways be aware of velocity errors when migrating seismic
data, the undermigration in Figure 4.0-11 is the result
of using a dip-limited algorithm. By using a steep-dip
algorithm, we can achieve a more accurate imaging of
the unconformity (Figure I-9).
The three principle migration techniques are dis-
cussed in this chapter in their historical order of devel-
opment as outlined below. The rst migration technique
developed was the semicircle superposition method that
was used before the age of computers. Then came
the diraction-summation technique, which is based on
summing the seismic amplitudes along a diraction hy-
perbola whose curvature is governed by the medium ve-
locity. The Kirchho summation technique introduced
later (Schneider, 1978), but actually in use earlier, basi-
cally is the same as the diraction summation technique
with added amplitude and phase corrections applied to
the data before summation. These corrections make the
summation consistent with the wave equation in that
they account for spherical spreading (Section 1.4), the
obliquity factor (angle-dependency of amplitudes), and
the phase shift inherent in Huygens secondary sources
(Section 4.1).
Another migration technique (Claerbout and Do-
herty, 1972) is based on the idea that a stacked section
can be modeled as an upcoming zero-oset waveeld
generated by exploding reectors. Using the explod-
ing reectors model, migration can be conceptualized
as consisting of waveeld extrapolation in the form of
downward continuation followed by imaging. To under-
stand imaging, consider the shape of a waveeld at ob-
servation time t = 0 generated by an exploding reec-
tor. Since no time has elapsed and, thus, no propagation
has occurred, the wavefront shape must be the same as
the reector shape that generated the wavefront. The
fact that the wavefront shape at t = 0 corresponds to
the reector shape is called the imaging principle. To
dene the reector geometry from a waveeld recorded
at the surface, we only need to extrapolate the wave-
eld back in depth then monitor the energy arriving at
t = 0. The reector shape at any particular extrapola-
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Migration 473
FIG. 4.0-11. A CMP stack (a) before, and (b) after migration. Note the undermigration of the unconformity event (U)
caused by the use of a dip-limited algorithm.
tion depth directly corresponds to the wavefront shape
at t = 0.
Downward continuation of waveelds can be im-
plemented conveniently using nite-dierence solutions
to the scalar wave equation. Migration methods based
on such implementations are called nite-dierence mi-
gration. Many dierent dierencing schemes applied to
the dierential operators in the scalar wave equation
exist both in time-space and frequency-space domains.
Claerbout (1985) provides a comprehensive theoretical
foundation of nite-dierence migration and its practi-
cal aspects.
After the developments on Kirchho summation
and nite-dierence migrations, Stolt (1978) introduced
migration by Fourier transform. This method involves
a coordinate transformation from frequency (the trans-
form variable associated with the input time axis) to
vertical wavenumber axis (the transform variable asso-
ciated with the output depth axis), while keeping the
horizontal wavenumber unchanged. The Stolt method
is based on a constant-velocity assumption. However,
Stolt modied his method by introducing stretching
in the time direction to handle the types of velocity
variations for which time migration is acceptable. Stolt
and Benson (1986) combine theory with practice in the
eld of migration with an emphasis on the frequency-
wavenumber methods.
Another frequency-wavenumber migration is the
phase-shift method (Gazdag, 1978). This method is
based on the equivalence of downward continuation to a
phase shift in the frequency-wavenumber domain. The
imaging principle is invoked by summing over the fre-
quency components of the extrapolated waveeld at
each depth step to obtain the image at t = 0.
A reason for the wide range of migration algorithms
used in the industry today is that none of the algorithms
fully meets the important criteria of handling all dips
and velocity variations while still being cost-eective.
Migration algorithms based on the integral solu-
tion to the scalar wave equation, commonly known as
Kirchho migration, can handle all dips up to 90 de-
grees, but they can be cumbersome in handling lateral
velocity variations.
Finite-dierence algorithms can handle all types of
velocity variations, but they have dierent degrees of
dip approximations. Furthermore, dierencing schemes,
if carelessly designed, can severely degrade the intended
dip approximation.
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474 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.0-12. A CMP stack (a) before, and (b) after migration. Lack of any event to the right of the dotted line on the
migrated section is a result of the nite line length.
Finally, frequency-wavenumber algorithms have
limited ability in handling velocity variations, partic-
ularly in the lateral direction. As a result of limi-
tations of the three main categories of migration al-
gorithms integral, nite-dierence, and frequency-
wavenumber methods, migration software has expanded
further to additional extensions and combinations of the
basic algorithms. Residual migration phase-shift or
constant-velocity Stolt migration followed by the appli-
cation of a dip-limited algorithm is one example.
Migration Parameters
After deciding on the migration strategy and the ap-
propriate algorithm, the analyst then needs to decide
on the migration parameters. Migration aperture width
is the critical parameter in Kirchho migration. A small
aperture causes removal of steep dips; it generates spu-
rious horizontal events and organizes the random noise
uncorrelated from trace to trace.
Depth step size in downward continuation is the
critical parameter in nite-dierence methods. An opti-
mum depth step size is the largest depth step with the
minimum tolerable phase errors. It depends on tempo-
ral and spatial samplings, dip, velocity, and frequency.
It also depends on the type of dierencing scheme used
in the algorithm.
Finally, the stretch factor is the critical parameter
for Stolt migration. A constant-velocity medium implies
a stretch factor of 1. In general, the larger the vertical
velocity gradient, the smaller the stretch factor needs
to be.
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Migration 475
Aspects of Input Data
When migrating seismic data, one needs to be con-
cerned with various aspects of the input data set itself:
(a) line length or areal extent,
(b) signal-to-noise ratio, and
(c) spatial aliasing.
The line length must be sucient to allow a steeply
dipping event to migrate to its true subsurface location.
It is a fatal error to record short proles in areas with
complex geology. Also, for 3-D migration, the surface
areal extent of a 3-D survey is almost always larger than
the target subsurface areal extent.
Random noise at late times on a stacked section,
when migrated, potentially can be hazardous for shal-
lower data. One may have to compromise on migration
aperture for deep data to prevent this problem to occur.
Trace spacing must be small enough to prevent
spatial aliasing of steep dips at high frequencies. Al-
though this is not an issue for modern prestack data, a
coarse shot-receiver spacing can degrade the delity of
prestack migration severely. Old data and 3-D marine
data in the crossline direction often are trace interpo-
lated prior to poststack migration.
Figure 4.0-12 is a CMP stacked section before and
after migration. From an interpretation viewpoint, the
reliable part of this migrated section is conned to the
upper central part. Lack of any reection energy to the
right of the dotted line does not mean that there is a
structural discontinuity there. It only means that the
reections associated with the imbricate structure have
been migrated in the updip direction from right to left.
As a result, a zone with no reectors to the right of the
dotted line is left behind because of the truncation of
the waveeld represented by the right-hand edge of the
stacked section. The deeper part is useless, because the
noise dominates the section.
Migration Velocities
Horizontal displacement during migration is propor-
tional to migration velocity squared (equation 4-1).
Since velocities generally increase with depth, errors in
migration are usually larger for deep events than shal-
low events. Also, the steeper the dip, the more accurate
the migration velocities need to be, since displacement
is proportional to dip.
Figure 4.0-13 shows a portion of a CMP-stacked
section after 3-D poststack time migration using a per-
cent range of stacking velocities. Note the subtle under-
and overmigration eects on dipping events below the
major unconformity represented by the strong, near-
horizontal reection. Events A dipping up to the left
and B dipping up to the right cross over one another
on sections that correspond to 90 percent and 95 per-
cent of stacking velocities, indicating undermigration.
The same events are split away from one another in
opposite directions on sections that correspond to 105
percent and 110 percent of stacking velocities. The most
overall acceptable image is seen on the section that cor-
responds to the 100 percent of stacking velocities.
Accuracy in event positioning after migration actu-
ally depends on the combined eects of the performance
of the migration algorithm used and the velocity errors.
For example, the inherently undermigrating character
of a 45-degree nite-dierence algorithm can be, for an
event with a specic dip, coincidentally counterbalanced
by the overmigration eect of erroneously too high ve-
locities. In the presence of large vertical velocity gradi-
ents, a two-pass 3-D migration can also cause overmi-
gration of steep dips (in the form of lateral translation)
even with the correct migration velocities.
Figure 4.0-14a shows a portion of a migrated
stacked section. Although this section does not contain
steep dips, accurate imaging of the faults along the low-
relief structures can be important to the interpreter.
Note the slight undermigration, which may be caused
by any of the following: (a) error in migration veloci-
ties, (b) a dip-limited algorithm that failed to focus the
diraction energy adequately, or (c) a possible 3-D be-
havior of the geometry of the reector. The section in
Figure 4.0-14a has been migrated with a dip-limited al-
gorithm. Using a proper algorithm, with the same veloc-
ities, we get the migrated section in Figure 4.0-14b. The
resulting section shows slight overmigration, which can
be attributed to errors in migration velocities. Lowering
the velocities gives the improved, but not completely ac-
curate, image in Figure 4.0-14c. Perhaps, the remaining
issues in imaging may be attributed to 3-D eects.
As demonstrated by the example in Figure 4.0-14,
migration results generally are self-evident under-
and overmigration often can be recognized on a mi-
grated section. Problems in imaging often are traced to
accuracy in migration velocities. I consider migration
velocities as the weak link between the seismic section
and the geologic cross-section.
In the next section, basic principles of migration
are presented and the Kirchho summation, nite-
dierence, frequency-space, and frequency-wavenumber
algorithms are reviewed. Practical aspects of the migra-
tion algorithms are expounded in Sections 4.2 through
4.5. Specically, key parameters for each category of
the migration algorithms are analyzed using appropri-
ate synthetic and eld data examples. Further aspects of
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476 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.0-13. A portion of a CMP-stacked section after 3-
D poststack time migration using, from top to bottom, 90,
95, 100, 105 and 110 percent of stacking velocities. Note the
subtle under- and overmigration eects on dipping events
below the major unconformity represented by the strong,
near-horizontal reection. Note the eect of velocities used
in migration on the positioning of the event A dipping up
to the left and event B dipping up to the right.
migration in practice, including spatial aliasing, migra-
tion response to random noise, line length, and irregular
topography are discussed in Section 4.6. The problem
of conicting dips with dierent stacking velocities that
requires dip-moveout (DMO) correction and prestack
time migration, and the accompanying topic on migra-
tion velocity analysis are deferred until Chapter 5. The
problem of imaging beneath complex structures that re-
quires earth imaging and modeling in depth is discussed
in Chapters 8 and 9, respectively.
FIG. 4.0-14. (a) A portion of a migrated CMP stack; note
the subtle undermigration at fault locations A and B caused
by the use of a dip-limited algorithm; (b) same data set but
migrated with an algorithm with no dip limitation; note
the subtle overmigration most likely due to erroneously too
high velocities; (c) same data set migrated with the same
algorithm as in (b) but with velocities adjusted to prevent
overmigration.
4.1 MIGRATION PRINCIPLES
Consider the dipping reector CD of the simple ge-
ologic section in Figure 4.1-1a. We want to obtain a
zero-oset section along the prole Ox. As we move the
source-receiver pair (s, g) along Ox, the rst normal-
incidence arrival from the dipping reector is recorded
at location A. In this discussion, we assume a normal-
ized constant-velocity medium v = 1 so that time and
depth coordinates become interchangeable. The reec-
tion arrival at location A is indicated by point C
on the
zero-oset time section in Figure 4.1-1b. As we move
from location A to the right, normal-incidence arrivals
are recorded from the dipping reector CD. The last
arrival is recorded at location B, which is indicated by
point D
.
From this simple geometric construction, note that
the reection in the time section C
must be migrated
to its true subsurface position CD in the depth section.
The following observations can be made from the geo-
metric description of migration in Figure 4.1-1:
(a) The dip angle of the reector in the geologic section
is greater than in the time section; thus, migration
steepens reectors.
(b) The length of the reector, as seen in the geologic
section, is shorter than in the time section; thus,
migration shortens reectors.
(c) Migration moves reectors in the updip direction.
The example in Figure 4.0-1 demonstrates the
above observations. In particular, the dipping event (B)
has moved in the updip direction, become shorter, and
steepened after migration (A).
As mentioned in the previous section, conventional
migration output is displayed in time, as is the input
stacked section. To distinguish the two time axes, we
will denote the time axis on the stacked section as t
event time in the unmigrated position, and the time
axis on the migrated section as event time in the
migrated position.
We shall now examine the horizontal and verti-
cal displacements as seen on the migrated time section.
From Figure 4.1-2, consider a reector segment CD. As-
sume that CD migrates to C
on
C
vt
2x
, (4 2)
x
=
t
x
1
vt
2x
2
. (4 3)
To gain a quantitative insight into these expres-
sions, we consider a numerical example. For a realis-
tic velocity function that increases with depth, consider
ve reecting segments at various depths. For simplic-
ity, assume that quantity t/x is the same for all (10
ms per 25-m trace spacing). From equations (4-1), (4-
2), and (4-3), compute the horizontal and vertical dis-
placements d
x
and d
t
and the dips (in ms/trace) after
migration. The results are summarized in Table 4-2.
Refer to Table 4-2 and equations (4-1), (4-2), and
(4.3) and make the following observations:
(a) The time dip /x on the migrated section is
always greater than the time dip t/x on the
unmigrated section.
(b) The horizontal displacement d
x
increases with
event time t in the unmigrated position. At 4 s,
the horizontal displacement is more than 6 km.
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478 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.1-2. Quantitative analysis of the migration process. Dipping event AB on the unmigrated section (left) is moved to
A
on the migrated section (right). The event after migration also is superimposed on the unmigrated section to compare the
position of the event before and after migration. Point C on dipping reector AB is moved to C
, but
when migrated, the event would migrate out of the sec-
tion, resulting in a blank migrated section (Figure 4.1-
1b). Therefore, the data on a stacked section are not
necessarily conned to the subsurface below the seismic
line. The converse is even more important; the structure
below the seismic line may not be recorded on the seis-
mic section. Suppose that the data were recorded only
between surface locations O and A. This time, the re-
sulting time section would be blank. So, we should not
record between A and B, and neither should we record
between O and A. Instead, we should record between O
and B in order to record the reector of interest prop-
erly and also to migrate it properly.
In areas with a structural dip, line length must be
chosen by considering the horizontal displacements of
dipping events from the structures causing the events.
This is an important consideration, especially in 3-D
seismic work. The areal surface coverage of a survey
usually is larger than the areal subsurface coverage of
interest.
To achieve a complete image of a dipping reec-
tor, also, the recording time must be long enough. For
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Migration 479
FIG. 4.1-3. (a) A zero-oset section modeled from the dipping reectors shown in (b). The medium velocity is constant 3500
m/s and the trace spacing is 25 m. The true dip angles of the reectors vary from 0 to 45 degrees at 5-degree increment.
Migration of the zero-oset section (a) yields the model of the dipping reectors (b).
FIG. 4.1-4. A portion of a CMP stack (a) before and (b) after migration. Note the group of events with a range of dips that
fan out from a fault plane. Migration has moved them in the updip direction, made them shorter and steeper.
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480 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.1-5. Curved reecting interfaces (synclines and an-
ticlines) (a) before and (b) after migration. See text for de-
tails. (Modeling courtesy Union Oil Company.)
FIG. 4.1-6. (a) A velocity-depth model consisting of a syn-
clinal reector; (b) selected normal-incidence arrivals on the
zero-oset section. Trace the bowtie in the time section.
example, if only OE seconds were recorded (Figure 4.1-
1), then the recorded segment C
cos
v
rms
r
(t) P
in
, (4 5)
where v
rms
is the rms velocity at the output point
(x
0
, z) and r =
(x x
0
)
2
+ z
2
, which is the distance
between the input (x, z = 0) and the output (x
0
, z)
points. The asterisk denotes convolution of the rho l-
ter (t) with the input waveeld P
in
.
The rho lter (t) corresponds to the time deriva-
tive of the measured waveeld, which yields the 90-
degree phase shift and adjustment of the amplitude
spectrum by the ramp function of frequency (Ta-
ble A-1 of Appendix A). For 2-D migration, the half-
derivative of the waveeld is used. This is equivalent
to the 45-degree phase shift and adjustment of the am-
plitude spectrum by a function of frequency dened as
. (4 8b)
Equations (4-8a) and (4-8b) now can be put into
the form of equation (4-6a) as
P(t + t) +
_
1 a
_
P(t) = 0, (4 9a)
and
_
1
a
2
_
P(t + t) +
_
1
a
2
_
P(t) = 0. (4 9b)
By using either equation (4-9a) or equation (4-9b), we
compute the future values of P(t) from a given initial
value as shown in Table 4-4.
The operator in which the coecient of the future
value P(t + t) is unity is called the explicit operator.
Stability of the nite-dierence solution the problem
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Migration 489
Table 4-4. Application of two-point implicit and ex-
plicit operators to extrapolate data P from t to t +t.
Explicit Implicit Data
Operator Operator Column
1 a 1 a/2 P(t)
1 1 a/2 P(t + t)
of wave amplitudes growing from one extrapolation step
to another, can be an issue with this type of operator
(Section D.6) An implicit operator produces stable re-
sults because of averaging on the right side of equation
(4-9b), known as the Crank-Nicolson scheme. For the
dierential equations used in nite-dierence migration
algorithms, such as the parabolic equation described in
Section D.3, scalar a becomes a matrix coecient. Im-
plicit schemes require inversion of this matrix. However,
no inversion is needed with explicit schemes, since fu-
ture values can be written explicitly in terms of only
past values.
Equation (4-9a) is rewritten by redening scalar a
as a t to obtain
P(t + t) P(t)
t
= a P(t). (4 10)
The left side of equation (4-10) is the discrete repre-
sentation of the continuous derivative of P with respect
to time, dP/dt. Therefore, equation (4-10) is the nite-
dierence equation that corresponds to the dierential
equation
dP
dt
= a P(t). (4 11)
We have derived the dierential equation that de-
scribes the ination of money (equation 4-11). Now con-
sider the analysis in reverse order. We start with the dif-
ferential equation (4-11), and write the corresponding
dierence equation (4-10), which is the equation that
is solved in the computer. This equation is written in
either the explicit (equation 4-9a) or implicit (equation
4-9b) form to extrapolate the present value of P to the
future.
This example illustrates how nite-dierence
schemes can solve dierential equations in the com-
puter. The scalar wave equation can be treated in a
similar, but more complicated manner. Complications
arise because it is a partial dierential equation that
contains the second derivatives of the waveeld with re-
spect to depth, time, and spatial axes. Setting up the
computer algorithm is more involved and is not dis-
cussed here. Claerbout (1976, 1985) provides details of
various aspects of the nite-dierence migration meth-
ods.
Rational Approximations for Implicit Schemes
The scalar wave equation is a two-way wave equation in
depth that describes propogation of both upcoming and
downgoing waves. If we consider the resulting waveeld
from the exploding reectors model as the upcoming
waves, then we are really interested in a one-way wave
equation to downward continue the upcoming waves. In
fact, we normally use some rational approximation to
the one-way wave equation in nite-dierence imple-
mentations.
To get the actual dierential equation to be used
in downward extrapolation of the upcoming waves, and
therefore to perform a nite-dierence migration, the
general strategy is as follows:
(a) Start with the two-way scalar wave equation:
2
P
x
2
+
2
P
z
2
1
v
2
(x, z)
2
P
t
2
= 0, (4 12)
where x and z are the space variables, t is the time
variable, v is the velocity of wave propagation, and
P(x, z, t) is the pressure waveeld.
(b) Assume constant velocity and perform 3-D Fourier
transform of the pressure waveeld. This is equiv-
alent to substituting the plane-wave solution
exp(ik
x
x+ik
z
z it) to equation (4-12). The sub-
stitution yields the dispersion relation between the
transform variables
k
z
=
_
2
v
2
k
2
x
, (4 13a)
where k
x
and k
z
are the wavenumbers in the x
and z directions, and is the angular temporal
frequency.
(c) We are interested in upcoming waves, hence we
only need one of the two solutions. We also want to
invoke the exploding reector model by replacing v
by v/2 to obtain the following paraxial dispersion
relation
k
z
=
2
v
1
_
vk
x
2
_
2
, (4 13b)
where the horizontal wavenumber k
x
has been nor-
malized with respect to 2/v.
(d) Make a rational approximation to the square-root
expression in equation (4-13b) so as to derive a
dierential equation (Sections D.3 and D.4). This
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490 Seismic Data Analysis
approximation imposes a dip limitation to the dif-
ferential equation. One approximation to the dis-
persion relation given by equation (4-13b) is ob-
tained by Taylor expansion of the square root and
retaining the rst two terms in the series (Section
D.3)
k
z
=
2
v
_
1
1
2
_
vk
x
2
_
2
_
. (4 14a)
This dispersion equation is known as the 15-degree
approximation and is the basis for the rst nite-
dierence time migration algorithm developed by
Claerbout and Doherty (1972). Albeit no longer in
use, we shall review the 15-degree nite-dierence
algorithm for its historical signicance.
