1 The Wiki Concept

1.1
What is a Wiki?
Imagine you are surfing the Internet, and you stop at a site where
you could and would like to add or modify something. For instance,
you have a literary reference or link to add. Or you’ve noticed
a typing error. Perhaps you even have a lengthy article that you’d
like to display on a separate page. So, you just click on the “edit”
button, change everything you wish, add a couple of ideas, confirm
it, and the new page is online immediately! In a history, a listing of
the saved, older versions of the page, you can view previous changes
to the page as well as reverse your entries. If it all was a simple and
transparent experience, you were dealing with a wiki. Wiki technol-
ogy enables virtually anyone to completely edit pages without diffi-
culty. Yet that’s not all – anyone can contribute significantly to the
structure of the site, simply by creating new links and adding new
pages. This openness is the innovative and amazing aspect of wikis.
The title of a book on wikis by Bo Leuf and Ward Cunningham puts
it in a nutshell: The Wiki Way. Quick Collaboration on the Web.
Wikis are downright fascinating tools. It has never been so easy Tools
to become a “correspondent” on the Internet, because the technical
hurdles have been reduced to a minimum. People who hear about or
use wikis for the first time often experience a bit of culture shock.
“Anybody can come along and change my text!” is a popular reac-
tion. The opportunities and consequences of free cooperation in the
context of the typical work organization of our society inevitably
lead to irritation, because we assume that a contribution from “oth-
ers” will destroy our own work. We are simply not used to handing
over control and responsibility – and to strangers at that. The Swed-
ish data systems specialist Lars Aronsson writes:

“Most people, when they first learn about the wiki concept, assume
that a website that can be edited by anybody would soon be rendered

1.1 What is a Wiki? 11

 useless by destructive input. It sounds like offering free spray cans
next to a grey concrete wall. The only likely outcome would be ugly
graffiti and simple tagging, and any artistic efforts would not be long
lived. Still, it seems to work very well.”1

Excursion You can’t quite imagine it yet? Then let’s take a short excursion, and
try out whether or not it is really as easy and free as it sounds. Get on
the Internet and go to the site http://www.wiki-tools.de. Click on
Sandbox. In this sandbox, you are free to experiment at will. Click
on edit. Now, write over the existing text in the middle by typing
your name or whatever else comes to mind. Then click on Save
page below the text field. Congratulations! You have just made your
first entry in a wiki.
Definition A wiki is web-based software that allows all viewers of a page to
change the content by editing the page online in a browser. This
makes wiki a simple and easy-to-use platform for cooperative work
on texts and hypertexts.

Note: Many wikis also correspond to the legal definition of open,

free software. Most are subject to the GNU General Public License
(GPL), which, among other things, prohibits a program from being
converted into “proprietary” software. In this way, copyright laws
prevent a program from being claimed as private property by a legal
person for commercial purposes. Furthermore, the free use, distribu-
tion and editing of the program is ensured.

Origin The first wiki, with the name WikiWikiWeb, was developed in 1995
by Ward Cunningham.2 The software developer from Portland, Ore-
gon is considered to be a pioneer in the development of new meth-
ods, such as object-oriented programming, design patterns or ex-
treme programming. Because he was dissatisfied with conventional
word processing programs, Cunningham searched for a new docu-
mentation system that would better suit the needs of programmers.
His goal was a relatively simple software that would enable collec-
tive work on software codes that could be published immediately.
The new program would automatically document all editing steps to
make changes easier to trace (document history). Ultimately, the
first wiki server went online and has been in operation ever since.3
Connotation “Wikiwiki” is a Hawaiian word that means “quick” or “hurry”.
The name stands for the programming characteristic of wiki soft-
ware in which content can be made available in a quick and uncom-
1
Aronsson 2002.
2
Leuf/Cunningham 2004.
3
http://c2.com/cgi/wiki

12 1 The Wiki Concept

plicated manner. As demonstrated below, there are a number of
further developments of Cunningham’s first Wiki, which we will
subsequently discuss (MediaWiki, TWiki, bitweaver, ProWiki, etc.).

Note: When we refer to “wikis” below, we generally mean the con-

cept, and less so any special implementation.