(e) Operate on the pressure waveeld P(k
x
, k
z
, ) with
the approximate form of the dispersion relation
given by equation (4-14a), and inverse Fourier
transform in the z direction to get the dierential
form of the approximate one-way wave equation.
z
P(k
x
, z, ) = i
2
v
_
1
1
2
_
vk
x
2
_
2
_
P(k
x
, z, ).
(4 14b)
(f) Recall from Figure 4.1-17 that, after each
downward-continuation step, we retard the wave-
eld by translating it in time so that after migra-
tion, events appear in their correct depth locations.
The time retardation is done by applying a linear
phase shift to the pressure waveeld P
Q = P exp(i), (4 15a)
where the retarded time is
=
_
z
0
dz
v(z)
, (4 15b)
and Q is the retarded waveeld. The velocity v(z) is
the horizontally averaged v(x, z). Substitute equa-
tion (4-15a) into (4-14b) to obtain the dieren-
tial equation associated with the 15-degree nite-
dierence algorithm in two parts
2
Q
zt
=
v
4
2
Q
x
2
, (4 16a)
and
Q
z
= 2
_
1
v(z)
1
v(x, z)
_
Q
t
, (4 16b)
where Q is the retarded waveeld. Derivation
of equations (4-16a,b) is based on the assump-
tion that velocity varies vertically. Nevertheless,
in practice, the velocity function in equations (4-
16a,b) can be varied laterally, provided the varia-
tion is smooth. Equation (4-16a) accounts for col-
lapsing diraction energy to the apex of the trav-
eltime curve only. Hence, it is referred to as the
diraction term. When lateral velocity variations
are signicant, the diraction curve is somewhat
like a skewed hyperbola with its apex shifted later-
ally away from the diraction source. This lateral
shift is accounted for by the thin-lens term given
by equation (4-16b) (Section D.3). If the lateral
velocity variations are signicant, then the thin-
lens term is not negligible. Migration algorithms
that implement both the diraction and thin-lens
terms represented by equations (4-16a,b) generally
are two-step schemes that alternately solve these
two terms. To propagate one depth step, rst apply
the diraction term on waveeld Q. The thin-lens
term then is applied to the output from the dirac-
tion calculation. A migration method that includes
the eects of the thin-lens term is called depth mi-
gration, since the output section is in depth. Depth
migration is warranted if there are strong lateral
variations in velocity; in this case, the coecient
of the thin-lens term cannot be negligible. If we
assume that velocity varies only in the vertical di-
rection, then v(z) = v(x, z). This makes the thin-
lens term of equation (4-16b) vanish, and we are
left with the diraction term of equation (4-16a).
A migration method that implements the dirac-
tion term (equation 4-16a), only, is known as time
migration, the output of which is in time of equa-
tion (4-15b). When recast in terms of the vari-
able, equation (4-16a) takes the form
2
Q
t
=
v
2
8
2
Q
x
2
. (4 17)
This is the parabolic equation for time migration.
(g) Finally, write down the dierence forms of the dif-
ferential operators either in implicit form to be used
in nite-dierence solution of the parabolic equa-
tion (4-17) for migration.
Boundary and initial conditions are needed to solve
the dierential equations. The initial condition for mi-
gration is the recorded waveeld at the surface z = 0.
Also, in migration we assume that the waveeld is zero
after a maximum observation time, typically the end
time of the recorded trace. Then there are the side
boundaries, beyond which assumptions must be made
about the form of the waveeld.
In the (x, z, t) coordinates, the seismic section is
represented by the x t plane, while the migrated sec-
tion (earth) is represented by the x z plane. Finite-
dierence migration, as discussed here, extrapolates the
x t plane in nite increments of z and outputs the
waveeld at t = 0 at each step (Figure 4.1-19).
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Migration 491
FIG. 4.1-19. The seismic section represented by the x t
plane at the surface z = 0 is downward continued to obtain
the time sections at discrete depth levels. The direction of
extrapolation is indicated by the thick arrow. The migrated
section is represented by the x z plane at t = 0.
There are two ways to downward continue the
waveeld recorded at the surface in the computer (Fig-
ure 4.1-20). Starting with the waveeld at the surface
z = 0 represented by the vectors in x s
1
, s
2
, s
3
, . . .,
which are perpendicular to the page, we can compute
the waveeld at dierent depth levels using the order of
the computation shown in Figure 4.1-20a. Assume zero
value for the bottom of the extrapolated waveeld at
each depth step. So, for example, using s
7
, s
8
, and 0,
compute the waveeld at position 1. Then use s
6
, s
7
,
and the waveeld already computed at position 1, com-
pute that at position 2, and so on. Notice that, in this
scheme, we compute the waveeld at all times for one
depth step, then compute the waveeld at all times for
the next depth step, followed by the next depth step,
and so on. Hence, this is called the z-outer computa-
tional scheme.
The alternate scheme involves a dierent order of
computation (Figure 4.1-20b). First, compute the wave-
eld at one time for all depths, then using those al-
ready computed values, compute the waveeld at the
next shallower time for all depths, and so on. Hence
this is called the t-outer computational scheme.
In both schemes, the output migrated section is ob-
tained by collecting the diagonal elements. Depending
on the depth step size, which can be conveniently de-
ned as the number of time samples, one collects one or
more samples at each depth level. In the example shown
FIG. 4.1-20. Two algorithmic schemes to downward con-
tinue waveelds in the computer: (a) z-outer, and (b) t-
outer. The midpoint axis is perpendicular to the plane of
the paper. In both schemes, the CMP-stacked data are rep-
resented by the s-column at z = 0 (Claerbout, 1976).
in Figure 4.1-20, there are two samples from each depth
step collected into the migrated section.
Reverse Time Migration
Another migration method, known as reverse time mi-
gration (Baysal et al., 1983), extrapolates an initially
zero x z plane backward in time, bringing in the seis-
mic data P(x, z = 0, t) as a boundary condition z = 0
at each time step to compute snapshots of the x z
plane at dierent times. At time t = 0, this x z plane
contains the migration result P(x, z, t = 0) (Figure 4.1-
21).
The algorithmic structure for the reverse time mi-
gration is illustrated schematically in Figure 4.1-22.
Start with the x t section at the surface, z = 0. Also,
consider an xz frame at t
max
. This frame is blank ex-
cept for the rst row which is equal to the bottom row
of the xt section at t
max
. Extrapolate this snapshot at
t = t
max
to t = t
max
t by using the phase-shift oper-
ator exp(it). This yields a new snapshot of the xz
frame at t = t
max
t. The rst row of numbers in this
frame is identical to the row in the x t plane the
original unmigrated section, at t = t
max
t. Hence,
replace the rst row in the snapshot at t = t
max
t
with the row of the x t section at t = t
max
t
and continue the extrapolation back in time. The last
snapshot is at t = 0 that represents the nal migrated
section.
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492 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.1-21. Reverse time migration: Start with an all-zero
x z plane at the bottom of the data cube and extrapolate
backward in time toward t = 0 to compute snapshots of the
x z plane at dierent times. These snapshots of the sub-
surface are indicated by the horizontal planes; the direction
of extrapolation reverse in time, is indicated by the thick
arrow. At each time level, include the boundary value (x-
slice at z = 0, indicated by the dotted lines) into the x z
plane from the seismic section. The migrated section is the
x z plane at t = 0 (the top horizontal plane).
Frequency-Space Implicit Schemes
As discussed in Section 4.3, in practice the 15-degree
nite-dierence migration can handle dips up to 35 de-
grees with sucient accuracy. A steep-dip approxima-
tion to equation (4-13b) is achieved by continued frac-
tions expansion (Section D.4) as
k
z
=
2
v
_
1
v
2
k
2
x
8
2
1
1
v
2
k
2
x
16
2
_
. (4 18)
This dispersion equation is known as the 45-degree ap-
proximation and is the basis of the most common imple-
mentation of steep-dip implicit nite-dierence schemes
(Kjartansson, 1979).
Refer to the steps described earlier and replace the
Taylor expansion given by equation (4-14a) with the
continued fractions expansion given by equation (4-18).
Follow the subsequent steps to derive the correspond-
ing dierential equation associated with the 45-degree
diraction term (Section D.4):
i
v
4
3
Q
zx
2
2
Q
x
2
+ i
4
v
Q
z
= 0, (4 19a)
FIG. 4.1-22. An algorithmic description of reverse time
migration.
where Q(x, z, ) is the retarded waveeld in the
frequency-space domain.
When recast for time migration, equation (4-19a)
becomes (Section D.4):
i
1
2
3
Q
x
2
2
Q
x
2
+ i
8
v
2
Q
= 0, (4 19b)
where is the time variable associated with the mi-
grated data.
Note that dropping the rst term in equation (4-
19a) and inverse Fourier transforming in time yields the
15-degree diraction equation (4-16a). Similarly, drop-
ping the rst term in equation (4-19b) yileds the 15-
degree equation (4-17) for time migration.
As for the 15-degree equation, the thin-lens equa-
tion (4-16b) also applies for the 45-degree equation.
When implemented in the frequency-space domain, the
thin-lens term is represented by the phase-shift oper-
ator of equation (4-15a). Again, the nal step in the
procedure is to write down the dierence forms of the
dierential operators in implicit form to be used in
nite-dierence solution of the 45-degree equation (4-
19) for migration. Kjartansson (1979) provides an im-
plicit scheme in which the extrapolation is in z. Never-
theless, as for the 15-degree equation (4-17), it is trivial
to adapt his scheme for time migration with the extrap-
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Migration 493
FIG. 4.1-23. An algorithmic description of frequency-space
migration.
olation in of equation (4-15b). The phase-shift op-
erator of equation (4-15a) is velocity-dependent when
implemented for depth migration, and it is velocity-
independent when implemented for time migration.
The 45-degree approximation given by equation (4-
19b) actually is fairly accurate in practice up to 60 de-
grees. As described in Section D.4, the basic 45-degree
equation (4-19b) also can be adapted to obtain extrapo-
lation schemes for imaging steeper dips up to 90 degrees.
Nevertheless, a penalty is paid for steep-dip accuracy in
terms of dispersive noise incurred by implicit schemes
(Section 4.3).
Steep-dip nite-dierence algorithms may be more
conveniently implemented in the frequency-space do-
main than in the time-space domain. A general frame-
work for implementing such algorithms involve a loop
over the depth step z, and a loop over the frequency
(Figure 4.1-23). For each depth step:
(a) Apply the shift term (equation 4-15a).
(b) Apply the diraction term (equation 4-19) by per-
forming implicit extrapolation of each of the fre-
quency components of the waveeld.
(c) Sum over the frequencies to invoke the imaging
principle which is equivalent to setting t = 0.
(d) Repeat the computation for all the depth steps to
complete the imaging.
Frequency-Space Explicit Schemes
Start with the paraxial dispersion relation given by
equation (4-13b) adapted to the exploding reectors
model. Operate on the pressure waveeld P and in-
verse Fourier transform in z to obtain the dierential
equation
z
P(k
x
, z, ) = ik
z
P(k
x
, z, ), (4 20)
whose solution can be used to extrapolate the waveeld
at the surface down in depth
P(k
x
, z, ) = P(k
x
, 0, ) exp(ik
z
z). (4 21)
For a discrete depth step z, equation (4-21) takes
the form
P(z + z) = P(z) exp(ik
z
z), (4 22a)
where, for convenience, the variables k
x
and have been
omitted from P.
When designing extrapolation operators, whatever
the dierencing scheme, the objective must be to en-
sure that the phase and amplitude of the actual op-
erator closely resembles those of the desired operator
exp(ik
z
z).
Discretize the one-way wave equation (4-20) and
apply dierencing approximation using an explicit
scheme such as
P(z + z) = P(z)
_
1 ik
z
z
_
, (4 22b)
and an implicit scheme (Section D.6):
P(z + z) = P(z)
_
1 ik
z
z/2
1 + ik
z
z/2
_
. (4 22c)
The explicit extrapolation operator (1 k
z
z) of
equation (4-22b) actually is the rst two terms of the
Taylor expansion of the exact operator exp(ik
z
z) of
equation (4-22a). Table 4-5 provides the amplitude and
phase of the exact, explicit and implicit operators used
in equations (4-22a,b,c) for waveeld exptrapolation in
depth.
A desired property of an extrapolation operator is
that it must be stable its amplitude should be less or
equal to unity. The implicit operator dened by equa-
tion (4-22c) is stable, while the explicit operator dened
by equation (4-22b) causes amplitudes of the extrapo-
lated waveeld grow with depth (Section D.6). In fact,
the larger the depth step z, the more unstable are
the results of extrapolation. Another desired property
of an extrapolation operator is that it should yield the
least phase error. The inherently stable nature of im-
plicit schemes has been the compelling reason for their
use in practice. Recent developments in the design of
stable explicit schemes, however, now have made them
widely accepted (Holberg, 1988; Hale, 1991; Soubaras,
1992).
In principle, the exact extrapolation operator in
equation (4-22a) can be inverse Fourier transformed to
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494 Seismic Data Analysis
Table 4-5. Amplitude and phase of the exact, explicit
and implicit extrapolation operators used in equations
(4-22a,b,c). See Section D.6 for details.
Operator Amplitude Phase
Exact
exp(ik
z
z) 1 k
z
z
Explicit
1 ik
z
z
_
1 + (k
z
z)
2
tan
1
(k
z
z)
Implicit
1 ik
z
z/2
1 + ik
z
z/2
1 tan
1
_
k
z
z
1 (k
z
z/2)
2
_
frequency-space ( x) domain and applied to P(z) in
an explicit manner. Each output sample of P(z + z)
at some x location for a frequency and velocity v is
computed independently by convolving an explicit l-
ter operator of a specied length centered at the out-
put location x with the input data array P(z) in the x
direction. In contrast, implicit schemes require solving
a set of linear equations to obtain the output samples
of P(z + z) computationally more intensive than
convolution. Eciency is an advantage of the explicit
schemes over the implicit schemes.
Another attractive property of stable explicit
schemes is their extension to 3-D extrapolation that pre-
serves circular symmetry a feature that is relatively
more dicult to attain with implicit schemes (Section
7.3).
Whether an explicit lter is computed by inverse
transforming the exact lter exp(ik
z
z) of equation
(4-22a) to the frequency-space domain or by Taylor ex-
pansion as in equation (4-22b), the problem is that nei-
ther approach yields a stable lter operator. A stable ex-
plicit extrapolation lter in the frequency-space domain
can be designed using a constrained least-squares tech-
nique (Holberg, 1988), or by a modied Taylor series
expansion of the exact extrapolation lter exp(ik
z
z)
(Hale, 1991). Another method of explicit operator de-
sign based on on an alternative stability criterion is pre-
sented by Soubaras (1992).
By substituting for k
z
from equation (4-13b), the
exact extrapolation lter exp(ik
z
z) of equation (4-
22a) is expressed in the frequency-wavenumber domain
as
D(k
x
) = exp
_
i
2
v
1
_
vk
x
2
_
2
z
_
. (4 23)
The objective is to nd, for a specic frequency
and velocity v, a symmetric explicit lter with com-
plex coecients h(x) in the frequency-space domain
such that, when Fourier transformed to the frequency-
wavenumber domain, the dierence between the actual
transform H(k
x
) and the desired transform D(k
x
) of
equation (4-23) is minimum, subject to the stability
constraint that the amplitude of H(k
x
) is never greater
than unity within the propagation region k
x
(2/v).
Details of the method of modied Taylor expansion
based on this design criterion by Hale (1991) are de-
scribed in Section D.5.
As for the implicit schemes (Figure 4.1-23), a mi-
gration algorithm based on an explicit extrapolation l-
ter design involves a loop over the depth step z and a
loop over frequency . For each depth step:
(a) Convolve the explicit extrapolation lter h(x) with
each of the frequency components of the waveeld.
(b) Sum over the frequencies to invoke the imaging
principle which is equivalent to setting t = 0.
(c) Repeat the computation for all the depth steps to
complete the imaging.
The length of the lter coecients h(x) determines
the dip accuracy of the explicit operator. The larger
the number of lter coecients 2N +1, the steeper the
dip accuracy. In practice, extrapolation lter lengths 7,
11, and 25 are often associated with 30-, 50-, and 70-
degree dip accuracies. Phase error of the extrapolation
operator at steep dips may be reduced by increasing the
number of coecients. Also, lateral velocity variations
can be accommodated by varying the velocity at each
x location of the lter coecient.
Frequency-Wavenumber Migration
Frequency-wavenumber (fk) migration is not as easily
explained as the Kirchho or nite-dierence migration
from a physical point of view. Chun and Jacewitz (1981)
provide practical insight into the principles of f k
migration.
In Section 1.2, we learned that dipping events in
the t x domain map onto the f k domain along ra-
dial lines. The steeper the dip, the closer the radial line
is to the wavenumber axis. Figure 4.1-24 shows dipping
events before and after migration in the t x and f k
domains. The Nyquist wavenumber is 20 cycles/km and
the bandwidth is given by the corner frequencies 6, 12
- 36, 48 Hz for the passband region of the spectrum.
(See Figure 1.1-26 for the denition of corner frequen-
cies.) The red is associated with the at part of the
passband region and the blue is associated with the ta-
per zone. Note that migration rotates the radial lines
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Migration 495
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496 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.1-25. Migration in the f k domain. (Migration in
the t x domain is illustrated in Figure 4.1-1.) (a) A dip-
ping reector is represented by a radial line OB in the f k
plane. (b) After migration, the radial line OB maps onto an-
other radial line OB
. The horizontal
wavenumber is invariant under migration. For comparison,
the f k response of the dipping event before migration (a)
has been superimposed on the f k response after migration
(b). (Adapted from Chun and Jacewitz, 1981.)
in the 2-D amplitude spectrum outward and away from
the frequency axis. The steepest event represented by
radial line A maps onto radial line B after migration.
The feather-like energy especially prominent in the left
quadrant of the f k spectrum is associated with the
anks of the diraction hyperbolas in the t x domain.
The energy associated with the left anks which are
dipping opposite to the dipping reections maps onto
the left quadrant of the f k plane. And the energy
associated with the right anks of the diraction hy-
perbolas that are dipping in the same direction as that
of the dipping reections maps onto the right quadrant
of the f k plane and is superimposed on the energy
associated with the dipping reections themselves.
Migration of a dipping event in the f k domain is
sketched in Figure 4.1-25. Note that this gure is the f
k equivalent of Figure 4.1-1. In both gures, we assume
velocity equal to 1. The vertical axis in Figure 4.1-25
represents the temporal frequency for the event in its
unmigrated position B, and the vertical wavenumber k
z
for the event in its migrated position B
.
Migration in the frequency-wavenumber domain in-
volves mapping the lines of constant frequency AB in
the k
x
plane to circles AB
in the k
z
k
x
plane.
Therefore, migration maps point B vertically onto point
B
k
x
rather than to k
z
k
x
, where
is the Fourier
dual of and is simply k
z
of equation (4-13b) scaled by
v/2 (Section D.3):
1
_
vk
x
2
_
2
. (4 25)
One important concept must be pointed out from
equation (4-25). Note that for a constant k
x
,
< ;
thus, migration shifts the bandwidth to lower frequen-
cies. This is analogous to the conclusion derived in rela-
tion to the NMO correction, since the latter also causes
data stretching to lower frequencies (Section 3.1). The
implication from equation (4-25) is demonstrated by
the dipping events model in Figure 4.1-24. While the
bandwidth of the zero-dip event is retained after mi-
gration, the bandwidth of the event with steepest dip
has shifted from approximately 40 Hz to 36 Hz at the
high-frequency end of the spectrum. In fact, the shift in
bandwidth is dip-dependent; events with dierent dips
which have the same bandwidth before migration will
have dierent bandwidths after migration.
Summary of Domains of Migration Algorithms
Migration algorithms described in this section are based
on the assumption that the input stacked section rep-
resents a zero-oset acoustic waveeld. As such, these
algorithms are all based on the scalar wave equation
(4-12). Table 4-6 provides a list of the migration al-
gorithms described in this section with the associated
design and application domains. While there exist sev-
eral other migration algorithms, those listed in Table
4-6 are the most widely used in practice.
Also included in Table 4-6 are the types of velocity
elds and dips each migration algorithm can accommo-
date. It is clear that each algorithm is limited by either
the type of velocity variations or dip ranges. Therefore,
each has an appropriate usage in practice depending
on eld data and velocity characteristics (Section 4.0).