The use of wikis is dependent upon the goals of the community, Functions
organization or company that utilizes it. Although they were first
intended for software development, they are now used in a variety of
areas. Due to the further development of the wiki concept via various
wiki clones,4 wikis can integrate an increasing amount of functions.
Generally, we differentiate between two application options with Areas of
wikis: They can be used as tools in a closed work group, or they can Application
be directed at potentially everybody over the WWW. Wikis serve as
knowledge management tools in planning and documentation. They
can also be utilized as an open, web-based content management
system (CMS) for the editing and management of a web presence or

Fig. 1.1

4
See Chap. 4 for wiki clones.

1.1 What is a Wiki? 13

 to supplement an existing CMS. You can use wikis as your interna-
tionally accessible notepad or as discussion forums for general and
specialized discussions.
In the meanwhile, the most varied of institutions have discovered
the advantages of wikis. Groups within the so-called civil society,
such as the Austria Social Forum or the Chaos Computer Club, use
wikis as an organizational aid. Wikis are employed in the classrooms
of Swiss schools. Yet even companies such as SAP, Web.de, Mo-
torola or British Telecommunications employ a wiki clone as a de-
centralized intranet, since, in contrast to conventional groupware, it
is considerably more user-friendly.
Growing Wikis are becoming increasingly popular. Primarily due to the
significance success of the free online encyclopedia Wikipedia, wikis have be-
come known to a wide audience.5 At Wikipedia, the wiki concept is
utilized to integrate and display encyclopedic knowledge “from the
bottom up”. In the German-language edition alone, over 540,000
articles were developed communally from May 2001 to February
2007. To date, however, the flagship of wiki technology remains the
English language edition, for which, during the period from 2001 to
early 2007, about 1.6 million articles were written. Worldwide,
Wikipedia exists in more than 220 languages. According to Jimmy
Wales, the founder of Wikipedia, the site, with 400 million hits per
month by the end of 2004, was already more popular than the web-
sites of IBM or Geocities6. Wiktionary7 is an example of a wiki-
based dictionary; Wikitravel8 is an international travel guide. A few
software instructional guides and aids (e.g. German Smalltalk User
Group9) are based on wikis. Furthermore, wikis also serve as a pro-
fessional information medium (e.g. Jurawiki10). Others have discov-
ered wikis as an alternative form to forums and mailing lists.11
Potential Basically, wikis are very young digital tools in which there is still
great potential. Several further applications, such as learning systems
or local news services, are conceivable. Wiki application opportuni-
ties for the self-organization of private or public organizations and
businesses must be further discussed and tested. In addition, much
more development of wiki software will also take place.
5
See Schwall 2003. Wikipedia is a successor project of Nupedia, also based
on wikis.
6
http://www.answers.com/topic/jimmy-wales-lecture-at-stanford-university-
on-2-9-2005, 02/10/07.
7
http://www.wiktionary.org
8
http://www.wikitravel.org
9
http://swiki.gsug.org/
10
http://www.jurawiki.de
11
See e.g. WikiUserTypes, www.twiki.org/cgi-bin/view/Codev/
WikiUserTypes, 02/10/07.

14 1 The Wiki Concept

 Let us briefly summarize:

Firstly, the WikiWikiWeb server technology enables the creation Non-linear

of associative hypertexts with non-linear navigation structures: Typi- hypertext
cally, each page contains a series of cross-links to other pages. The structure
reader decides which page he or she will view next. In cases where
larger wikis employ hierarchical navigation structures, these struc-
tures still play a secondary role.
Secondly, using wikis, the technical hurdles and prior knowledge Easy and
required for communication in and design of the mass medium of extensive
the WWW are reduced to a minimum. It is characteristic of wiki access
technology to allow externally generated texts to be edited “on the
fly”. The entry and formatting of a text is usually done using a few
simple rules. For instance, sequential lines are formatted into lists by
placing a star or dash in front of them. Also, pages within a wiki can
be linked very easily by writing a sequence of words together with-
out a space and with each word capitalized (called WikiWord or
CamelCase, e.g. HomePage) or by placing a text in brackets.
Thirdly, regular users (clients) require no additional software, but No client
rather can navigate, read, or alter content within wikis using conven- software
tional browsers.12 Similarly, no applets or plug-ins must be loaded
by users. Extensive training is not required to participate in a wiki.
Cunningham was right when he described the wiki as “the simplest
online database that could possibly work”.
Fourthly, the simplicity of the software is the condition under Social
which a number of communities and projects have been able to de- processes in the
velop.13 Not only is the technology of wikis interesting, but also the foreground
“wiki philosophy” and the debates on social perspectives linked to
its use. For Internet projects based on the wiki concept, the discus-
sion of purely “technical” problems can generally take a back seat to
work processes, content-related issues and the social connections of
the project. One could say that the wiki concept undoubtedly marks
a new level in Internet technology and its usage.
If wikis are tools that are so easy to use, why would one need Simple usage
a 400-page book? Let us point out a differentiation here. As a nor- and technical
mal wiki user, you require hardly any previous knowledge. If you hurdles
would like to install and maintain a wiki as an administrator, prob-
lems may arise for which more detailed explanations are needed.

12
This means that, in contrast to comparable systems, wiki technology does
not differentiate between “back end” and “front end”.
13
The relationship between project and community varies. For example, at
Wikipedia, a community has developed around a free encyclopedia project.
On the other hand, the MeatballWiki is only a community without a central
project.