Note that the lateral velocity variations implied by the
velocity elds in Table 4-6 are mild to moderate and
are within the bounds of time migration. Additionally,
the choice of migration algorithm depends on whether
your objective is imaging or migration velocity analysis.
While imaging is the subject of this chapter, migration
velocity analysis is discussed in Chapter 5.
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502 Seismic Data Analysis
Table 4-6. Domains of migration algorithms.
Algorithm Domain Dips and
Velocities
Kirchho t x up to 90 deg
Summation time-space rms v(x, )
Finite-Dierence t x up to 35 deg
15-deg Implicit time-space int v(x, )
Finite-Dierence x up to 65 deg
45-deg Implicit frequency-space int v(x, )
Finite-Dierence x up to 80 deg
70-deg Explicit frequency-space int v(x, )
Phase-Shift k
x
up to 90 deg
freq.-wavenumber int v()
Stolt Method k
x
up to 90 deg
with Stretch freq.-wavenumber rms v(x, )
4.2 KIRCHHOFF MIGRATION
IN PRACTICE
In this and the following three sections, the parameters
that aect performance of Kirchho summation, nite-
dierence, and fk migration methods are discussed. In
Kirchho migration, the important parameters are the
aperture width used in summation and the maximum
dip to migrate. In nite-dierence and phase-shift mi-
grations, the depth step size needs to be selected prop-
erly. The stretch factor is important in Stolt migration.
The responses of these methods to velocity errors also
are examined. All practical aspects are discussed using
synthetic models of two zero-oset sections a model
of dipping-events and a model of a diraction hyper-
bola. Real data examples also are used to evaluate the
choice of optimum parameters.
In Sections 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5, migration re-
sults of dierent algorithms using various parameters
are compared with a desired migration. In all cases,
this desired migration was obtained using the phase-
shift method with appropriate parameters and veloci-
ties. This does not imply that the phase-shift method
always provides a desirable output; it only means that
the data examples in this section were chosen so that
the phase-shift algorithm is appropriate. The choice of
the phase-shift method was a compromise; it handles
dips of up to 90 degrees and velocities that can only
vary vertically.
Before a migration algorithm is used on eld data,
its impulse response must be tested. A band-limited im-
pulse response is generated by using an input that con-
tains an isolated wavelet on one trace only To also limit
the spatial bandwidth, this trace is replicated on either
side with the wavelet amplitude halved. The ideal mi-
gration algorithm should produce an impulse response
that has the shape of a semicircle. Kirchho migration
produces the section shown in Figure 4.2-1d. The im-
pulse response indicates that Kirchho migration can
accurately handle dips up to 90 degrees. The dip on
a migration impulse response is measured as the angle
between the vertical and a specied radial direction.
Note that migration can be limited to smaller dips (Fig-
ure 4.2-1).
Aperture Width
From the previous section, we know that Kirchho
migration involves a summation of amplitudes along
diraction hyperbolas. Given the rms velocity at a par-
ticular time sample of a particular input trace, a hyper-
bolic traveltime trajectory associated with a ctitious
diractor is overlaid on the input section with its apex
at that time sample. In theory, a diraction hyperbola
extends to innite time and distance. In practice, we
have to deal with a truncated hyperbolic summation
path. The spatial extent that the actual summation
path spans, called the migration aperture, is measured
in terms of the number of traces the hyperbolic path
spans.
FIG. 4.2-1. Migration can be conned to a range of dips
present on a seismic section. The impulse response for the
dip-limited migration operator is a truncated semicircle. Dip
angle is measured from the vertical axis.
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Migration 503
FIG. 4.2-2. Summation paths for Kirchho migration in a medium with (a) low velocity (2000 m/s), (b) high velocity (4000
m/s), and (c) vertically varying velocity. Migration aperture is small for low velocities and large for high velocities.
The curvature of the diraction hyperbola is gov-
erned by the velocity function. Figure 4.2-2a shows
a number of low-velocity diraction hyperbolas, while
Figure 4.2-2b shows a number of high-velocity hyper-
bolas. A low-velocity hyperbola has a narrower aper-
ture when compared to a high-velocity hyperbola. This
agrees with our intuition high velocity means more
migration. In practice, we deal with a velocity function
that at least varies with depth. The diraction hyperbo-
las can have dierent curvatures depending on the ve-
locity value at a given time sample (Figure 4.2-2c). Be-
cause of the vertical variation in velocity, aperture width
generally is time variant. For the usual case in which
velocity increases with depth, migration of the shallow
part of the section requires a narrow aperture, while
migration of the deep portion requires a wider aperture
(Figure 4.2-2c). This implies that, given the same dip,
deep events migrate farther than shallow events.
Figure 4.2-3 shows a zero-oset diraction hyper-
bola (8 ms/trace dip along the asymptotes) and migra-
tions using four dierent aperture widths. The smaller
the aperture, the less capable the migration is in col-
lapsing the diraction hyperbola. In this case, use of an
aperture width that is equal to the width of the input
section (half aperture, 256 traces) yields the best result.
Figure 4.2-4 shows a synthetic zero-oset section
that consists of a number of dipping events ranging from
0 to 45 degrees in increments of 5 degrees. Aperture
width is related closely to the horizontal displacement
d
x
that takes place in migration as dened by equa-
tion (4-1). The number of traces an event migrates is
n
x
= d
x
/x, where x is the CMP interval. Therefore,
the aperture width that is required is 2n
x
+1. Figure 4.2-
4 also shows Kirchho migrations of the dipping events
using four dierent aperture widths. Small-aperture mi-
gration eliminates steeply dipping events on the output
section. Increasing the aperture width allows proper mi-
gration of the steeply dipping events. From this we see
that using too small an aperture width causes a dip l-
tering action during migration, because a small aperture
excludes the steeper anks of the diraction hyperbola
from the summation.
For any given event position in time t before mi-
gration, the optimal value for the aperture width is de-
ned by twice the maximum horizontal displacement in
migration for the steepest dip of interest in the input
section. In this case, the horizontal displacement asso-
ciated with the 45-degree dipping event is computed by
substituting the values for v = 3500 m/s, x = 25 m,
t / x = 12 ms/trace, where t = 2 s in equation (4-1).
The value for the horizontal displacement is 118 traces,
giving an aperture width of 237 traces. Typically, we
consider somewhat larger values to allow for velocity
errors.
A good way to determine aperture width is to gen-
erate diraction hyperbolas as shown in Figure 4.2-2c
using the regionally averaged, vertically varying veloc-
ity. Clearly, the larger the aperture width, the more
traces are used in the summation. For the dipping
events in Figure 4.2-4, the optimal value of the half-
aperture width is 150 traces; increasing the width to
300 traces resulted in no further improvement.
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504 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.2-3. Tests for aperture width in Kirchho migration: (a) a zero-oset section that contains a diraction hyperbola with
2500-m/s velocity, (b) desired migration using the phase-shift method; Kirchho migration using (c) 35-trace, (d) 70-trace,
(e) 150-trace, and (f) 256-trace half-aperture width.
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Migration 505
FIG. 4.2-4. Tests for aperture width in Kirchho migration: (a) a zero-oset section that contains dipping events with
3500-m/s velocity, (b) desired migration using the phase-shift method; Kirchho migration using (c) 35-trace, (d) 70-trace,
(e) 150-trace, and (f) 256-trace half-aperture width.
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506 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.2-5. Tests for aperture width in Kirchho migration: Insucient aperture width causes removal of steeply dipping
events.
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FIG. 4.2-6. Tests for aperture width in Kirchho migration: Insucient aperture width causes spurious horizontal events in
deep, noisy part of a stacked section.
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508 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.2-7. Tests for aperture width in Kirchho migration: Input to migration is a section (a) that contains band-limited
random noise uncorrelated from trace to trace. Note the spurious horizontal events in the deeper part of the section after
migration using small aperture (60 traces); these gradually disappear at increasingly larger apertures.
A test of aperture width on the CMP stacked data
example is shown in Figure 4.2-5. The small-aperture
migration causes smearing in the deeper part of the sec-
tion. This smearing eect destroys the dipping events
and produces spurious horizontally dominant events.
Smearing is reduced gradually with increasing aperture.
Figure 4.2-6 is the deeper portion of a stacked sec-
tion with migrations using dierent aperture sizes. The
smearing eect is much more noticeable at small aper-
ture. The main dierence between the stacked sections
in Figures 4.2-5 and 4.2-6 is that the latter, being deeper
in time, contains a large amount of noise. This smearing
phenomenon was not noticed in the noise-free synthetic
model in Figure 4.2-4. We now see that choice of aper-
ture width is more critical than we originally thought.
In particular, a small aperture changes the noise char-
acteristics of the section.
Why do we see horizontally dominant smearing
with small-aperture migration? To answer this, we must
do a simple experiment with a section that contains only
random noise and the velocity function used in migra-
tion increases in time (Figure 4.2-7a). We see two inter-
esting phenomena on the migrated sections using three
dierent apertures. First, in all three cases there is more
smearing of noise in the deeper part of the data, where
the velocities generally are higher than in the shallower
part. Second, there is relatively more smearing in the
small-aperture migration compared with others at a
given time in the section. Moreover, this smearing is
characterized by horizontally dominant spurious events,
especially in the deeper part of the section. Note that
even with a large aperture, some smearing still is present
in the deepest part of the section in Figure 4.2-7d. As
indicated in Figure 4.2-2b, because summation stops at
the bottom of the section, the eective aperture (CD)
at late times is much smaller than that used in other
parts of the section (AB). Remember that summation
using very small aperture includes only the apex por-
tion of the diraction hyperbola, where dips are nearly
at. Therefore, the small aperture with a dip ltering
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Migration 509
action passes at or nearly at events those hori-
zontal wavenumber components that are zero or nearly
zero.
In conclusion, the following assessments are made
concerning the choice of aperture width.
(a) Excessively small aperture width causes destruc-
tion of steeply dipping events and rapidly varying
amplitude changes.
(b) Excessively small aperture width organizes random
noise, especially in the deeper part of the section,
as horizontally dominant spurious events.
(c) Excessively large aperture means more computer
time. More importantly, large apertures can de-
grade the migration quality in poor signal-to-noise
ratio conditions. Use of large aperture will cause
random noise at late times to creep into the good
shallow data. Aperture width always is a compro-
mise with noise.
(d) Sometimes it is better to use a smaller aperture
than would theoretically be required to avoid the
adverse eect of noise on the migrated event. Noise
considerations may even require a time-dependent
aperture width.
(e) It is recommended that the aperture width be kept
constant in migrating all lines from a particular
survey so that an overall uniformity in amplitude
characteristics on the migrated sections is main-
tained.
In practice, a regional velocity function and the steepest
dip in a survey area are used to compute the optimal
aperture width that can be used over the entire set of
data from the area (equation 4-1).
Maximum Dip to Migrate
During migration, we can specify the maximum dip
we want migrated in the section. This may be useful
when we need to suppress the steeply dipping coher-
ent noise. Figure 4.2-8 shows migrations of the dipping
events with four dierent maximum allowable dips. For
a 4 ms/trace dip limit, events with dips greater than
this value are suppressed. Similarly, for an 8 ms/trace
dip value, events with dips greater than this value are
suppressed. When the dip value is 12 ms/trace, no sup-
pression occurs, since all events in the input section have
dips less than this value. Limiting the dip parameter is
a way to reduce computational cost, since it is related
to aperture width (equation 4-1), which determines the
cost.
From Figure 4.2-1, note that the Kirchho migra-
tion impulse response can be limited to various max-
imum dips. The smaller the maximum allowable dip,
the smaller the aperture. This combination of maximum
aperture width and maximum dip limit determines the
actual eective aperture width used in migration. In
particular, diraction hyperbolas along which summa-
tion is done are truncated beyond the specied maxi-
mum dip limit.
A eld data example of testing the maximum dip
parameter is shown in Figure 4.2-9. Some steep dips are
lost on the section that corresponds to the 2 ms/trace
maximum allowable dip. The 8 ms/trace dip appears
to be optimum. The maximum dip parameter must be
chosen carefully so that the steep dips of interest in the
input section are preserved. Finally, dip value can be
changed spatially and in time; however, practical im-
plementation can be cumbersome.
Velocity Errors
We now examine the response of Kirchho migration
to velocity errors. Figure 4.2-10 shows the diraction
hyperbola and migrations using the 2500 m/s medium
velocity, and 5, 10, and 20 percent lower velocities. With
increasingly lower velocities, the diraction hyperbola is
collapsed less and less taking the shape of a frown it
is undermigrated.
Figure 4.2-11 shows the same diraction hyperbola
and migrations using the 2500 m/s medium velocity,
and 5, 10, and 20 percent higher velocities. With in-
creasingly higher velocities, the the diraction hyper-
bola is inverted more and more taking the shape of a
smile it is overmigrated.
The under-and overmigration eects resulting from
the use of erroneously low or high velocities on the dip-
ping events model are seen in Figures 4.2-12 and 4.2-
13, respectively. Label the correct position of the event
with the steepest dip from the desired migration on the
results of migrations with dierent velocities and note
the event mispositioning caused by erroneously low and
high velocities. Compare with the desired migration and
also note that the steeper the dip the more the under-
and overmigration eect. Sensitivity of migration to ve-
locity errors can be measured quantitatively via equa-
tions 4-1 and 4-2.
From the migrated sections in Figure 4.2-14, note
that the bow tie becomes increasingly less resolved at
lower velocities; this indicates undermigration.
Figure 4.2-15 shows a CMP-stacked section and
the desired migration. The steep left ank of the salt
dome has been imaged with acceptable accuracy. The
accuracy of the imaging of the slightly overturned right
(text continues on p. 520)
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510 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.2-8. Tests for maximum dip to migrate in Kirchho migration: (a) a zero-oset section that contains a diraction
hyperbola with 2500-m/s velocity, (b) desired migration; Kirchho migration using (c) 4-ms/trace, (d) 8-ms/trace, (e) 12-
ms/trace, and (f) 24-ms/trace maximum dip.
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Migration 511
FIG. 4.2-9. Tests for maximum dip to migrate in Kirchho migration: A low value for maximum dip to migrate can be
hazardous. All dips of interest must be preserved during migration.
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512 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.2-10. Tests for velocity errors in Kirchho migration: (a) a zero-oset section that contains a diraction hyperbola
with 2500-m/s velocity, (b) desired migration; Kirchho migration using (c) the medium velocity of 2500 m/s, (d) 5 percent
lower, (e) 10 percent lower, and (f) 20 percent lower velocity.
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Migration 513
FIG. 4.2-11. Tests for velocity errors in Kirchho migration: (a) a zero-oset section that contains a diraction hyperbola
with 2500-m/s velocity, (b) desired migration; Kirchho migration using (c) the medium velocity of 2500 m/s, (d) 5 percent
higher, (e) 10 percent higher, and (f) 20 percent higher velocity.
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514 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.2-12. Tests for velocity errors in Kirchho migration: (a) a zero-oset section that contains dipping events with
3500-m/s velocity, (b) desired migration; Kirchho migration using (c) the medium velocity of 3500 m/s, (d) 5 percent lower,
(e) 10 percent lower, and (f) 20 percent lower velocity.
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Migration 515
FIG. 4.2-13. Tests for velocity errors in Kirchho migration: (a) a zero-oset section that contains dipping events with
3500-m/s velocity, (b) desired migration; Kirchho migration using (c) the medium velocity of 3500 m/s, (d) 5 percent higher,
(e) 10 percent higher, and (f) 20 percent higher velocity.
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516 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.2-14. Tests for velocity errors in Kirchho migration: Undermigration manifested as inadequate handling of the
bowtie is caused by the use of velocities lower than those considered to be medium velocities.
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Migration 517
FIG. 4.2-15. (a) A CMP-stacked section, and (b) migration using the phase-shift method. Event A is the water-bottom
multiple, and Event B is the peg-leg multiple associated with the top-salt boundary. These multiples are respectively denoted
by Events C and D on the migrated section.
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518 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.2-16. Tests for velocity errors in Kirchho migration using, from top to bottom, 100, 95, 90, and 80 percent of rms
velocities. The input stacked section is shown in Figure 4.2-15a and the desired migration using the phase-shift method is
shown in Figure 4.2-15b.
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Migration 519
FIG. 4.2-17. Tests for velocity errors in Kirchho migration using, from top to bottom, 100, 105, 110, and 120 percent of
rms velocities. The input stacked section is shown in Figure 4.2-15a and the desired migration using the phase-shift method
is shown in Figure 4.2-15b.
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520 Seismic Data Analysis
ank can only be inferred by the lateral positioning of
the gently dipping reections in the vicinity of the salt
ank.
Figure 4.2-16 shows results of Kirchho migration
of the stacked section in Figure 4.2-15 using velocities
lower than what may be optimum for imaging. While
the undermigration of the left ank of the salt dome
is not so evident, the steeply dipping reection o the
right ank intersects the gently dipping reections as-
sociated with the surrounding strata, thus providing a
clue for undermigration.
Figure 4.2-17 shows results of Kirchho migration
of the stacked section in Figure 4.2-15 using velocities
higher than what may be optimum for imaging. While
overmigration eects may be marginal on the section
with a small velocity error (105 percent of optimum ve-
locities), migration with higher velocity errors (110 and
120 percent of optimum velocities) shows signs of over-
migration in the form of crossing events along the left
ank of the salt diapir. Under- and overmigration eects
caused by large velocity errors often are detectable; nev-
ertheless, small velocity errors can cause subtle eects
making it dicult to judge whether there is under- or
overmigration. Uncertainties in migration velocities in-
evitably cause uncertainties in the interpretation made
from migrated sections or volumes of data. For instance,
the shape of the salt diapir inferred from the results
shown in Figures 4.2-16 and 4.2-17 varies signicantly
depending on the percent velocity errors.
4.3 FINITE-DIFFERENCE MIGRATION
IN PRACTICE
As described in Section 4.1, nite-dierence migration
is implemented using implicit and explicit schemes. In
this section, we shall include in our discussion the 15-
degree nite-dierence algorithm because of its histori-
cal signicance. Nevertheless, we shall primarily discuss
practical aspects of the steep-dip implicit and explicit
schemes in the frequency-space domain. Specically, we
shall deal with the impulse responses, depth step size
and response to velocity errors in implicit and explicit
schemes.
The rst nite-dierence migration algorithm that
was introduced to the seismic industry was based on
the parabolic approximation to the scalar wave equation
(Claerbout and Doherty, 1972). The algorithm was im-
plemented in the time-space domain and designed using
an implicit scheme. The parabolic approximation theo-
retically limits the algorithm to handling dips up to 15
degrees (Section D.3). Nevertheless, in practice, it can
handle dips up to 35 degrees with sucient accuracy
due to the bandlimited nature of seismic data. Steeper
dips, in principle, can be migrated by a cascaded appli-
cation of the 15-degree algorithm (Larner and Beasley,
1990).
Finite-dierence migration of stacked data cur-
rently is performed using steep-dip algorithms based
on the continued fractions expansion to the scalar wave
equation. This approximation provides a theoretical dip
accuracy up to 45 degrees. The basic 45-degree scheme
can be improved to handle steeper dips up to 80 de-
grees with reasonable accuracy (Section D.4). The 45-
degree nite-dierence algorithm commonly is imple-
mented using an implicit scheme in the frequency-space
domain.
First, as we did for the Kirchho migration, we ex-
amine the impulse response of the 15-degree implicit
scheme. The shape of the impulse response of a desired
migration algorithm with no dip limitation is a semicir-
cle. The shape of the impulse response of the 15-degree
equation is, in theory, an ellipse (Claerbout, 1985) as
seen in Figure 4.3-1. The nature of the dispersive noise
pattern inside the ellipse is discussed in the next section
on depth step size. Isolated noise spikes in eld data can
introduce such noise patterns on migrated sections.
The parts of the responses above the small circles in
Figure 4.3-1 correspond to the evanescent energy, while
the parts below the circles correspond to the propagat-
ing energy (Claerbout, 1985). The parts below the cir-
cles are the useful part of the response. The evanescent
FIG. 4.3-1. Desired impulse response of a 90-degree mi-
gration algorithm is a semicircle (top), while the impulse
response of the 15-degree migration algorithm is an ellipse
(bottom). The propagation zone is dened by the portion of
the ellipse below the small circles, and the evanescent zone
is dened by the portions above the small circles. For com-
parison, the desired response has been superimposed on the
impulse response of the 15-degree equation.
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Migration 521
FIG. 4.3-2. (a) CMP stack, (b) desired migration by phase-shift method, (c) 15-degree nite-dierence migration. The
nite-dierence migration based on the parabolic equation has the inherent property of undermigrating the steep ank of the
diraction and the steeply dipping event. See Figure 4.3-3 for a sketch of the migration results.
energy travels horizontally and is characterized by imag-
inary wavenumbers k
z
, which occur when the quantity
in the square root in equation (4-13b) becomes nega-
tive. This means that the evanscent region corresponds
to horizontal wavenumbers k
x
> 2/v. For negative k
z
,
the exact extrapolator exp(ik
z
z) is no longer a wave
propagator; instead, it causes waves to decay rapidly in
depth. Thus, evanescent energy is not expected to be
present in recorded waveelds. The impulse response of
the 15-degree nite-dierence algorithm, however, sug-
gests propagation in the region of evanescence. This is
not desirable; the parts of the elliptical wavefront above
the small circles should be removed. Use of a depth step
size that is greater than the input sampling rate tends
to suppress the response in the evanescent region. Ex-
cessively large depth steps, however, cause truncation of
the wavefront further into the propagating zone below
the small circles in Figure 4.3-1.
The impulse response (Figure 4.3-1) is used to
estimate the maximum dip that the implicit nite-
dierence algorithm can handle without serious ampli-
tude distortions or phase errors. This is done by super-
imposing the desired semicircular response and measur-
ing the angle between the indicated lines. Note from the
measured angle in Figure 4.3-1 that the 15-degree im-
plicit scheme can be used to migrate dips up to approx-
imately 35 degrees with sucient accuracy. This is pri-
marily because errors associated with nite-dierence
approximations used in particular implementations of
the 15-degree equation usually are adjusted to cancel
some of the theoretical error associated with the 15-
degree dierential equation.
The dip-limited nature of the parabolic equation
causes undermigration of steeply dipping events and
steep anks of diractions. This is demonstrated by the
eld data example in Figure 4.3-2. The two prominent
features, diraction D and dipping event B, are located
as shown in Figure 4.3-3 before and after migration.
Depth Step Size
Finite-dierence migration involves downward continu-
ation of the waveeld at the surface, such as a stacked
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522 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.3-3. A sketch of the diraction D and steeply dip-
ping event before (B) and after (A) desired migration from
the sections in Figure 4.3-2. The diraction and the dipping
event after nite-dierence migration using the parabolic
equation are denoted by FDD and FDB, respectively.
section, and invoking the imaging principle so as to cre-
ate an image of the subsurface at t = 0. The downward
continuation takes place in the computer at discrete
depth intervals (Section 4.1). Depth step size governs
performance of nite-dierence migration. Inappropri-
ate specication of this parameter can cause artifacts in
the migrated section. We want to choose an optimum
depth step size that is large for computational savings,
yet yields a tolerable error in positioning the events af-
ter migration.
Figure 4.3-4 shows the constant-velocity diraction
hyperbola and the 15-degree implicit nite-dierence
migrations using four dierent depth steps. Large depth
steps cause severe undermigration as well as kinks along
the ank of the diraction curve (especially apparent in
the 60- and 80-ms cases). At smaller depth steps, such
as the 20- and 40-ms cases, more energy collapses to the
apex, but the 15-degree scheme fails to achieve a com-
plete focusing of the energy at the apex of the hyper-
bola. Note also the dispersive noise that trails the unfo-
cused energy. The dip-limited nature of the 15-degree al-
gorithm, however, causes undermigration whatever the
depth step size (Figure 4.3-5).
Undermigration of the diraction energy along the
steep anks of the hyperbola is caused by the parabolic
approximation to the scalar wave equation. The dis-
persive noise that accompanies the undermigrated en-
ergy is an eect of approximating dierential operators
with dierence operators. The accuracy of this approxi-
mation decreases at large frequencies and wavenumbers
(Claerbout, 1985). Thus, the dispersive noise becomes
less with smaller trace spacing and sampling in depth
and time. For example, the dierence operator of equa-
tion (4-10) becomes an increasingly better approxima-
tion to the dierential operator of equation (4-11) as t
is made smaller. To emphasize more strongly the pres-
ence of the dispersive noise, migrated sections in Fig-
ures 4.3-4 and 4.3-5 have been displayed with the same
display gain level as the input section. The dispersion
normally is much less pronounced on eld data.
Figure 4.3-6 shows the dipping events model and
the 15-degree implicit nite-dierence migration results
using four dierent depth step sizes. We can make the
following inferences:
(a) Increasing depth step size causes more and more
undermigration at increasingly steep dips.
(b) The waveform along reectors is dispersed at steep
dips and large depth steps.
(c) Kinks occur along reectors at discrete intervals
that correspond to the depth step size. Kinks are
more pronounced at increasingly steeper dips.
The rst inference results from the parabolic ap-
proximation, the second from dierencing approxima-
tions, and the third from gradual undermigration to-
ward the base of each depth step. The kinks are good
for diagnostics; their presence indicates that the depth
step size that is used is too coarse for the dips present in
the data. In that case, smaller depth step size should be
used; then the kinks disappear altogether (Figure 4.3-
7). Nevertheless, kinks that characterize undermigra-
tion can be eliminated by a local adjustment of migra-
tion velocities or interpolation between the waveelds
at the adjacent depth steps.
It is apparent from Figure 4.3-6 that migration
with 20-ms depth step, which corresponds to one-half of
the typical dominant period of recorded seismic waves,
has the least dispersion with the least undermigration
optimum accuracy in event positioning. Further de-
creasing depth step size does not improve migration sig-
nicantly (Figure 4.3-7). The 15-degree implicit scheme
causes precursive dispersion at large depth steps greater
than 20 ms (Figure 4.3-6) and postcursive dispersion at
small depth steps less than 20 ms (Figure 4.3-7). Hence,
taking smaller depth steps does not necessarily mean a
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Migration 523
FIG. 4.3-4. Tests for extrapolation depth step size in 15-
degree nite-dierence migration: (a) a zero-oset section
that contains a diraction hyperbola with 2500-m/s velocity,
(b) desired migration; 15-degree nite-dierence migration
using (c) 20-ms (d) 40-ms, (e) 60-ms, and (f) 80-ms depth
step.
FIG. 4.3-5. Tests for extrapolation depth step size in 15-
degree nite-dierence migration: (a) a zero-oset section
that contains a diraction hyperbola with 2500-m/s velocity,
(b) desired migration; 15-degree nite-dierence migration
using (c) 4-ms (d) 8-ms, (e) 12-ms, and (f) 16-ms depth step.
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524 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.3-6. Tests for extrapolation depth step size in 15-
degree nite-dierence migration: (a) a zero-oset section
that contains dipping events with 3500-m/s velocity, (b) de-
sired migration; 15-degree nite-dierence migration using
(c) 20-ms (d) 40-ms, (e) 60-ms, and (f) 80-ms depth step.
FIG. 4.3-7. Tests for extrapolation depth step size in 15-
degree nite-dierence migration: (a) a zero-oset section
that contains dipping events with 3500-m/s velocity, (b) de-
sired migration; 15-degree nite-dierence migration using
(c) 4-ms (d) 8-ms, (e) 12-ms, and (f) 16-ms depth step.
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Migration 525
better quality migration free of the artifacts that occur
with the nite-dierence method.
Figures 4.3-8 and 4.3-9 show the migrations of the
stacked section in Figure 4.3-2a with ve dierent depth
steps using the 15-degree implicit scheme. Note that
as the depth step size is increased, the dipping event
o the ank of the salt diapir is more undermigrated
and the diraction o the tip of the diapir is less col-
lapsed. Dispersion along the diraction hyperbola is ap-
parent at larger depth steps (Figure 4.3-9). Again, this
phenomenon is caused by the dierencing approxima-
tions to the dierential operators used in the design of
a nite-dierence algorithm.
Velocity Errors
Figure 4.3-10 shows the diraction hyperbola and its
migration using the 2500 m/s medium velocity and 5,
10, and 20 percent lower velocities. When velocities
lower than medium velocity are used, the diraction
hyperbola gets undermigrated by the 15-degree algo-
rithm more than it would be by an algorithm with no
dip limitation (compare with Figure 4.2-10).
Figure 4.3-11 shows the diraction hyperbola and
its migration using the 2500 m/s medium velocity and
5, 10, and 20 percent higher velocities. When velocities
higher than medium velocity are used, the diraction
hyperbola gets overmigrated less by the 15-degree al-
gorithm than it would be by an algorithm with no dip
limitation (compare with Figure 4.2-11). Moreover, note
the increase in dispersive noise as a result of overmigra-
tion.
Figure 4.3-12 is the dipping events model with mi-
grations using the 3500 m/s medium velocity, and 5,
10, and 20 percent lower velocities. For comparison, la-
bel the correct position of the event with the steepest
dip from the desired migration on the results of migra-
tion with dierent velocities. As in any other migration
method, velocity errors cause events to be mispositioned
at increasingly steeper dips. The undermigration eect
of lower velocities is reinforced by the inherently un-
dermigrating nature of the 15-degree algorithm. As a
result, dipping events are undermigrated more by the
15-degree algorithm in contrast than by an algorithm
with no dip limitation (compare with Figure 4.2-12).
Figure 4.3-13 is the dipping events model with mi-
grations using the 3500 m/s medium velocity, and 5,
10, and 20 percent higher velocities. For comparison,
again, label the the correct position of the event with
the steepest dip from the desired migration on the re-
sults of migration with dierent velocities. The overmi-
gration eect of higher velocities is counteracted by the
inherently undermigrating nature of the 15-degree algo-
rithm. As a result, dipping events are not overmigrated
by the 15-degree algorithm as much as they would be
by an algorithm with no dip limitation (compare with
Figure 4.2-13).
Velocity error test results on eld data using the
15-degree implicit scheme are shown in Figures 4.3-14
and 4.3-15. Figure 4.3-16 is a sketch of the under- and
overmigration eects. As noted above with the dipping
events model (Figures 4.3-12 and 4.3-13), when using
velocities greater than medium velocities, overmigration
is not as pronounced with the 15-degree nite-dierence
migration as it is with a 90-degree algorithm, such as
the Kirchho or phase-shift method. On the other hand,
when using velocities lower than medium velocities, the
undermigration eect is more pronounced with the 15-
degree nite-dierence migration in comparison with a
90-degree algorithm (compare Figure 4.3-16 with Figure
4.5-13).
At rst, it may appear to be sensible to compensate
for the undermigration caused by a low-dip algorithm
by adjusting migration velocities. For example, the best
match between the desired migration and the 15-degree
nite-dierence results for the dipping event in Figure
4.3-16 occurs when 10 percent higher velocities are used
in the nite-dierence migration. While for one dip this
adjustment may be acceptable, for another dip it may
not be. Therefore, deciencies of a migration algorithm
should not be compensated for by making modications
to the velocity eld for migration.
Cascaded Migration
To compensate for the inherent undermigration by
the 15-degree nite-dierence migration, Larner and
Beasley (1990) proposed performing migration using
the 15-degree equation, repeatedly the input to the
next migration stage being the output from the previ-
ous stage. Such cascaded application of the 15-degree
migration is demonstrated in Figure 4.3-17. Migration
of the constant-velocity diraction hyperbola using the
15-degree equation only once yields the familiar re-
sult of unfocused energy accompanied with dispersive
noise (Figure 4.3-17c). A cascaded application of the
15-degree equation produces improved focusing of the
energy at the apex of the hyperbola. The more the num-
ber of stages in the cascaded migration the more the im-
provement in focusing the energy (Figures 4.3-17d,e,f).
An interesting theoretical observation is that cas-
caded migration using a dip-limited algorithm, such as
the 15-degree nite-dierence scheme, actually requires
a depth step size that is greater than the optimal depth
size for a single-stage application of the algorithm. In
(text continues on p. 530)
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526 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.3-8. Tests for extrapolation depth step size in 15-degree nite-dierence migration: (a) Desired migration using the
phase-shift method, (b) 4-ms depth step, and (c) 20-ms depth step. The input CMP stack is shown in Figure 4.3-2a.
FIG. 4.3-9. Tests for extrapolation depth step size in 15-degree nite-dierence migration: (a) 40-ms depth step, (b) 60-ms
depth step, and (c) 80-ms depth step. The input CMP stack is shown in Figure 4.3-2a and the desired migration is shown in
Figure 4.3-2b.
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Migration 527
FIG. 4.3-10. Tests for velocity errors in 15-degree nite-
dierence migration: (a) a zero-oset section that contains
a diraction hyperbola with 2500-m/s velocity, (b) desired
migration; 15-degree nite-dierence migration using (c) the
medium velocity of 2500 m/s, (d) 5 percent lower, (e) 10
percent lower, and (f) 20 percent lower velocity. Depth step
size is 20 ms.
FIG. 4.3-11. Tests for velocity errors in 15-degree nite-
dierence migration: (a) a zero-oset section that contains
a diraction hyperbola with 2500-m/s velocity, (b) desired
migration; 15-degree nite-dierence migration using (c) the
medium velocity of 2500 m/s, (d) 5 percent higher, (e) 10
percent higher, and (f) 20 percent higher velocity. Depth
step size is 20 ms.
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528 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.3-12. Tests for velocity errors in 15-degree nite-
dierence migration: (a) a zero-oset section that con-
tains dipping events with 3500-m/s velocity, (b) desired mi-
gration; 15-degree nite-dierence migration using (c) the
medium velocity of 3500 m/s, (d) 5 percent lower, (e) 10
percent lower, and (f) 20 percent lower velocity. Depth step
size is 20 ms.
FIG. 4.3-13. Tests for velocity errors in 15-degree nite-
dierence migration: (a) a zero-oset section that con-
tains dipping events with 3500-m/s velocity, (b) desired mi-
gration; 15-degree nite-dierence migration using (c) the
medium velocity of 3500 m/s, (d) 5 percent higher, (e) 10
percent higher, and (f) 20 percent higher velocity. Depth
step size is 20 ms.
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Migration 529
FIG. 4.3-14. Tests for velocity errors in 15-degree nite-dierence migration using (a) 95 percent, (b) 90 percent, and (c) 80
percent of rms velocities. The input stacked section is shown in Figure 4.3-2a and the desired migration using the phase-shift
method is shown in Figure 4.3-2b. Depth step size is 20 ms.
FIG. 4.3-15. Tests for velocity errors in 15-degree nite-dierence migration using (a) 105 percent, (b) 110 percent, and
(c) 120 percent of rms velocities. The input stacked section is shown in Figure 4.3-2a and the desired migration using the
phase-shift method is shown in Figure 4.3-2b. Depth step size is 20 ms.
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530 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.3-16. The undermigration and overmigration ef-
fects from Figures 4.3-14 and 4.3-15. B = dipping event
before and A = dipping event after desired migration, D =
diraction before and D
v
2
(x, z) v
2
(z) (Section D.8).
FIG. 4.5-22. Wraparound eect in frequency-wavenumber
migration: (a) a zero-oset section that contains a dirac-
tion hyperbola with 2500-m/s velocity, (b) desired migration
using the phase-shift method, and (c) the same as in (b) but
with a display gain that is 100 times greater than that used
in (b).
4.6 FURTHER ASPECTS OF MIGRATION
IN PRACTICE
In this section, we shall discuss the eects of spatial
aliasing, random noise and prole length on migration,
and migration from topography. Spatial aliasing is a
direct result of undersampling of recorded data (Section
1.2). Because of spatial aliasing, migration can perceive
events with steep dips at high frequencies as dierent
from the actual dips in ms/trace. As a result, migration
mispositions the aliased frequency components of the
dipping events.
Random noise usually is more prominent in the
deep part of a stacked section, just where velocities also
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580 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.5-23. Wraparound eect in frequency-wavenumber migration: The input stacked section is shown in Figure 4.2-15a
and the desired migration using the phase-shift method is shown in Figure 4.2-15b.
FIG. 4.5-24. Wraparound eect in frequency-space migration: The input stacked section is shown in Figure 4.2-15a and the
desired migration using the phase-shift method is shown in Figure 4.2-15b.
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Migration 581
FIG. 4.5-25. Principle of residual migration: (a) a zero-
oset section that contains dipping events with 3500-m/s
velocity, (b) desired migration using the phase-shift method
with the medium velocity of 3500 m/s, (c) rst-pass mi-
gration of (a) using constant-velocity Stolt migration with
3000-m/s velocity, and (d) second-pass migration of the out-
put from the rst-pass migration as in (c) using a 15-degree
nite-dierence migration with the residual velocity of 1802
m/s (equation D-96b).
are generally higher. This results in random noise or-
ganized along wavefront arches, commonly referred to
as smiles. This organized noise corrupts the migrated
primary energy not just in the deep part of the sec-
tion but also has detrimental eect on shallow data in
a migrated section.
Line length and location of the line traverse at the
surface relative to the location of the target in the sub-
surface have a direct eect on the useability of the a mi-
grated section. Usually a line traverse longer than the
spatial extent of the subusrface target is needed (Figure
4.1-1). Keep in mind that your target does not neces-
sarily lie directly beneath the CMP location where the
reection from that target appears on your unmigrated
stacked section.
Irregular topography associated with areas sub-
jected to overthurst tectonics has to be accounted for
during migration if surface elevation changes are rapid
along the line traverse. Migration algorithms, with the
exception of the Kirchho summation and the constant-
velocity Stolt method, are all based on wave extrapo-
lation from one at depth level to another. A CMP-
stacked section is assumed to be equivalent to a zero-
oset waveeld and usually is referenced to a at da-
tum. In the presence of severe topography, one needs
to account for the dierence between the elevation pro-
le and the reference datum. Otherwise, if the reference
datum is above the surface elevation, to a migration al-
gorithm, events appear deeper than they are, and thus
are overmigrated. If, on the other hand, the reference
datum is below the surface elevation, events appear to
a migration algorithm shallower than they actually are,
and thus are undermigrated.
Migration and Spatial Aliasing
The concept of spatial aliasing is presented in Section
1.2. Here, we shall examine the eect of spatial aliasing
on migration. Figure 4.6-1 shows a zero-oset section
that contains a diraction hyperbola with 2500-m/s ve-
locity and 12.5-m trace spacing. By discarding every
other trace, obtain another zero-oset section with 25-
m trace spacing. Repeat the procedure to obtain the
zero-oset sections with 50-m and 100-m trace spacings
(Figure 4.6-1).
The f k spectra of the zero-oset sections with
the four dierent trace spacings are displayed in Fig-
ure 4.6-2. The diraction hyperbola with 12.5-m trace
spacing maps onto an inverted triangular area in the
f k plane (Section 4.1). The Nyquist wavenumber is
40 cycles/km and the bandwidth is given by the corner
frequencies 6, 12 - 36, 48 Hz for the passband region
of the spectrum. (See Figure 1.1-26 for the denition of
corner frequencies.) The red is associated with the at
part of the passband region and the blue is associated
with the taper zone.
The f k spectrum of the zero-oset section with
25-m trace spacing (Figure 4.6-1) indicates spatial alias-
ing beyond approximately 24 Hz (Figure 4.6-2). Conse-
quently, the triangular shape of the passband region
in the f k plane that denes the diraction hyper-
bola is corrupted around the edges near the Nyquist
wavenumber of 20 cycles/km. At a coarser trace spacing
of 50 m, which corresponds to a Nyquist wavenumber
of 10 cycles/km, the triangular shape in the spectrum
is preserved below the threshold frequency for aliasing,
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582 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.5-26. Principle of residual migration: (a) a zero-oset section with vertically varying velocities, (b) 15-degree nite-
dierence migration, (c) desired migration using the phase-shift method, (d) rst-pass migration of (a) using constant-velocity
Stolt migration with 2000-m/s velocity, and (e) second-pass migration of the output from the rst-pass migration as in (d)
using a 15-degree nite-dierence migration with the residual velocity function computed by equation (D-96b).
approximately 12 Hz, only. Finally, at trace spacing of
100 m, which correpsonds to a Nyquist wavenumber of
5 cycles/km, the triangular shape is obliterated, com-
pletely (Figure 4.6-2).
Figure 4.6-3 shows the results of Kirchho migra-
tion of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-1. Fre-
quency components that are spatially aliased are per-
ceived by migration with a dip dierent from the actual
dip along the diraction hyperbola. Normally, energy is
moved in the up-dip direction along the diraction hy-
perbola and is mapped onto the apex. However, in each
migrated section, the spatially aliased part of the energy
is split away from the anks of the diraction hyperbola
and mapped onto the regions to the left and right of the
anks. The aliased energy is dispersed. Since each fre-
quency component of the aliased energy is perceived to
have a dierent dip by migration, the displacement of
the energy after migration is frequency dependent. The
unaliased portion of the energy is of course mapped onto
the apex. The more frequency components are spatially
aliased, the less energy at lower frequencies is mapped
onto the apex.