1.1 What is a Wiki? 15

 Between these two poles, plug-ins, for instance, offer a series of new
possibilities that we would like to present. In addition: As easy as
wikis generally are to use, the self-organizational processes that
make wikis so fascinating can be very tricky. In such cases, intro-
ductory workshops may be necessary.
The fundamental principle of the wiki technology, however, is
still simple. Let us have a closer look at the technical side of wikis.

1.2
The Technology of Wikis
Readers Wiki-Software is installed as a script on a server. The server pro-
duces small documents, so-called wiki pages or articles, that can be
accessed via a browser. The content of the wiki page itself is written
as simple text and then stored in a file or database. When a wiki-
based Internet page is accessed, the browser first sends a query to
the server that administers the data sets containing the wiki software.
This data, which is in the form of simple text, must now be format-
ted for display in the browser.

Fig. 1.2

To do this, the wiki script translates the file text (wiki code) or data
set into HTML and embeds it in the web page (template) to be sent
back to the browser. For example, the wiki script can be a PHP
script that reads the raw page data from a MySQL database. This
raw data is checked line for line, and the specific format commands
contained in it are replaced by the corresponding HTML codes.14

14
In this step, all URLs are then clickable, and in place of all URLs that end
in gif, .jpg or .png, in other words those displaying images, the corresponding
image tags are set (the images themselves are subsequently loaded by the
browser).

16 1 The Wiki Concept

Subsequently, the page thus created is integrated in the layout tem-
plate. Every wiki page has its own, distinct name indicating the sub-
ject of the page. In addition, there is usually a navigation menu and
a few page-specific links of the displayed page. The most important
of these links is the “Edit” link.
If this page is then to be edited, the edit button is used. This sends Authors
another query to the server. The same page is loaded again, only this
time the contents are not converted to HTML format, but rather
displayed in “raw form” in a large text field in an HTML form. The
user can edit the text in this form and send a new version, which
immediately replaces the old version in the database. When the page
is accessed again, the new version is displayed.

Fig. 1.3

Visitors do not need to know any programming language or HTML

in order to use wikis. Wiki pages are written in simple ASCII for-
mat, just like emails. There is a series of conventions that you should
become familiar with sooner or later, but they are generally easier to
learn and more “intuitive” than HTML. For instance, a blank line
separates paragraphs. When this page is saved, the system translates
the blank line to HTML, that is, it adds a <p> at the respective spot.
The wiki link syntax, which we describe in more detail below, is
also important.
The primary task of wiki administrators is to maintain wiki con- Wiki Admins
tent and ensure the smooth operation of working in a wiki. They
have more extensive rights than regular participants; for example,
they can delete pages or block individual user access. To do this,
wiki admins usually have their own interface or special pages in the
wiki to which only admins have access.

1.2 The Technology of Wikis 17

 Fig. 1.4

Web admins Yet even a wiki cannot exist without some technology. On this level,
the web admin is in charge of software installations, maintenance
and updates. In contrast to the other groups mentioned, web admins
have direct access to files without needing to detour through the wiki
interface.

Fig. 1.5

Level model The categories mentioned up to now indicate a model which divides
the access of participants into levels that differ technically in type
and depth. We add to these the lowest level, which includes the in-
frastructure, the server and operating system, as well as the neces-
sary software, web server and database. They are maintained by
a system administrator.
Thus, while the system and web administrators have direct access
to the server and must not necessarily be integrated into the wiki
community, wiki administrators, authors and readers navigate the
web-based interface of the wiki.
Using the idea of the level model, we can also clearly see that, in
contrast to a normal HTML page, the interface with which content
can be created is found in the client realm. This means that, from
a technical standpoint, conditions have been established in which

18 1 The Wiki Concept

 Fig. 1.6

a great number of people can participate extensively in the design of

the content without needing to clear any major hurdles (such as ac-
cess to the server).

1.3
Characteristic Wiki Functions
Regardless of the wiki script used, all wikis offer a few technical
core functions, which we will only mention briefly here and later in
more detail.

Editing. The edit button is the ultimate typical feature of a wiki.

Only in extreme cases are specific pages excluded from the editing
option. At Wikipedia, for instance, the capability of changing the
title page has been made more difficult. A page can also be com-
pletely prohibited from editing. Since such blocking goes against the
grain of the wiki philosophy, it should be avoided when possible.

Links. Each article can be linked to other articles and thus form
a new network structure.

Note: Links can be created in most wikis using a WikiWord: Words WikiWord/
are capitalized and written together without a space (so-called CamelCase
CamelCase, which in itself is an example of such a WikiWord).
CamelCase makes linking easy, but can also cause problems in some
applications. That is why, in other wikis, links are generated by simply
placing the title in square brackets. Regardless of which procedure is
chosen, a link is thus generated that appears in the normal view.