As discussed in Section 4.1, the triangular area on
the f k plane associated with the diraction hyperbola
(Figure 4.6-2) is mapped onto the circular area on the
f k plane associated with the migrated section (Figure
4.6-4). Ideally the area in the fk plane of the migrated
section should be semicircular in shape. Because the
diraction hyperbola is dened within a nite spatial
aperture (Figure 4.6-1), there is an implicitly imposed
dip limit on migration. As a result, the semicircular area
is notched on either side (Figure 4.6-4).
Spatial aliasing corrupts the semicircular shape of
the f k spectrum on both ends of the spectrum at the
vicinity of the Nyquist wavenumber. In case of severe
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Migration 583
FIG. 4.5-27. Residual migration applied to eld data: rst pass using constant-velocity Stolt migration (1500 m/s), and
second pass using a 15-degree nite-dierence migration of the result from the rst pass.
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584 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.5-28. The combined migration results from Figure
4.5-27. B = dipping event before and A = dipping event
after desired migration; D = diraction; A1, D1 = after the
rst pass; A2, D2 = after the second pass.
undersampling, spatially aliased frequency components
invade much of the f k plane as shown in Figure 4.6-4.
Aside from the spatial aliasing noise, dispersive
noise also is seen on data migrated with a dip-limited
nite-dierence algorithm (Section 4.3). Figure 4.6-5
shows migration of a zero-oset section that contains
a diraction hyperbola using the 15-degree implicit
nite-dierence method. Note the undermigration of
the diraction hyperbola that is caused by the 15-degree
dip limitation, the dispersive noise A that is caused by
the nite-dierence approximations, and the spatially
aliased energy B that splits away from the unaliased
part that collapses to the apex.
Figure 4.6-6 shows the results of migration of the
zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-1 using an implicit
frequency-space nite-dierence scheme (Section 4.4).
Note the dispersive noise caused by the nite-dierence
approximations in the section with 12.5-m trace spac-
ing. The dispersive noise in the sections with 25-m,
50-m, and 100-m trace spacings, however, is attributed
largely to spatial aliasing.
It is instructive to note that the diraction energy
appears slightly undermigrated with 12.5-m trace spac-
ing, but is overmigrated with 25-m and 50-m trace spac-
ings. As discussed in Sections 4.3 and 4.4, the delity of
migration by nite-dierence schemes is dictated by an
intricately complex interplay between the various pa-
rameters spatial and temporal sampling intervals,
dip, frequency, and velocity. Depending on the values
of these parameters, one scheme may cause undermi-
gration in one case and overmigration in another case.
Figure 4.6-7 shows the fk spectra of the migrated
sections in Figure 4.6-6. Note that implicit frequency-
space migration can create high-frequency noise beyond
the passband of the input data. Note also that spatial
aliasing combined with the inherent dispersive eect of
nite-dierence schemes corrupt the semicircular shape
of the f k spectrum on both ends of the spectrum.
Figure 4.6-8 shows the results of the migration of
the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-1 using an explicit
frequency-space nite-dierence scheme (Section 4.4).
There appears to be no aliasing noise in either sections
with 12.5-m and 25-m trace spacings. Also note that,
compared to the results of Kirchho migration (Figure
4.6-2), there is less aliasing noise in the sections with 50-
m and 100-m trace spacings. These observations can be
veried by referring to the f k spectra shown in Fig-
ure 4.6-9. Explicit schemes, by the design criterion, at-
tenuate energy associated with wavenumbers k
x
above
a specied cuto wavenumber dened by a fraction of
the Nyquist wavenumber. This eectively removes part
of the aliased energy that maps onto the spectral re-
gion above the cuto wavenumber associated with the
extrapolation lter for the explicit scheme. Note from
the f k spectrum in Figure 4.6-9 that almost all of the
aliased energy has been ltered out for the case of the
25-m trace spacing. This is why aliasing noise is absent
in the corresponding migrated section in Figure 4.6-8.
Despite the wavenumber ltering eect of the explicit
scheme, however, much of the aliased noise remains in
the sections with the 50-m and 100-m trace spacings.
Figure 4.6-10 shows the results of phase-shift mi-
gration of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-1, and
Figure 4.6-11 shows the corresponding f k spectra.
These results are used as a benchmark to evaluate the
results obtained from the other migration algorithms
(Figures 4.6-3 through 4.6-9). Except for the aliasing
noise, phase-shift migration produces no artifacts.
The experiments described above clearly demon-
strate that all migration algorithms suer from saptial
aliasing. We now examine the eect of spatial alias-
ing on migration using a dipping events model. Figure
4.6-12 shows a zero-oset section that contains a set of
dipping events with 3500-m/s velocity and 25-m trace
(text continues on p. 609)
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Migration 585
FIG. 4.5-29. Multiple passes of residual migration: (a) a zero-oset section that contains dipping events with 3500-m/s
velocity, (b) desired migration using the phase-shift method with the medium velocity of 3500 m/s, (c) rst-pass migration
of the zero-oset section in (a) using the phase-shift method with a constant velocity of 2500 m/s, (d) second-pass migration
of the output from the rst-pass migration as in (c) using the phase-shift method with a constant residual velocity of 1145
m/s, (e) third-pass migration of the output from the second-pass migration as in (d) using the phase-shift method with a
constant residual velocity of 1198 m/s, (f) fourth-pass migration of the output from the third-pass migration as in (e) using
the phase-shift method with a constant residual velocity of 1250 m/s, and (g) fth-pass migration of the output from the
fourth-pass migration as in (f) using the phase-shift method with a constant residual velocity of 1299 m/s.
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586 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.5-30. Multiple passes of residual migration: (a) a zero-oset section that contains dipping events with 3500-m/s
velocity, (b) desired migration using the phase-shift method with the medium velocity of 3500 m/s, (c) rst-pass migration
of the zero-oset section in (a) using the 65-degree implicit method with a constant velocity of 2500 m/s, (d) second-pass
migration of the output from the rst-pass migration as in (c) using the 65-degree implicit method with a constant residual
velocity of 1145 m/s, (e) third-pass migration of the output from the second-pass migration as in (d) using the 65-degree
implicit method with a constant residual velocity of 1198 m/s, (f) fourth-pass migration of the output from the third-pass
migration as in (e) using the 65-degree implicit method with a constant residual velocity of 1250 m/s, and (g) fth-pass
migration of the output from the fourth-pass migration as in (f) using the 65-degree implicit method with a constant residual
velocity of 1299 m/s.
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Migration 587
FIG. 4.6-1. Zero-oset sections, which contain a diraction hyperbola with 2500-m/s velocity, with trace spacings, from top
to bottom, 12.5 m, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
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588 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-2. The f k spectra of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-1 with trace spacings, from top to bottom, 12.5 m,
25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
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Migration 589
FIG. 4.6-3. Kirchho migrations of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-1 with trace spacings, from top to bottom, 12.5 m,
25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
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590 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-4. The f k spectra of the outputs from the Kirchho migrations in Figure 4.6-3 with trace spacings, from top to
bottom, 12.5 m, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
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1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
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l
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Migration 591
FIG. 4.6-5. 15-degree nite-dierence migrations of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-1 with trace spacings, from top to
bottom, 12.5 m, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
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o
S
E
G
l
i
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n
s
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c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
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592 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-6. 65-degree implicit frequency-space migrations of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-1 with trace spacings, from
top to bottom, 12.5 m, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
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o
S
E
G
l
i
c
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n
s
e
o
r
c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
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Migration 593
FIG. 4.6-7. The f k spectra of the outputs from the 65-degree implicit frequency-space migrations in Figure 4.6-6 with
trace spacings, from top to bottom, 12.5 m, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
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G
l
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s
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c
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p
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r
i
g
h
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;
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594 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-8. 70-degree explicit frequency-space migrations of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-1 with trace spacings, from
top to bottom, 12.5 m, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
R
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r
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u
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o
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s
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c
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t
o
S
E
G
l
i
c
e
n
s
e
o
r
c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
s
e
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Migration 595
FIG. 4.6-9. The f k spectra of the outputs from the steep-dip explicit frequency-space migrations in Figure 4.6-8 with
trace spacings, from top to bottom, 12.5 m, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
R
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o
S
E
G
l
i
c
e
n
s
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o
r
c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
s
e
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596 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-10. Phase-shift migrations of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-1 with trace spacings, from top to bottom,
12.5 m, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
R
e
d
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r
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o
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j
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c
t
t
o
S
E
G
l
i
c
e
n
s
e
o
r
c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
s
e
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T
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Migration 597
-40 40
20
40
60
Hz
0
cycles/km
-20 20
20
40
60
Hz
0
-10 10
20
40
60
Hz
0
- 5 5
20
40
60
Hz
0
FIG. 4.6-11. The f k spectra of the outputs from the phase-shift migrations in Figure 4.6-10 with trace spacings, from
top to bottom, 12.5 m, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
R
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r
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c
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t
o
S
E
G
l
i
c
e
n
s
e
o
r
c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
s
e
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598 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-12. Zero-oset sections, which contain dipping events with 3500-m/s velocity, with trace spacings, from top to
bottom, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
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r
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o
n
s
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c
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t
o
S
E
G
l
i
c
e
n
s
e
o
r
c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
s
e
e
T
e
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m
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o
f
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Migration 599
FIG. 4.6-13. The f k spectra of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-12 with trace spacings, from top to bottom, 25 m,
50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
R
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r
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c
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o
S
E
G
l
i
c
e
n
s
e
o
r
c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
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600 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-14. Kirchho migrations of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-12 with trace spacings, from top to bottom, 25 m,
50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
R
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r
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o
n
s
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c
t
t
o
S
E
G
l
i
c
e
n
s
e
o
r
c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
s
e
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T
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f
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a
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Migration 601
FIG. 4.6-15. The f k spectra of the outputs from the Kirchho migrations in Figure 4.6-14 with trace spacings, from top
to bottom, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
R
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r
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c
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t
o
S
E
G
l
i
c
e
n
s
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o
r
c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
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e
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602 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-16. 15-degree nite-dierence migrations of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-12 with trace spacings, from top
to bottom, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
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r
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s
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c
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t
o
S
E
G
l
i
c
e
n
s
e
o
r
c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
s
e
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T
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Migration 603
FIG. 4.6-17. 65-degree implicit frequency-space migrations of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-12 with trace spacings,
from top to bottom, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
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o
S
E
G
l
i
c
e
n
s
e
o
r
c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
s
e
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604 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-18. The f k spectra of the outputs from the 65-degree implicit frequency-space migrations in Figure 4.6-17 with
trace spacings, from top to bottom, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
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e
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r
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c
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o
S
E
G
l
i
c
e
n
s
e
o
r
c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
s
e
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Migration 605
FIG. 4.6-19. 70-degree explicit frequency-space migrations of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-12 with trace spacings,
from top to bottom, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
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e
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r
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t
o
S
E
G
l
i
c
e
n
s
e
o
r
c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
s
e
e
T
e
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606 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-20. The f k spectra of the outputs from the steep-dip explicit frequency-space migrations in Figure 4.6-19 with
trace spacings, from top to bottom, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
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e
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t
o
S
E
G
l
i
c
e
n
s
e
o
r
c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
s
e
e
T
e
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Migration 607
FIG. 4.6-21. Phase-shift migrations of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-12 with trace spacings, from top to bottom,
25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
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e
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i
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u
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n
s
u
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c
t
t
o
S
E
G
l
i
c
e
n
s
e
o
r
c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
s
e
e
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e
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608 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-22. The f k spectra of the outputs from the phase-shift migrations in Figure 4.6-21 with trace spacings, from
top to bottom, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
0
1
/
0
5
/
1
3
t
o
1
9
2
.
1
5
9
.
1
0
6
.
2
0
0
.
R
e
d
i
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r
i
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t
o
S
E
G
l
i
c
e
n
s
e
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c
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
;
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e
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Migration 609
spacing. By discarding every other trace, obtain another
zero-oset section with 50-m trace spacing. Repeat the
procedure to obtain the zero-oset section with 100-m
trace spacing (Figure 4.6-12).
The f k spectra of the zero-oset sections with
the three dierent trace spacings are displayed in Figure
4.6-13. The dipping events with 25-m trace spacing map
onto a series of radial lines in the f k plane (Section
4.1). The Nyquist wavenumber is 20 cycles/km and the
bandwidth is given by the corner frequencies 6, 12 - 36,
48 Hz for the passband region of the spectrum. As for
the diraction hyperbola model (Figure 4.6-3), the red
is associated with the at part of the passband region
and the blue is associated with the taper zone.
The f k spectrum of the zero-oset section with
50-m trace spacing (Figure 4.6-12), which corresponds
to a Nyquist wavenumber of 10 cycles/km, indicates
spatial aliasing beyond approximately 24 Hz (Figure
4.6-13). Consequently, the aliased segments of the radial
lines map onto the left quadrant of the f k spectrum.
At a coarser trace spacing of 100 m, which corresponds
to a Nyquist wavenumber of 5 cycles/km, spatial alias-
ing occurs rst at approximately 12 Hz. Then, some
of the energy already aliased becomes aliased for the
second time at approximately 36 Hz. Moreover, part of
the aliased energy is remapped onto the right quadrant
(Figure 4.6-13).
Figure 4.6-14 shows the results of Kirchho mi-
gration of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-12. No
aliasing noise is present on the migrated section with
25-m trace spacing. Next, consider the migrated sec-
tion with 50-m trace spacing. Frequency components
that are spatially aliased are perceived by migration to
dip in the direction opposite to the actual dips of the
events. Normally, energy is moved in the up-dip direc-
tion, in this case from right to left as seen in the mi-
grated section with 25-m trace spacing. However, in the
migrated section with 50-m trace spacing, the spatially
aliased part of the energy is split away from the dip-
ping events and moved from left to right. Note that the
aliased energy is dispersed. As for the diraction hyper-
bola model (Figure 4.6-2), each frequency component of
the aliased energy is perceived to have a dierent dip
by migration, the displacement of the energy after mi-
gration is frequency dependent. The unaliased portion
of the energy is of course moved from right to left and
positioned accurately. The more frequency components
are spatially aliased, the less energy at lower frequencies
is mapped to the correct position.
Finally, consider the case of the migrated section
with 100-m trace spacing (Figure 4.6-14). Note that
there exists aliasing noise not only to the right of the
dipping events but also in the left-most portion of the
section. The latter is associated with the energy that has
been aliased twice (Figure 4.6-3). Because of the com-
plexity of aliasing, the noise essentially disperses over
the whole of the section.
An interesting observation on the migrated sections
in Figure 4.6-14 relates to the energy in the region above
1 s. In Kirchho migration, amplitudes in the input sec-
tion are summed along a hyperbolic summation path
and placed at the apex of the hyperbola. Imagine a sum-
mation path whose apex is situated at a time less than 1
s. There will be some energy placed at this apex location
since the anks of the summation path under consider-
ation will intersect through traces with nonzero sample
values. This situation is encountered when migrating
marine data using Kirchho summation. Normally, the
migrated section is muted above the water bottom to
remove the noise created by migration within the water
layer.
Besides data aliasing, there is also the problem of
operator aliasing. In particular, for a low-velocity hy-
perbola or for a hyperbola with its apex situated at
shallow times, Kirchho summation may require more
than one sample per trace. This results in some energy
in the form of precursors above the migrated sea-bottom
reection, when only one point per trace is included in
the summation.
Figure 4.6-15 shows the f k spectra of the mi-
grated sections in Figure 4.6-14. As discussed in Section
4.1, migration rotates the radial lines on the f k plane
associated with the dipping events.
Figure 4.6-16 shows migration of a zero-oset sec-
tion that contains a set of dipping events using the 15-
degree implicit nite-dierence method. Note the un-
dermigration of the steeply dipping events caused by the
15-degree dip limitation, the dispersive noise A caused
by the nite-dierence approximations, and the spa-
tially aliased energy B that splits away from the un-
aliased part and moves in the opposite direction.
Figure 4.6-17 shows the results of migration of the
zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-12 using an implicit
frequency-space nite-dierence scheme (Section 4.4).
Note the dispersive noise caused by the nite-dierence
approximations in the section with 25-m trace spacing.
In the sections with 50-m and 100-m trace spacings, two
sets of dispersive noise can be distinguished one that
is caused by the nite-dierence approximations and
the other caused by spatial aliasing. At coarse spatial
sampling, the steeply dipping events are faintly detected
on the migrated section.
Figure 4.6-18 shows the f k spectra of the mi-
grated sections in Figure 4.6-17. As in the case of the
diraction hyperbola (Figure 4.6-7), implicit frequency-
space migration can create high-frequency noise beyond
the passband of the input data.
Figure 4.6-19 shows the results of the migration of
the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-12 using an explicit
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610 Seismic Data Analysis
frequency-space nite-dierence scheme (Section 4.4).
There is no aliasing noise in the section with 25-m trace
spacing. But there is precursive dispersion along the
steeply dipping events because of the inherent nature
of the explicit scheme used here. This dispersion is not
as severe as that observed on the result from the implicit
scheme (Figure 4.6-17).
The corresponding f k spectra shown in Figure
4.6-20 explains why there is less aliasing noise on the
migrated sections in Figure 4.6-19 compared to those
from Kirchho summation (Figure 4.6-14). As for the
case of the diraction hyperbola (Figure 4.6-9), explicit
schemes attenuate energy associated with wavenumbers
k
x
above a specied cuto wavenumber. This eectively
removes part of the aliased energy that maps onto the
spectral region above the cuto wavenumber associated
with the extrapolation lter for the explicit scheme.
Note from the f k spectrum in Figure 4.6-20 that
a signicant portion of the aliased energy in the left
quadrant has been ltered out for the case of the 50-m
trace spacing. Despite the wavenumber ltering eect of
the explicit scheme, however, much of the aliased noise
remains in the section with the 100-m trace spacing.
Figure 4.6-21 shows the results of the phase-shift
migration of the zero-oset sections in Figure 4.6-12,
and Figure 4.6-22 shows the corresponding fk spectra.
These results are used as a benchmark to evaluate the
results obtained from the other migration algorithms
(Figures 4.6-14 through 4.6-20). Except for the aliasing
noise, phase-shift migration produces no artifacts.
The eect of spatial aliasing on migration of eld
data, to begin with, is demonstrated in Figures 4.6-23
and 4.6-24. We see the original stacked section and its
resampled versions at coarser trace spacings. From the
migrations of these four stacked sections with coarser
trace spacings, note the loss of spatial resolution. The
nearly at events are not adversely aected by spatial
aliasing, while the steeply dipping reection o the right
ank of the salt diapir can only be detected on the
migrated section with very coarse sampling by a low-
frequency, weak-amplitude event. The diraction en-
ergy o the tip of the salt diapir is largely dispersed
into the region with nearly at events to the right of
the diapir.
We now examine the response of the various migra-
tion algorithms to spatial alaising using the data shown
in Figures 4.6-25 and 4.6-26. The stacked data are asso-
ciated with the same line sampled at four dierent trace
spacings 12.5, 25, 50, and 100 m. Figure 4.6-27 shows
migrations of the stacked sections using Kirchho sum-
mation. The section with 12.5-m trace spacing provides
a crisp image of the salt diapir, while the sections with
coarser trace spacings degrade gradually. Specically, it
is almost impossible to delineate the salt boundary on
the section with 50-m trace spacing, and the section
with 100-m trace spacing does not even provide an im-
age of the gently dipping reections. This is because of
the aliasing noise associated with the steep anks of the
salt diapir corrupting the surrounding reections. Spa-
tial aliasing not only adversely aects the quality of the
image associated with a dipping event that is aliased,
but it also can obliterate other nonaliased events in the
data.
Figure 4.6-28 through 4.6-30 show migrations of
the stacked sections in Figures 4.6-25 and 4.6-26 using
steep-dip frequency-space implicit and explicit schemes,
and the phase-shift method. Similar conclusions are
drawn for the Kirchho summation results shown in
Figure 4.6-27. Dierences in terms of delineation of
the salt boundary and the surrounding strata are at-
tributable to the manner in which these algorithms are
implemented and how they treat the velocity eld for
migration. For instance, when examining the results
from the frequency-space implicit scheme (Figure 4.6-
28), one must keep in mind the eect of spatial aliasing
combined with the eect of undermigration caused by
the dip-limited nature of the algorithm and the eect of
dispersion caused by nite-dierence approximations.
What is the remedy for spatial aliasing noise in
migration? Arrange the sequence of the sections in Fig-
ures 4.6-27 through 4.6-30 from a coarser to a ner trace
spacing. Note that the deleterious eect of spatial alias-
ing in migration disappears as we go to ner trace spac-
ings. To avoid spatial aliasing, we must record with suf-
ciently ne CMP trace interval or interpolate the data
that have been recorded with coarse spatial sampling.
Most modern surveys are conducted using spatial
sampling rates that are perfectly adequate to meet ex-
ploration and development objectives. If we are dealing
with vintage data with coarse spatial sampling, there
are two ways to circumvent the eect of spatial alias-
ing. The rst approach would be to lter out the aliased
frequencies. This is undesirable, since it severely limits
vertical and lateral resolutions (Section 11.1). The sec-
ond approach would be to do trace interpolation before
migration. In Sections 7.2 and G.5, we discuss interpo-
lation of aliased data. Note from section 1.3 that the
smaller the trace interval, the higher the Nyquist in
the spatial wavenumber direction (Figures 1.3-10 and
1.3-11), and thus, the less likelihood of aliasing high-
frequency data.
A schematic illustration of the spatial aliasing phe-
nomenon is shown in Figure 4.6-31. Start with the
spectral bandwidth that spans COA in the spatial
wavenumber axis, where A is the location of the Nyquist
wavenumber, and ON in the temporal frequency axis,
where N is the location of the Nyquist frequency. Dip
(text continues on p. 619)
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Migration 611
FIG. 4.6-23. A portion of a CMP-stacked section spatially sampled at four dierent trace spacings.
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612 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-24. Phase-shift migrations of the stacked sections in Figure 4.6-23 sampled at four dierent trace spacings.
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Migration 613
FIG. 4.6-25. A CMP-stacked section spatially sampled at 12.5-m (top) and 25-m (bottom) trace spacings.
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614 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-26. A CMP-stacked section as in Figure 4.6-25 spatially sampled at 50-m (top) and 100-m (bottom) trace spacings.
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Migration 615
FIG. 4.6-27. Kirchho migrations of the stacked sections in Figure 4.6-25 and 4.6-26 with trace spacings, from top to bottom,
12.5 m, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
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616 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-28. 65-degree implicit frequency-space migrations of the stacked sections in Figure 4.6-25 and 4.6-26 with trace
spacings, from top to bottom, 12.5 m, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
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Migration 617
FIG. 4.6-29. 70-degree explicit frequency-space migrations of the stacked sections in Figure 4.6-25 and 4.6-26 with trace
spacings, from top to bottom, 12.5 m, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
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618 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-30. Phase-shift migrations of the stacked sections in Figure 4.6-25 and 4.6-26 with trace spacings, from top to
bottom, 12.5 m, 25 m, 50 m, and 100 m.
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Migration 619
FIG. 4.6-31. Two dipping events in the f k domain. See
text for details.
components 1 and 2 are aliased beyond frequency val-
ues AT and AS, respectively. Extend the wavenumber
axis to DOB by making the trace interval half of the
original. Event 1 no longer is spatially aliased within
the frequency bandwidth ON. Event 2 still is aliased
beyond the frequency value BV. However, at this point
and beyond, there may be no signicant energy, so fur-
ther extension of the wavenumber axis may not be nec-
essary. Another important point is that if the temporal
frequency band only extended up to OG to start with,
extension of the wavenumber axis to DOB also would
result in Event 2 being unaliased. Thus, the amount
of trace interpolation that is required also depends on
temporal bandwidth as well as on structural dip.
Trace interpolation often is necessary when dealing
with 3-D data and old data recorded with a large group
interval. In a typical 3-D survey, the inline trace interval
may be as little as 12.5 m, while the trace interval in the
crossline direction, for some old data, may be as much
as 100 m. Therefore, interpolation is required before mi-
gration in the crossline direction. You do not necessarily
interpolate down to the inline trace spacing; instead, de-
pending on the maximum structural dip and velocity in
the area, the optimum trace spacing for interpolation in
the crossline direction can be computed using equation
(1-8). Section 7.2 provides more information on trace
interpolation in relation to 3-D migration.
Migration and Random Noise
Figure 4.6-32 shows a section that contains band-
limited random noise uncorrelated from trace to trace
and its migration using the phase-shift method. Veloc-
ity increases linearly from 2000 m/s at the top to 4000
m/s at the bottom of the section. The amplitude and
frequency characteristics of the input section in Figure
FIG. 4.6-32. Response of migration to random noise: (a)
zero-oset section with random noise, only, (b) frequency-
wavenumber migration.
FIG. 4.6-33. (a) A deeper portion of a CMP-stacked sec-
tion with signicant noise level, (b) the same portion after
migration.
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620 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-34. Migrations of a portion of a CMP stack with dierent lateral extents.
FIG. 4.6-35. Edge eects in migration: (a) a portion of a CMP stack, (b) the same portion after migration, and (c) a sketch
that illustrates the edge eect problem using the semicircle superposition method of migration. See text for A, B, C, and D.
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Migration 621
FIG. 4.6-36. A CMP stack (a) before and (b) after migration.
4.6-32 are virtually unchanged in the interior portion
of the migrated section. However, note the smearing
of amplitudes at the bottom and side boundaries after
migration.
Ambient noise commonly dominates the deep por-
tion of a stacked section where velocities are high.
Therefore, organization of random noise caused by mi-
gration generally is more severe in the deeper part of a
stacked section. A eld data example is shown in Fig-
ure 4.6-33. In addition to smearing eects, the migrated
section also has smiles, which are caused by sparsely dis-
tributed bursts of amplitude in the input section. Keep
in mind that a single spike on the time section migrates
to a semicircle on the depth section.
We already have seen the adverse eect of an im-
proper choice of aperture width in Kirchho summation
(Figure 4.2-7). A narrow aperture can introduce strong
smearing as spurious, nearly horizontal events. A similar
eect occurs for all types of migration algorithms if the
maximum dip to migrate is severely restricted (Figure
4.5-4). It is a misconception to imagine that migration
attenuates random noise and improves signal-to-noise
ratio. Instead, one must keep in mind that migration
organizes random noise, it does not attenuate it. A dip-
limited migration algorithm acts upon the random noise
like a dip lter and removes the noise energy beyond
the dip limit much like shown in Figure 6.2-2. The dip-
limited algorithm also attenuates unaliased linear noise
with a dip steeper than the dip limit.
Migration and Line Length
For one reason or another, a seismic line may have to
be recorded in the eld with a shorter length than de-
sired. To see the eect of line length on migration, we
will examine the migrations of the decreasing lengths of
the same CMP stack (Figure 4.6-34). Migration of the
smaller portions, BD and CD, results in an increasingly
smeared section, particularly in the deeper parts. We
conclude that short seismic lines really are not suited
for migration.
If the line traverse is too short, two eects occur.
First, there is not enough space in the section for dip-
ping events to move during migration. This problem
may be alleviated by padding the stacked section with
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622 Seismic Data Analysis
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Migration 623
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624 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. 4.6-39. A sketch of the events after migration from the at reference datum level as in Figure 4.6-37 denoted by the
dotted segments and migration from the oating datum as in Figure 4.6-38 denoted by the solid segments. The area covered
corresponds to the upper central portions of the sections in Figures 4.6-37 and 4.6-38 between midpoints A and B.
zero traces on both sides before migration. Second, side
boundary eects contaminate a signicant portion of
the migrated section. The real solution to circumvent
the boundary eects is to record data with sucient
line length.
With a general idea of structural dip in an area,
the geophysicist must consider the additional spatial
extent that is required by migration. (Refer to the dis-
cussion on Figure 4.1-1.) This is especially important in
3-D surveys in which the surface areal coverage must be
extended beyond the subsurface areal coverage so that
steep dips and structural discontinuities can be recorded
and imaged properly (Section 7.1). The problem with
3-D is that cost increases as the square of the survey
dimension, so that temptation to record too small a
survey is great.
Regardless of line lengths, there are additional
problems associated with the side boundaries of the
stacked section input to migration. All migration al-
gorithms implicitly make some assumption about the
nature of data outside the side boundaries of the input
stacked section. The simple assumptions, zero ampli-
tude or zero gradient at the side boundaries of the sec-
tion, cause data that should migrate past the edge to be
reected back into the section. To prevent this, traces of
zero amplitude often are appended to the edges of the
input section. This allows the dipping events to move
freely into the zero-amplitude region during migration.
If the events that would migrate o the input section are
not needed, they often are suppressed by using absorb-
ing side boundary conditions (Clayton and Engquist,
1980).
Figure 4.6-35 shows a section with signicant
smearing caused by side boundary eects. The wave-
front character that dominates the left boundary of the
migrated section down to the bottom of the mute zone
can be explained using the principle of semicircle super-
position for migration. Consider a dipping event A that
extends down to the edge of the section as in the sketch
in Figure 4.6-35. After migration B, note the remainder
of the semicircular wavefront C on the left side. This
wavefront did not cancel out during superposition be-
cause no data were available beyond the left boundary
of the section.
Another source of edge eects is the presence of am-
plitude bursts at or near the edge of the stacked section
associated with a low signal-to-noise ratio that results
from low fold. The edge eects on the left boundary
below the mute zone in the migrated section (Figure
4.6-35) probably stem from the lack of amplitude bal-
ance on the CMP stacked section. The latter is caused
by changes in fold at the end of the line.
Figure 4.6-36 shows a CMP stack with an imbri-
cate structure associated with overthrust tectonics. Af-
ter migration, note that there are two zones with no
reections. The zone to the left of CMP 100 resulted
from nite line length. Specically, the events on the
left ank of the imbricate structure are migrated to the
right in the up-dip direction, thus leaving behind a zone
of no events into which no energy is moved since the line
ends to the left of the structure. The zone of no events
between CMP 200 and 300 is a direct consequence of
the overthrusting that has given rise to a culminating
structure with very steep, almost overturned events. Mi-
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Migration 625
FIG. 4.6-40. Principles of migration from topography. See text for details.
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626 Seismic Data Analysis
gration of such steep dips is possible only if they exist
in the recorded data and are imaged using algorithms
which handle dips beyond 90 degrees.
Migration from Topography
A CMP-stacked section is assumed to be equivalent to
a zero-oset waveeld and usually is referenced to a at
datum. Figure 4.6-37 shows a migrated CMP stacked
section associated with a seismic line that follows a tra-
verse with severe topography from an area with over-
thrust tectonics. Migration was done from a at refer-
ence datum. When migrating data recorded over such
an irregular and severe topography, however, one needs
to account for the dierence between the elevation pro-
le and the reference datum. Otherwise, events appear
to a migration algorithm shallower than they actually
are if the at reference datum is below the elevation
prole, and thus are undermigrated. If the at reference
datum is above the elevation prole, then events appear
to a migration algorithm deeper than they actually are,
and thus are overmigrated.
Figure 4.6-38 shows the same data as in Figure
4.6-37 with migration from the oating datum which
is a smooth form the elevation prole. A sketch of key
events between midpoints A and B from both sections
is provided in Figure 4.6-39. The at reference datum in
this case is above the elevation prole. Hence, migration
from the at datum causes overmigration as denoted by
the dotted interpretation segments. By migrating the
data from the oating datum and interpreting the re-
sulting section, we obtain the solid segments in Figure
4.6-39.
Migration algorithms, with the exception of Kirch-
ho summation and the constant-velocity Stolt method,
are all based on wave extrapolation from one at depth
level to another. To accommodate an irregular topog-
raphy, the following formal approach can be used:
(a) Stack the data referenced to the oating datum and
assume it to be the zero-oset waveeld recorded
along the oating datum prole.
(b) Apply wave-equation datuming (Section 8.1) to ex-
trapolate the zero-oset waveeld as dened in (a)
from the oating datum to a at datum above using
a velocity the same as that just below the oating
datum.
(c) Migrate the output waveeld from (b) using a pre-
ferred migration algorithm.
The stacking velocity eld required in step (a) is
referenced to the oating datum. The migration ve-
locity eld required in step (c) would need to be de-
rived by redening the stacking velocities with respect
to the at datum. To circumvent this tedious task, mi-
gration from an irregular topography is done either by
the zero-velocity trick (Beasley and Lynn, 1992) or the
zero-waveeld trick (Reshef, 1991).
In the rst approach by Beasley and Lynn (1992),
a zero velocity value is assigned to the region between
the oating datum and the at datum, which is specied
above the oating datum. Just as it should be in con-
ventional processing, the stacked section is referenced to
the at datum, and the velocities are referenced to the
oating datum. Extrapolate the stacked section down
one depth step using the zero velocity as part of the
migration process. This amounts to a simple vertical
time shift. If the depth level intersects the oating da-
tum prole, then invoke the diraction term (equation
4-16a) for the traces in the stacked section that coin-
cide with the intersection points. Continue the extrap-
olation process from one depth level to the next while
turning on the diraction term for those traces which
coincide with the intersection points of the depth levels
and oating datum prole.
In the second approach by Reshef (1991), to start
with, a zero waveeld is assigned to the at datum level
z
0
in Figure 4.6-40. The stacked section and the veloc-
ities are referenced to the oating datum. Extrapolate
this waveeld down one depth level to z
1
using a ve-
locity the same as that just below the oating datum
prole. Import the traces 1 and 2 from the stacked sec-
tion at the intersection points of the depth level and the
oating datum prole, and insert them to the section
referenced to the depth level z
1
. Now, extrapolate down
to the next depth level z
2
, and import traces 3, 4, 5, and
6 from the stacked section, and insert them into section
referenced to the depth level z
2
. At each depth level,
while new traces are imported from the original stacked
section, the previously imported traces are subsjected
to wave extrapolation as symbolized by the small arcs
associated with each time sample.
EXERCISES
Exercise 4-1. Consider the special case of a 90-
degree dipping reector in Figure 4.1-1a. Sketch the cor-
responding zero-oset time section.
Exercise 4-2. Consider Huygens secondary
sources along a dipping reector. Sketch the zero-oset
section by superimposing the individual responses from
these sources. Remember, to do zero-oset modeling,
you must map a point in the xz plane to a hyperbola
in the x t plane with its apex as the input point.
Exercise 4-3. For which case is spatial aliasing a
more serious problem, the low-velocity or high-velocity
medium?
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Migration 627
FIG. 4.E-1. See Exercise 4-4.
Exercise 4-4. Locate the dipping event AA
on
the migrated section in Figure 4.E-1.
Exercise 4-5. A point in the xt plane is mapped
onto a semicircle in the xz plane. Where does it map
on the x plane, where = 2z/ v.
Exercise 4-6. Refer to Figure 4.1-14. It suggests
that if the subsurface consisted of a semicircular reec-
tor (b), then the zero-oset response would be as in
(a). What would the subsurface be like if you obtained
(a) using a source-receiver pair with a nite separation
between them? (See Figures D-5 and D-6.)
Exercise 4-7. Suppose you specied the wrong
trace spacing in your migration. What eect does it
have, overmigration or undermigration? Assume that
you supplied the wrong sampling rate in time. What
eect does it have on migration output?
Exercise 4-8. Suppose you want to do zero-oset
recording of the steep ank of a salt dome. Which case
would require a longer line length when the medium ve-
locity along the raypath is (a) constant or (b) vertically
increasing?
Exercise 4-9. How would Figure 4.3-6 look if you
used a 15-degree phase-shift migration algorithm?
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Appendix D
MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATION OF MIGRATION
D.1 Waveeld Extrapolation and Migration
A fundamental equation of reection seismology is the double-square-root (DSR) equation. This
equation describes downward continuation of both shots and receivers into the earth. It is exact
for all dips and osets. Neglecting the velocity gradient dv(z)/dz makes the DSR equation also
applicable to a stratied earth. The DSR equation can be extended, with some approximation,
to treat weak lateral velocity variations. A comprehensive mathematical treatise of the DSR
equation is found in Claerbout (1985).
The basic 2-D theory for waveeld extrapolation is presented here. Then, using the DSR
equation, a rigorous analysis of conventional seismic data processing is made. We show that
conventional implementation of the DSR equation requires zero-dip and zero-oset assumptions.
Before discussing the DSR equation, we review the basic theory for waveeld extrapolation.
Once the extrapolation equations are developed, they can be used with the imaging principle to
migrate 2-D or 3-D prestack and poststack data.
Start with the 2-D scalar wave equation, which describes propagation of a compressional
waveeld P(x, z, t) in a medium with constant material density and compressional wave velocity
v(x, z):
_
2
x
2
+
2
z
2
1
v
2
2
t
2
_
P(x, z, t) = 0, (D 1)
where x is the horizontal spatial axis, z is the depth axis (positive downward), and t is time.
Given the upcoming seismic waveeld P(x, 0, t), which is recorded at the surface, we want to
determine reectivity P(x, z, 0). This requires extrapolating the surface waveeld to depth z,
then collecting it at t = 0. The process of obtaining the earths reectivity P(x, z, t = 0) from
the observed waveeld P(x, z = 0, t) at the surface z = 0 is called migration, and the reverse
process is called modeling (Figure D-1).
It is advantageous to decompose the waveeld into monochromatic plane waves with dif-
ferent angles of propagation from the vertical. Therefore, we will work in the Fourier transform
domain whenever possible. The waveeld can always be Fourier transformed over time t. If
there is no lateral velocity variation, then the waveeld also can be Fourier transformed over
the horizontal axis x. Thus,
P(k
x
, z, ) =
_ _
P(x, z, t) exp(ik
x
it) dxdt, (D 2a)
and inversely,
P(x, z, t) =
_ _
P(k
x
, z, ) exp(ik
x
+it) dk
x
d. (D 2b)
When the dierential operator in equation (D-1) is applied to equation (D-2b), we get
2
z
2
P(k
x
, z, ) +
_
2
v
2
k
2
x
_
P(k
x
, z, ) = 0. (D 3)
Although v can be varied with depth z in equation (D-3), for now we assume a constant
velocity case. The stratied earth case is considered later in this appendix. Equation (D-3) has
two solutions, one for upcoming waves, the other for downgoing waves. The upcoming wave
solution to equation (D-3) is recognized as
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Mathematical Foundation of Migration 629
FIG. D-1. Relationship between migration and waveeld modeling (see Section D.1).
P(k
x
, z, ) = P(k
x
, z = 0, ) exp
_
i
_
2
v
2
k
2
x
z
_
. (D 4)
Equation (D-4) also is the solution to the following one-way wave equation:
z
P(k
x
, z, ) = i
_
2
v
2
k
2
x
P(k
x
, z, ). (D 5)
This solution can be veried by substituting equation (D-4) into equation (D-5).
We dene the vertical wavenumber as
k
z
=
v
1
_
vk
x
_
2
. (D 6)
Equation (D-6) often is called the dispersion relation of the one-way scalar wave equation. By
using this expression, equation (D-4) takes the simple form
P(k
x
, z, ) = P(k
x
, z = 0, ) exp (ik
z
z). (D 7)
To determine the reectivity P(x, z, 0) from the waveeld recorded at the earths surface
P(x, 0, t), proceed as follows:
(a) Perform a 2-D Fourier transform over x and t to get P(k
x
, 0, ).
(b) Multiply by the all-pass lter exp(ik
z
z) to obtain the waveeld P(k
x
, z, ) at depth z.
(c) Perform summation over to obtain P(k
x
, z, 0).
(d) Finally, inverse Fourier tranform over k
x
to obtain the earths image P(x, z, 0) at that depth.
For the constant velocity case P(k
x
, k
z
, 0) can be computed by a direct mapping in the
transform domain from (k
x
, ) to (k
x
, k
z
) using equation (D-6) (Stolt, 1978).
The main objective here is to interpret equation (D-7) as a tool for downward extrapolating
waveelds given at the surface. While the mathematical development of the process presented
is simple, its physical basis is not obvious. In an eort to develop a physical motivation for
equation (D-7), a simpler derivation follows.
Given the upcoming waveeld P(x, 0, t) recorded at the surface, we can decompose it into
monochromatic plane waves, each traveling at a dierent angle from the vertical. We identify
these plane waves by attaching each one to a unique (k
x
, ) pair. This plane-wave decomposition
is equivalent to Fourier transforming the waveeld to yield P(k
x
, 0, ).
Now consider one of these plane waves as shown in Figure D-2. Imagine that this plane wave
passed point P at t = 0, traveled upward, and was recorded by a receiver at surface point G at
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630 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. D-2. Geometry for waveeld extrapolation (see Section D.1) (Yilmaz, 1979).
time t. For reector mapping, we need to take the energy located at point G on the wavefront at
time t, back to its position at t = 0 to reection point P. To return the energy to P, it makes
sense to follow the same raypath used for outward propagation from P. The fact that the same
path is used means that downward continuation does not alter the horizontal wavenumber k
x
.
Suppose that the wavefront is moved to a depth z = GG
x
= sin. (D 8b)
By using the denitions = 2/ (/v),
x
= 2/ k
x
, and equation (D-8b), we obtain
sin =
vk
x
(D 8c)
and
cos =
1
_
vk
x
_
2
, (D 8d)
where /v is the wavenumber along the raypath. By substituting equation (D-8d) into equation
(D-8a), we have
t =
1
v
1
_
vk
x
_
2
z. (D 8e)
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Mathematical Foundation of Migration 631
As we move down, we do not want to change the amplitude of the plane wave. Given the
change in traveltime, t by equation (D-8e), the corresponding phase shift is t. At each
z step of descent, we may propagate the plane wave with a dierent velocity v(z). The total
phase shift to which the waveform was subjected with arrival at P is
_
dt.
To compute the waveeld at P, we use equation (D-8e) and multiply the transformed surface
waveeld P(k
x
, 0, ) by
exp
_
i
_
P
G
dt
_
= exp
_
i
_
z
0
v(z)
1
_
v(z) k
x
_
2
dz
_
. (D 9)
Equation (D-9) is the same operator used in equation (D-7), except that equation (D-7) was
derived for constant v.
We now return to the more mathematical discussion and consider the stratied earth with a
velocity v(z). Since we have not Fourier transformed P(x, z, t) over z, the one-way wave equation
(D-5) also is valid for v(z):
z
P(k
x
, z, ) = i
2
v
2
(z)
k
2
x
P(k
x
, z, ), (D 10)
in which case equation (D-6) becomes
k
z
(z) =
v(z)
1
_
v(z)k
x
_
2
. (D 11)
Substitution veries that equation (D-10) has the following solution:
P(k
x
, z, ) = P(k
x
, 0, ) exp
_
i
_
z
0
k
z
(z) dz
_
. (D 12)
We must check whether this solution satises the two-way scalar wave equation (D-3). By
dierentiating equation (D-10) and using equation (D-11), we have
2
z
2
P = i
dk
z
(z)
dv
dv(z)
dz
P ik
z
(z)
z
P, (D 13a)
where P = P(k
x
, z, ). By substituting equation (D-10) for P/ dz, we obtain
2
z
2
P = i
dk
z
(z)
dv
dv(z)
dz
P k
2
z
(z) P. (D 13b)
If the velocity gradient dv(z)/ dz is ignored, then the rst term on the right side drops out. The
nal expression then is
2
z
2
P +k
2
z
(z) P = 0. (D 13c)
When equation (D-11) is substituted into this expression, we get:
2
z
2
P +
_
2
v
2
(z)
k
2
x
_
P = 0, (D 14)
which is identical to equation (D-3) where velocity can be varied with depth z.
So far, we have shown that a 2-D waveeld recorded at the earths surface can be extrap-
olated downward using the phase-shift operator given by equation (D-9). Wave extrapolation
can be done through either a constant-velocity medium (equation D-7) or a vertically varying
velocity medium (equation D-12). Seismic imaging is not complete until a stopping condition is
imposed on downward continuation. The process of downward continuation is terminated when
the clock, which measures t
_
dt, reads zero traveltime.
The concepts described above can be used to downward continue a complete seismic exper-
iment that involves many shots and receivers. The vertical wavenumber given by equation (D-6)
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632 Seismic Data Analysis
is expressed as a sum of two square roots, one associated with downward continuation of shots
and the other associated with downward continuation of receivers:
k
z
=
v
DSR(G, S), (D 15)
where v is the medium velocity that can be varied in depth z, and DSR stands for the double
square root (Claerbout, 1985):
DSR(G, S) =
_
1 G
2
+
_
1 S
2
, (D 16)
where G and S are the normalized receiver and shot wavenumbers, k
g
and k
s
, respectively:
G =
vk
g
(D 17a)
and
S =
vk
s
. (D 17b)
The newly dened vertical wavenumber in equation (D-15) is inserted into the extrapolation
equation (D-7) to obtain
P(k
g
, k
s
, z, ) = P(k
g
, k
s
, 0, ) exp(ik
z
z), (D 18)
where P(k
g
, k
s
, 0, ) is the Fourier transform of the prestack data P(s, g, z = 0, t) in shot-
receiver coordinates. This new extrapolation equation then can be used to downward continue
common-shot gathers, and by way of reciprocity, common-receiver gathers.
The DSR equation (D-16) is separable in terms of shot and receiver wavenumbers. This
separation means that we can start with the waveelds recorded at the surface as common-shot
gathers and use the rst part of the DSR operator to downward continue the receivers to depth
z. Then, we can sort the already downward-continued waveelds into common-receiver gathers
and use the second part of the DSR operator to downward continue the shots to depth z. By
alternating between common-receiver and common-shot gathers, the entire seismic experiment
(whole line) can be downward continued until imaging is accomplished (Figure D-3).
Although no approximation, besides the stratied earth assumption, is made in this alter-
nating downward-continuation scheme, it is computationally exhausting. In fact, most of todays
seismic data processing is done in midpoint-(half) oset (y, h) coordinates, rather than in shot-
receiver (s, g) coordinates. Therefore, we will put DSR as dened by equation (D-16) into the
(y, h) coordinates.
The following coordinate transformation is required:
y =
1
2
(g +s) (D 19a)
and
h =
1
2
(g s). (D 19b)
After the transformation (Claerbout, 1985), we obtain
G = Y +H (D 20a)
and
S = Y H, (D 20b)
where Y and H are the normalized midpoint and oset wavenumbers, respectively:
Y =
vk
y
2
(D 21a)
and
H =
vk
h
2
. (D 21b)
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Mathematical Foundation of Migration 633
FIG. D-3. A ow diagram of shot-geophone migration (see Section D.1).
By substituting equations (D-21a) and (D-21b) into equation (D-16), the DSR equation
takes the following form in midpoint-oset coordinates:
DSR(Y, H) =
_
1 (Y +H)
2
+
_
1 (Y H)
2
. (D 22)
The vertical wavenumber (equation D-15) now is expressed in terms of normalized midpoint-
oset wavenumbers Y and H:
k
z
=
v
DSR(Y, H). (D 23)
The newly dened vertical wavenumber in equation (D-23) is inserted into the extrapolation
equation (D-18):
P(k
y
, k
h
, z, ) = P(k
y
, k
h
, 0, ) exp(ik
z
z), (D 24)
where P(k
y
, k
h
, 0, ) is the Fourier transform of the prestack data P(y, h, z = 0, t) in midpoint-
oset coordinates.
Figure D-4 shows the k
y
plane for a specic value of z and h, and the k
y
z plane for a
specic value of and h. The radial line A corresponds to k
y
= 2/v. The region in the k
y
plane below the radial line corresponds to the evanescent energy and that above the radial line
corresponds to the propagating energy. The same transition between the two regions also are
noted in the k
y
z plane. The zero-oset case (Figure D-4c) clearly shows the evanescent energy
to the right of the point on the k
y
axis labeled as k
y
= 2/v dying o rapidly with depth.
The width of the propagation region stays constant with depth. The nonzero-oset case shown
in Figure D-4d, however, indicates that the width of the propagation region varies with depth
zero at the surface z = 0 and approaching rapidly to the zero-oset case immediately at
shallow depths. The physical interpretation of this depth-dependency is quite intuitive the
normalized oset wavenumber H becomes increasingly less signicant at greater depths, and the
normalized midpoint wavenumber Y becomes the dominating wavenumber. More specically,
on a CMP gather, moveout decreases with depth which implies nearly zero H.
Figure D-5 shows the response characteristics of the dispersion relation dened by equation
(D-23). Note the semi-elliptical wavefronts in the y z plane for a single frequency ; while in
the y t plane, note the table-top traveltime trajectories. The equations for the wavefront and
traveltime trajectories are derived in Section D.2 using stationary phase approximations.
Note that in equation (D-16), the terms with dierent spatial wavenumbers are separable.
However, we have lost the property of separation in equation (D-22) because the operators in
Y and H are strongly coupled. As a result, the Taylor series expansions of the square roots in
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634 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. D-4. Real part of the k
y
plane at z = 200 m: (a) DSR (equation D-23) with h = 0 m, and
(b) DSR with h = 400 m. Real part of the k
y
z plane at = 16 m: (c) DSR (equation D-23) with
h = 0 m, and (d) DSR with h = 400 m (Yilmaz, 1979).
equation (D-22) yield terms that contain cross-products of the two wavenumbers. The penalty
for processing in the conventional coordinate system (y, h, t) is that strong coupling in the
extrapolation operator requires the entire prestack data set to be handled at the same time for
each depth step.
Conventional processing comprises two important steps. First, the data are organized into
common-midpoint (CMP) gathers, and normal-moveout (NMO) correction is applied to each
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Mathematical Foundation of Migration 635
FIG. D-5. The response characteristics of the DSR operator (equation D-23) (Yilmaz, 1979). (a) Real
part of the y z plane at 16 Hz and h = 400 m. Note the semielliptical wavefronts. (b) Real part of the
y z plane at t = 1024 ms, h = 400 m. Because of the wraparound in h, we observe two wavefronts,
one for h = 400 m and one for h = 0. (c) Real part of the y t plane at z = 200, 400, 600, and 800
m superimposed. These are the table-top trajectories for h = 400 m. The loci of the arrival times are
determined by a stationary-phase approximation to DSR (see Section D.2) (Clayton, 1978). Periodicity
in y and t result from approximating Fourier integrals by sums.
gather. The time shift t = t(h) t
0
associated with the NMO correction is given by
t = t
0
_
1 +
_
2h
vt
0
_
2
1
_
, (D 25)
where t(h) is the two-way traveltime for a given (half) oset h, and t
0
is the corresponding two-
way zero-oset time. Here, v is the root-mean-square (rms) velocity at t
0
. Equation (D-25) is
based on the stratied earth (zero-dip) assumption. After NMO correction, traces of the CMP
gather are stacked. This not only reduces data volume, but also enhances the signal-to-noise
ratio.
Second, the CMP stack is migrated as if it were the zero-oset waveeld generated by
exploding reectors (Section 4.0). The equation used for the downward extrapolation portion of
migration is the solution to the one-way wave equation (equation D-12).
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636 Seismic Data Analysis
To account for the one-way traveltime of the exploding reectors model, the velocity used
in extrapolation is taken as half the medium velocity. Thus, the vertical wavenumber given by
equation (D-11) is expressed as
k
z
=
2
v
1
_
vk
y
2
_
2
, (D 26)
where v can be varied with depth z. (Since migration is done in midpoint space, k
x
has been
replaced with k
y
.)
Some of the current migration techniques based on wave extrapolation use certain rational
approximations to equation (D-26), while some implement the exact form in the frequency-
wavenumber domain (Section 4.1).
Conventional processing theory has an advantage over the exact theory represented by
the DSR equation in midpoint-oset space (equation D-22). Unlike the approach based on the
DSR equation, the conventional approach is composed of two separable operators the NMO
correction and stack applied in oset space, and migration applied in midpoint space. However,
this advantage is based on zero-dip and zero-oset assumptions.
Where do we go from here? On the one hand, we have an exact theory that can handle all
dips and oset angles, but is dicult to implement. On the other hand, we have a conventional
approach that has the convenient property of separation, but is based on the zero-dip and
zero-oset assumptions.
To examine the relationship between the two approaches, we return to the exact theory
and make the same two assumptions that underlie the conventional approach. The zero-dip
assumption implies that the earth model is stratied in yt domain. The seismic energy recorded
over such an earth is concentrated completely at the zero midpoint wavenumber k
y
= 0. This
suggests that we set the normalized wavenumber Y equal to zero in DSR as dened by equation
(D-22). The resulting operator here is dened as the stacking (St) operator
St(H) = 2
_
1 H
2
. (D 27)
As shown in Section D.2, the NMO shift given by equation (D-25) is a stationary-phase
approximation to equation (D-27) (Clayton, 1978). The St(H) operator condenses primary
information on a CMP gather down to zero oset. After applying this operator on a CMP
gather, we may keep the zero-oset trace and abandon all other osets. Since a CMP stack
can be regarded as a zero-oset waveeld, equation (D-27) is a zero-dip NMO and stack-type
operator.
Application of the zero-oset (h = 0) assumption into the DSR operator is more subtle.
On a CMP gather at and near h = 0, energy essentially is concentrated at zero value of the
oset wavenumber k
h
= 0. In fact, NMO correction tries to push the primary energy on a
CMP gather toward k
h
= 0. Therefore, by setting the normalized oset wavenumber H = 0 in
equation (D-22), the exploding reectors (ER) migration operator can be expressed as
ER(Y ) = 2
_
1 Y
2
. (D 28)
Equation (D-28) is an approximation, because setting H = 0 is not exactly the same as
setting h = 0. By setting H = 0 in equation (D-22) and using the dispersion relation given by
equation (D-23), we have the zero-oset vertical wavenumber
k
z
=
2
v
_
1 Y
2
. (D 29)
By substituting the denition for Y from equation (D-21a) into equation (D-29), we obtain
k
z
=
2
v
1
_
vk
y
2
_
2
, (D 30)
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Mathematical Foundation of Migration 637
FIG. D-6. The response characteristics of the exploding reectors operator ER(Y ) (equation D-29)
(Yilmaz, 1979). (a) Real part of the y z plane at 16 Hz. Note the circular wavefronts. (b) Real part
of the y z plane at t = 1024 ms. (c) Real part of the y t plane at z = 200, 400, 600, and 800 m
superimposed. These are the hyperbolic trajectories. The loci of the arrival times are determined via
the stationary-phase approximation to ER(Y ) (see section D.2) (Clayton, 1978). Periodicity in y and t
result from approximating Fourier integrals by sums.
which is identical to equation (D-26). We conclude that the zero-oset migration operator ER(Y )
(equation D-28) derived from the DSR equation (D-22) is identical to the migration operator
that is based on the exploding reectors model of conventional processing.
Figure D-6 shows the response characteristics of the dispersion relation dened by equation
(D-30). Note the semicircular wavefronts in the y z plane and the hyperbolic traveltime curves
in the y t plane. Compare these with the response of the complete DSR operator for the
nonzero-oset case in Figure D-5. The equations for the wavefront and traveltime trajectories
are derived in Section D.2 using stationary phase approximations.
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638 Seismic Data Analysis
D.2 Stationary Phase Approximations
In this section, we shall use the method of stationary phase to derive the traveltime equa-
tion inferred by the double square root equation for nonzero-oset source-receiver separation.
Consider the double square root operator dened by equation (D-22) with the wavenumbers
Y and H dened by equations (D-21a,b). We want to operate on the transformed waveeld
P(k
y
, k
h
, z = 0, ) with the DSR operator. Subsequent inverse Fourier transformation will yield
the waveeld P(y, h, z, t):
P(y, h, z, t) =
_ _ _
P(k
y
, k
h
, z = 0, ) exp (iz) dk
y
dk
h
d, (D 31)
where the total phase , normalized with respect to z, is given by
=
v
DSR(Y, H) k
y
y
z
k
h
h
z
+
t
z
. (D 32)
The main contribution to integration in equation (D-31) occurs when the phase stays nearly
constant. We therefore determine the variation of the phase with respect to variables k
y
, k
h
, and
k
y
=
v
DSR
Y
Y
k
y
y
z
, (D 33a)
k
h
=
v
DSR
H
H
k
h
h
z
, (D 33b)
and
=
1
v
DSR
v
_
DSR
H
H
+
DSR
Y
Y
_
+
t
z
, (D 33c)
and set each variation to zero. Substitute equation (D-32) and carry out the dierentiations in
equations (D-33a,b,c) to obtain
1
2
G
1 G
2
+
1
2
S
1 S
2
=
y
z
, (D 34a)
1
2
G
1 G
2
1
2
S
1 S
2
=
h
z
, (D 34b)
and
1
1 G
2
+
1
1 S
2
=
vt
z
, (D 34c)
where G and S are dened by equations (D-20a,b).
Now, eliminate G and S amongst equations (D-34a,b,c) to get the nal expression from
stationary phase approximation to the double square root equation as
_
_
y +h
_
2
+z
2
+
_
_
y h
_
2
+z
2
= vt. (D 35)
This is the equation of an ellipse in the y z plane at constant t (Section E.5). Figure D-5 shows
the elliptic wavefront and the table-top traveltime trajectory described by equation (D-35).
When equation (D-35) is specialized to the zero-oset case, h = 0, we obtain
_
y
2
+z
2
=
vt
2
, (D 36)
which is a circle in the y z plane at constant t and a hyperbola in the y t plane at constant
z. Figure D-6 shows the circular wavefront and the hyperbolic traveltime trajectory described
by equation (D-36).
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Mathematical Foundation of Migration 639
We now consider the stacking operator dened by equation (D-27). The total phase is given
by
=
v
St(H) k
h
h
z
+
t
z
. (D 37)
Dierentiate equation (D-37) with respect to k
h
and and set the results to zero to obtain
H
1 H
2
=
h
z
(D 38a)
and
1
1 H
2
=
vt
2z
. (D 38b)
Now, eliminate H between equations (D-38a) and (D-38b) to obtain the stationary phase ap-
proximation to the stacking operator:
_
h
2
+z
2
=
vt
2
. (D 39a)
Dene the zero-oset time as t
0
= 2z/v and substitute into equation (D-39a) to get
h
2
+
_
vt
0
2
_
2
=
vt
2
. (D 39b)
Finally, rearrange to get the equation for normal moveout:
t
NMO
= t
0
_
1 +
_
2h
vt
0
_
2
1
_
, (D 40)
where t
NMO
= t t
0
. This is the same equation as equation (3-2b) in the main text with oset
dened as x = 2h.
D.3 The Parabolic Approximation
Start with the dispersion relation dened by equation (D-6) recast for the exploding reectors
model for which v is replaced with v/2 to obtain
k
z
=
2
v
1
_
vk
x
2
_
2
. (D 41)
Then apply Taylor series expansion and retain the rst two terms:
k
z
=
2
v
_
1
1
2
_
vk
x
2
_
2
_
. (D 42a)
By simplifying, we get the dispersion relation associated with the parabolic equation
k
z
=
2
v
vk
2
x
4
. (D 42b)
By operating on the waveeld P(x, z, t) and replacing ik
z
P with P/z, we write the corre-
sponding dierential equation as
P
z
= i
_
2
v
vk
2
x
4
_
P. (D 43)
Derivation of equation (D-43) is based on the constant-velocity assumption. Nevertheless,
just as we did for the 90-degree one-way wave equation (D-10), the 15-degree one-way wave
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640 Seismic Data Analysis
equation (D-43) can be recast using a vertically varying velocity function v(z). Going one step
further, once equation (D-43) is inverse Fourier transformed from the horizontal wavenumber k
x
to the horizontal axis x, we will replace v(z) with a laterally varying velocity function v(x, z).
Theoretically, this may not be permissible, but in practice, its validity is widely accepted.
The eect of translation is removed by retardation (Figure 4.1-18):
= 2
_
z
0
dz
v(z)
, (D 44)
where v(z) generally is chosen to be a horizontal average of v(x, z). The time shift dened by
equation (D-44) is equivalent to a phase shift in the frequency domain. Therefore, the actual
waveeld P is related to the time-shifted waveeld Q by
P = Q exp (i). (D 45)
By dierentiating with respect to z, we get
P
z
=
_
z
i
2
v(z)
_
Q exp(i). (D 46)
Finally, by substituting equations (D-45) and (D-46) into equation (D-43), we obtain
Q
z
= i
vk
2
x
4
Q+i2
_
1
v(z)
1
v
_
Q. (D 47a)
The rst term on the right side of this equation is called the diraction term and the second
term is called the thin-lens term.
Consider the special case of v = v(z). The thin-lens term then vanishes and we are left with
Q
z
= i
vk
2
x
4
Q. (D 47b)
After inverse Fourier transforming, we obtain the parabolic dierential equation
2
Q
zt
=
v
4
2
Q
x
2
, (D 48)
where, in practice, velocity can be varied horizontally as well as vertically.
In some practical implementations of equation (D-48), downward continuation is performed
in rather than z. The migrated section then is displayed in time and the process is called time
migration. The two variables z and are related by equation (D-44). The dispersion relation
in equation (D-41) for the scalar wave equation in terms of
= vk
z
/ 2, the Fourier dual of ,
takes the form
1
_
vk
x
2
_
2
. (D 49a)
By squaring both sides, we get the equation of an ellipse in the
k
x
plane.
The dispersion relation in equation (D-42b) for the parabolic equation, also expressed in
terms of
=
v
2
k
2
x
8
, (D 49b)
which is the equation of a parabola in the
k
x
, plane. The rst term is associated with a
vertical time shift that can be removed by retardation. To obtain the dierential equation in
terms of , equivalent to equation (D-48), apply the second term on the right side of equation
(D-49b) to the retarded waveeld Q as dened by equation (D-45) and inverse Fourier transform
2
Q
t
=
v
2
8
2
Q
x
2
. (D 50)
This equation is the basis for the 15-degree time migration algorithms.
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Mathematical Foundation of Migration 641
The dispersion relations given by equations (D-49a) and (D-49b) are plotted in Figure D-7
for constant velocity v and input frequency = FE. Curve 1 is associated with the 90-degree
scalar wave equation and is the same as shown in Figure 4.1-25, except that the latter is in terms
of k
z
. Point A is mapped onto point B after migration with the 90-degree equation (D-49a).
The same point A is mapped onto point C after migration with the 15-degree equation (D-49b).
The dispersion curve 2 for the parabolic equation increasingly departs from the dispersion curve
1 for the exact wave equation as the dip gets steeper. (The dip before migration is measured as
the angle between the vertical axis FE and radial direction FA.) Thus, the parabolic equation
causes more and more undermigration as dip increases.
D.4 Frequency-Space Implicit Schemes
Higher-order approximations to the dispersion relation (equation D-41) of the one-way equa-
tion can be found by continued fraction expansion (Claerbout, 1985). When equation (D-41) is
rewritten, we have
k
z
=
2
v
R, (D 51a)
where
R =
_
1 X
2
, (D 51b)
with
X =
vk
x
2
. (D 51c)
The various orders of approximations to equation (D-51b) are dened by the following
recurrence relation
R
n+1
= 1
X
2
1 +R
n
, (D 52)
with the initial value R
0
= 1. By setting n = 0 in equation (D-52), we have
R
1
= 1
X
2
2
. (D 53)
Then, substitution of equation (D-53) into equation (D-51a) yields
k
z
=
2
v
_
1
X
2
2
_
, (D 54)
which is the same equation obtained with the parabolic approximation, equation (D-42a).
The next higher-order expansion is obtained by setting n = 1 in equation (D-52) and using
equation (D-53) to obtain
R
2
= 1
X
2
2
X
2
2
, (D 55)
This is referred to as the 45-degree approximation to equation (D-41).
Ma (1981) discovered that the recurrence relation for the continuous fraction expansion can
be expressed as ratios of two polynomials for the even-ordered expansions. He also showed that
the expression can be split into the following partial fractions:
R
2n
= 1
n
i=1
i
X
2
1
i
X
2
. (D 56)
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642 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. D-7. Dispersion relations for the 90-degree equation (D-49a), 15-degree equation (D-49b) and
the 45-degree equation (D-60a) with
1
= 0.5 and
1
= 0.25, plotted on the
k
x
plane for a given
input frequency, where = FE and velocity is v. Input frequency = FE = AP is mapped on to
output frequency
which is PB, PC, and PD for the 90-degree, 15-degree, and 45-degree equations,
respectively. The wavenumber at the intersection of the curves along the k
x
axis is 2/v, 2
2/v, and
(4)/(
1
v
2
k
z
k
2
x
k
2
x
1
2
v
k
z
= 0. (D 59a)
Finally, by operating on the retarded waveeld Q(x, , z) (equation D-45), we obtain
i
1
v
2
1
3
Q
zx
2
2
Q
x
2
+i
2
1
v
Q
z
= 0. (D 59b)
Kjartansson (1979) implemented equation (D-59b) for 45-degree modeling and migration in the
frequency-space domain. Migration in the frequency-space domain (commonly known as the
x algorithm) involves two interleaved operations:
(a) a time shift based on equation (D-45), which is velocity-independent for time migration and
velocity-dependent for depth migration, and
(b) focusing the diraction energy using equation (D-59b).
Once you have a code for the basic 45-degree operator, it is easy to implement the higher-
order approximations that are given by equation (D-56) with the associated coecients in Table
D-1. Note that the dierence between the 45-degree and 65-degree algorithms is the values used
for coecients (
1
,
1
). Also note that the 15-degree equation (D-47b) is obtained from equation
(D-59b) by setting
1
= 0.5 and
1
= 0.
The dispersion relation in equation (D-58) also can be expressed in terms of
= vk
z
/2,
the Fourier dual of the time variable associated with the migrated data:
=
1
v
2
k
2
x
4
2
1
v
2
k
2
x
. (D 60a)
The rst term is associated with a vertical time shift that can be removed by retardation as for
the 15-degree equation (D-49b).
To obtain the dierential equation in terms of , equivalent to equation (D-59b), apply the
second term on the right side of equation (D-60a) to the retarded waveeld Q as dened by
equation (D-45) and inverse Fourier transform:
i
1
3
Q
x
2
2
Q
x
2
+i
4
1
v
2
Q
= 0. (D 60b)
This equation is the basis for the 45-degree and related steep-dip implicit nite-dierence
frequency-space time migration algorithms.
The dispersion relation given by equation (D-60a) for the 45-degree equation, in which
1
= 0.5 and
1
= 0.25, is plotted in Figure D-7 for constant velocity v and input frequency
= FE. Point A is mapped onto point D after migration with the 45-degree equation (D-60a).
The dispersion curve 3 for the 45-degree equation lies somewhere between those of the 90-degree
equation (D-49a) (curve 1) and the 15-degree equation (D-49b) (curve 2).
Figure 4.4-1 shows the impulse responses of various approximations to the one-way disper-
sion relation based on equation (D-56). Note that the wavefronts become increasingly closer to
a semicircle as the higher-order terms are included in equation (D-56). The 15-degree approxi-
mation yields an elliptical wavefront. The 45-degree approximation yields an impulse response
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644 Seismic Data Analysis
of a heart shape. Refer to Section 4.4 for the practical aspects of 2-D frequency-space steep-dip
time migration, and Section 7.3 for its application to 3-D migration.
D.5 Stable Explicit Extrapolation
The exact extrapolation lter for a specic frequency and velocity v is expressed in the
frequency-wavenumber domain as
D(k
x
) = exp
_
i
2
v
1
_
vk
x
2
_
2
z
_
. (D 61)
The objective is to nd, again for a specic frequency and velocity v, an explicit lter with
complex coecients h(x) in the frequency-space domain such that, when Fourier transformed
to the frequency-wavenumber domain, the dierence between the actual transform H(k
x
) and
the desired transform D(k
x
) of equation (D-61) is minimum. To ensure stability, we impose the
constraint that the amplitude of H(k
x
) is never greater than unity within the propagation region
k
x
(2/v).
Consider the Fourier transform H(k
x
) of the actual extrapolation lter h(x), which we will
write in discrete form as h
n
:
H(k
x
) = h
0
+ 2
N
n=1
h
n
cos(nk
x
), (D 62)
where 2N + 1 is the length of the symmetric lter h
n
.
To determine the lter coecients h
n
, perform Taylor series expansion of the exact D(k
x
)
and the actual H(k
x
) extrapolators given by equations (D-61) and (D-62), respectively, and
match the coecients of the terms in each series at k
x
= 0 (Holberg, 1988). Such a direct match
of the coecients in the Taylor series results in a response H(k
x
) whose amplitude is greater
than unity beyond a certain k
x
, thus violating the stability constraint that the amplitude of
H(k
x
) is never greater than unity within the propagation region k
x
(2/v).
A way to circumvent the unstable response of the conventional Taylor series method is to
match the rst M < N coecients in the series expansion and set the remaining N M to zero
(Hale, 1991). This modied Taylor series method proceeds as follows.
Let the lter coecients h
n
be dened by the series
h
n
= c
0
+ 2
M
m=1
c
m
b
mn
, (D 63)
where
b
mn
= 2 cos
_
2mn
N
_
. (D 64)
By way of equations (D-63) and (D-64), equation (D-62) takes the form
H(k
x
) = c
0
_
1 + 2
n
cos(nk
x
)
_
+ 2
m
c
m
_
1 + 2
n
cos
_
2mn
N
_
cos(nk
x
)
_ . (D 65)
Equation (D-65) can be written as a single summation
H(k
x
) =
M
m=0
c
m
B
m
(k
x
), (D 66)
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Mathematical Foundation of Migration 645
where
B
0
(k
x
) = 1 + 2
n
cos(nk
x
), (D 67a)
and
B
m
(k
x
) = 1 + 2
n
cos
_
2mn
N
_
cos(nk
x
). (D 67b)
Now, perform the Taylor series expansion of the exact extrapolator given by equation (D-
61):
D(k
x
) = D(0) +k
x
D(k
x
)
k
x
+
k
2
x
2
2
D(k
x
)
k
2
x
+ , (D 68)
where the derivatives are evaluated at k
x
= 0, and thus the terms associated with the odd
derivatives vanish.
Matching the terms of the actual extrapolator H(k
x
) with those of the desired extrapolator
D(k
x
) is equivalent to matching their even derivatives
M
m=0
c
m
B
2j
m
(0) = D
2j
(0), j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , M, (D 69)
where the derivative terms B
2j
m
are
B
2j
0
(0) = (1)
j
_
1 + 2
n=1
n
2j
_
, (D 70a)
and
B
2j
m
(0) = 2(1)
j
_
1 + 2
n=1
cos
_
2mn
N
_
n
2j
_
. (D 70b)
Equation (D-69) represents a system of M linear equations that can be solved for the
coecients c
m
. The extrapolation lter coecients h
n
then can be computed by substituting
the solution of equation (D-69) into equation (D-63).
The modied Taylor expansion yields lter coecients h
n
with its response H(k
x
) that
vanishes beyond a cuto value for k
x
in the wavenumber domain that depends on the scalar
M. Also, the response of the extrapolator based on the modied Taylor expansion satises the
stability constraint H(k
x
) < 1 in the passband region of the lter. The cuto wavenumber k
x
determines the maximum dip accuracy of the extrapolation lter. The larger the number of lter
coecients 2N + 1, the steeper the dip accuracy. In practice, extrapolation lter lengths 7, 11
and 25 are often associated with 30-, 50- and 70-degree dip accuracies.
An alternative method for computing the lter coecients h
n
with more accuracy at large
wavenumbers k
x
is based on the Remez exchange algorithm (Soubaras, 1996). The objective is
to minimize the error function
E(k
x
) = W(k
x
)[D(k
x
) H(k
x
)], (D 71)
where W(k
x
) is a weighting function, such that
||E||
= max|E(k
x
)| (D 72)
is minimum. The criterion ||E||
z
P(k
x
, z, ) = ik
z
P(k
x
, z = 0, ), (D 73)
whose solution is
P(z + z) = P(z) exp
_
ik
z
z
_
, (D 74)
where, for simplicity, k
x
and variables are omitted from P, and
k
z
=
2
v
1
_
vk
x
2
_
2
. (D 75)
The phase of the exact extrapolation operator
exp (ik
z
z) (D 76a)
is
= k
z
z, (D 76b)
and its amplitude is
A = 1. (D 76c)
Discretize the one-way wave equation (D-73):
P
z
= ik
z
P. (D 77)
Apply dierencing approximation using the explicit scheme
P(z + z) P(z)
z
= ik
z
P(z), (D 78a)
and the implicit scheme
P(z + z) P(z)
z
= ik
z
P(z + z) P(z)
2
. (D 78b)
Rewrite the explicit equation (D-78a) as
P(z + z) = P(z)
_
1 ik
z
z
_
. (D 79a)
The phase of the explicit extrapolation operator
(1 ik
z
z) (D 79b)
is
= tan
1
_
k
z
z
_
, (D 79c)
and its amplitude is
A =
_
1 +
_
k
z
z
_
2
. (D 79d)
Note that the amplitude of the explicit operator is greater than unity and grows from one
extrapolation step to the next. In fact, large depth steps cause the operator to yield unstable
results early in the extrapolation process. In general, explicit schemes tend to be unstable unless
special design considerations are made (Section D.5).
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Mathematical Foundation of Migration 647
Rewrite the implicit equation (D-78b) as
P(z + z) = P(z)
_
1 ik
z
z/2
1 +ik
z
z/2
_
. (D 80a)
The phase of the implicit extrapolation operator
1 ik
z
z/2
1 +ik
z
z/2
(D 80b)
is
= tan
1
_
k
z
z
1
_
k
z
z/2
_
2
_
, (D 80c)
and its amplitude is
A = 1. (D 80d)
Note that the amplitude of the implicit scheme is unity. This means that implicit schemes are
unconditionally stable.
We now specialize the phase of the frequency-space implicit scheme given by equation (D-
80b) for the 65-degree dispersion relation as in equation (D-58) and obtain
= tan
1
_
k
z
z
1
_
k
z
z/2
_
2
_
, (D 81a)
where
k
z
=
k
2
x
2
v
v
2
k
2
x
, (D 81b)
with and specied as in Table D-1 for the 65-degree scheme. Equation (D-81a) is the time-
retarded form of equation (D-58) and hence corresponds to the second term of the latter. The
discrete forms of the transform variables are (Claerbout, 1976):
k
2
x
=
4
x
2
sin
2
_
v
xsin
_
1 4bsin
2
_
v
xsin
_, (D 81c)
and
=
2
t
tan
_
t
2
_
. (D 81d)
The scalar b in equation (D-81c) is set to a value between 1/12 and 1/6. The phase error for the
65-degree implicit scheme then is given by
=
, (D 82)
where
and are given by equations (D-81a) and (D-76a), respectively. Refer to the equations
(D-81a,b,c,d) and note that the phase error depends on x, t, v, , , and the depth step z.
Figure D-8 shows contour plots of the phase error dened by equation (D-82) for three
/v values as a function of dip angle and depth step size. Note the complicated behavior of
the contours which indicates that the optimum depth step size is associated with a complicated
interdependence of the various parameters dip, frequency, velocity, spatial, and temporal
sampling rates. Therefore, in practice, migration algoirthms that require wave extrapolation at
discrete depth steps usually do not incorporate an automated estimation of optimum depth steps.
Instead, a constant value between one-half and one dominant period, 20 to 40 ms, depending
on maximum reector dip is specied in practice. See Section 4.4 for the practical aspects of
frequency-space migration.
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648 Seismic Data Analysis
FIG. D-8. Phase error contours in degrees associated with the 65-degree implicit extrapolator (see
Section D.6) for a range of dip angles versus depth step sizes z, and for specic ratios of /v, from
top to bottom, 0.001 (low frequency or high velocity), 0.06 (medium frequency and velocity) and 0.2
(high frequency or low velocity). The parameter b in equation (D-81c) was set to 0.14 for all three cases.
(Computation by Dave Nichols.)
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Mathematical Foundation of Migration 649
D.7 Frequency-Wavenumber Migration
We start with the solution of the scalar wave equation for the zero-oset waveeld as given
by equation (D-7) and assume a horizontally layered earth model associated with a vertically
varying velocity function v(z). By inverse Fourier transforming equation (D-7), we have
P(x, z, t) =
_ _
P(k
x
, 0, ) exp(ik
z
z) exp(ik
x
x +it) dk
x
d, (D 83a)
where k
z
is dened by equation (D-6) adapted to the exploding reectors model by replacing v
with v/2:
k
z
=
2
v
1
_
vk
x
2
_
2
. (D 83b)
The imaging principle t = 0 then is applied to get the migrated section P(x, z, t = 0),
P(x, z, t = 0) =
_ _
P(k
x
, 0, ) exp(ik
x
x ik
z
z) dk
x
d. (D 84)
This is the equation for the phase-shift method (Gazdag, 1978). Equation (D-84) involves inte-
gration over frequency and inverse Fourier transformation along midpoint axis x. Refer to Figure
4.1-29 for a ow diagram of phase-shift migration.
We now consider the special case of constant velocity v. Stolt (1978) devised a migration
technique that involves an ecient mapping in the 2-D Fourier transform domain from temporal
frequency to vertical wavenumber k
z
. We rewrite equation (D-83b) to get
=
v
2
_
k
2
x
+k
2
z
. (D 85)
By keeping the horizontal wavenumber k
x
unchanged and dierentiating, we obtain
d =
v
2
k
z
_
k
2
x
+k
2
z
dk
z
. (D 86)
When equations (D-85) and (D-86) are substituted into equation (D-84), we get
P(x, z, t = 0) =
_ _ _
v
2
k
z
_
k
2
x
+k
2
z
_
P
_
k
x
, 0,
v
2
_
k
2
x
+k
2
z
_
exp(ik
x
x ik
z
z) dk
x
dk
z
.
(D 87)
This is the equation for constant-velocity Stolt migration. It involves two operations in the
f k domain. First, the temporal frequency is mapped onto the vertical wavenumber k
z
via
equation (D-85). This is the same as mapping point B
v
2
rms
(t
) t
_
1/2
, (D 88)
where
v
2
rms
(t) =
1
t
_
t
0
v
2
(t
) dt
, (D 89)
and c is an arbitrary reference velocity used to maintain the vertical axis as time after the
coordinate transformation from t to T. After some tedious algebra, the time-retarded scalar
wave equation takes the following form in the stretched coordinates (Stolt, 1978):
2
P
x
2
+W
2
P
d
2
+
2
c
2
P
dT
, (D 90)
where W is a complicated function of velocity and coordinate variables. In practice, it normally
is set to a constant between 0 and 1. The procedure for Stolt migration with stretch follows:
(a) Start with the stacked section, which is assumed to be a zero-oset section P(x, z = 0, t).
(b) Convert this time section to stretched section P(x, d = 0, T) by the coordinate transforma-
tion (equation D-88).
(c) 2-D Fourier transform the stretched section P(k
x
, d = 0,
T
).
(d) Apply the following mapping function to perform migration:
k
d
=
_
1
1
W
_
T
c
1
W
_
2
T
c
2
Wk
2
x
. (D 91)
This equation is based on the dispersion relation of the retarded wave equation in the
stretched coordinates (equation D-90). The expression for the output from migration is
(omitting the heavy algebra)
P(k
x
, k
d
, 0) =
_
c
2 W
(1 W +
1
K
)
_
P
_
k
x
, 0,
_
ck
d
2 W
(1 W +K)
_
, (D 92a)
where
K =
1
1 + (2 W)
k
2
x
k
2
d
. (D 92b)
(e) 2-D inverse Fourier transform the migrated section in the stretched coordinates P(x, d, T =
0).
(f) Convert back to the familiar space-time coordinates P(x, z, t = 0). This is the nal migrated
section.
To derive the equations for Stolt migration with the output in time = 2z/v, use the
dispersion relation as in equation (D-49a) in lieu of equation (D-83b) and replace the vertical
wavenumber k
z
with the output frequency
= vk
z
/2 in equations (D-84) through (D-88).
When W = 1, equation (D-91) takes the simple form
k
d
=
_
2
T
c
2
k
2
x
, (D 93)
which makes mapping of equation (D-91) equivalent to the constant-velocity Stolt algorithm.
Note that Stolt migration with stretch tries to handle velocity variations. However, it is no
substitute for depth migration; it only accommodates velocity variations that can be handled by
time migration. Figure D-9 shows the ow diagram for Stolt migration with stretch. See Section
4.5 for the practical aspects of frequency-wavenumber migration.
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Mathematical Foundation of Migration 651
FIG. D-9. Flowchart for Stolt migration with stretch.
D.8 Residual Migration
The relationship between the output and input temporal frequencies for a 90-degree time mi-
gration operator (rewritten from equation D-49a) is given by
=
_
v
2
k
2
x
4
, (D 94)
where
= vk
z
/ 2 is the output frequency, is the input frequency, v is the true medium
velocity, and k
x
is the midpoint wavenumber. Equation (D-94) refers to single-pass migration if
the migration velocity is the same as the medium velocity.
Consider a two-pass migration, rst with velocity v
1
, followed by a second migration with
velocity v
2
. The output frequency from the rst pass is
1
=
_
v
2
1
k
2
x
4
, (D 95a)
which is the input frequency for the second pass
2
=
_
2
1
v
2
2
k
2
x
4
, (D 95b)
The horizontal wavenumber k
x
is xed, since it is invariant under migration.
If the output frequency from the single-pass migration given by equation (D-94) is set equal
to that from the two-pass migration given by equation (D-95b), then the necessary relationship
between the residual migration velocity v
2
and the medium velocity v can be established as
v
2
= v
2
1
+v
2
2
. (D 96a)
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652 Seismic Data Analysis
One practical scheme for residual migration is implemented as follows:
(a) The constant-velocity Stolt migration with a stretch factor of W = 1 is used for the rst
pass. Velocity v
1
in equation (D-96a) is chosen as the minimum value in the actual velocity
eld.
(b) For the second pass, a dip-limited nite-dierence migration can be used. The rst-pass
migration brings the dips down to within the range that the second-pass nite-dierence
migration can accommodate, accurately. Remember that the velocity eld for the second
pass is computed by the the relation
v
2
=
_
v
2
v
2
1
, (D 96b)
where v, v
1
, and v
2
are the original, rst- and second-pass migration velocities, respectively. A
multiple-pass application of residual migration is referred to as cascaded migration. Refer to
Sections 4.3 and 4.5 for the practical aspects of cascaded migration and residual migration,
respectively.
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Mathematical Foundation of Migration 653
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