1.3 Characteristic Wiki Functions 19

 If a respective linked page within a wiki does not yet exist, it can be
created with a simple click of the mouse on that link. In this way,
wikis support associative links between pages in that they design
and display links in an almost intuitive manner, whether or not an
intended link exists. The new pages are now linked to the existing
ones and thus part of the hypertext structure.

History. This function basically saves all previous versions or modi-

fications of any single page. Here, it is possible to exactly track the
editing process of an article, since all changes have been docu-
mented. The “History” function allows a previous version to be
opened and saved again, in order to restore the original content (roll-
back). This concept is based on Cunningham’s editing history, and is
also a useful tool against unfriendly users who wish to destroy the
page. However, it is being used more and more for regular coordina-
tion problems. The history can roll all the way back to the first ver-
sion, but can also be limited due to space reasons. More complex
wiki clones offer a so-called “Diff” function, which displays detailed
alterations between two versions, such that authors do not need to
compare two texts line for line.

Recent Changes. This page either provides a current overview of

a certain number of recent changes to wiki pages or all changes
within a predefined time period. It is produced automatically and
cannot be changed by users. Some wikis, such as MediaWiki, offer
so-called watch lists. Such lists enable selected pages to be moni-
tored over an extended period of time. If you are partial to a particu-
lar article, you do not have to continually look through the list of all
changes to all pages.

SandBox. Wikis usually offer instructions and introductions on their

homepage, which serve to facilitate working with the system. In
addition, new users, as well as experienced ones, can use the so-
called SandBox or PlayGround to learn how to utilize wikis and try
out various solutions without having to use a regular page. You have
already been introduced to the sandbox. This test environment is
nothing more than a wiki page that is emptied on a regular basis.

Search functions. Most wikis also offer a classic full-text or title

search for the wiki pages. Thus, articles in a wiki can be accessed
quickly. It has been our experience that if titles are well-thought out,
the search can function like an index card system.

20 1 The Wiki Concept

1.4
Wiki Clones
With the development and utilization of the WikiWikiWeb, new
challenges have emerged, and accordingly, new programs in which
the wiki concept has been further developed. Meatball (itself a wiki
community) claims that there are currently about 200 different types
of wikis.15 These programs are called clones, since they imitate the
original Wiki, but have added a few extra functions. Most of them
have the term “wiki” in their name. Here are just a few common
examples:

UseModWiki is one of the oldest and most widely-used wiki clones.

Written in Perl, they include several small programs that enable
a variety of additional functions. UseMod has had a substantial in-
fluence on the development of other wikis, such as MediaWiki,
whose formatting language (or, more precisely, its syntax) strongly
resembles that of UseMod.

MediaWiki was conceived for the needs of the Wikipedia encyclo-

pedia project. It consists of several scripts written in PHP, and con-
tains a few further developments (name spaces, sidebar, and mes-
sages regarding processing conflicts).

PmWiki is written in PHP. The focus of its development lies in ease

of use, in order to reduce obstacles which might keep people with
little IT savvy from using a wiki. Simple installation and configura-
bility are the hallmarks of this clone. With its attractive interface and
ability to link namespaces with user rights, it could mean competi-
tion for MediaWiki.16

MoinMoin is a simple and very widely-used wiki clone written in

Python. MoinMoin, whose name reflects a friendly northern German
greeting, enables user registration and has a plug-in system for en-
hancements, among other functions. MoinMoin requires no database
connection.

Bitweaver, a descendent of TikiWiki, written in PHP, already offers

a whole series of useful features. It can stand up to a comparison
with existing content management systems and groupware. How-
ever, in this case, the wiki is just one component – albeit a central

15
Many wikis are listed under: http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiEngines.
16
An assumption not shared by the authors of this book ☺.

1.4 Wiki Clones 21

 one – in an array of additional groupware features, such as forums,
blog functions, newsletters, file and image galleries, and survey, chat
or calendar functions.

The Perl-based TWiki, with its many plug-ins and features, is, in
addition to TikiWiki, the most comprehensive wiki clone. TWiki
implements wiki technology more consistently than bitweaver, be-
cause additional functions can also be realized with this technology
to a large extent. TWiki, which was conceived to be utilized as
a company intranet, is being used increasingly for commercial pur-
poses, due to its high level of development.

The target group of Dokuwiki is primarily developer teams, work

groups, and small companies. This simple wiki clone does not re-
quire a database and, due to its practical application, has attracted
a number of fans.

ProWiki is written in Perl and primarily conceived for use in so-

called wiki farms. Developers place great value in the ability to
quickly generate subordinate wikis as copies of existing ones. In
doing so, the features of the original wiki are transferred to the sub-
ordinated pages. ProWiki aims for high adaptability to a variety of
demands within a wiki.

Wetpaint is a special example for a free wiki offering. With it, you
can write your own wiki pages on a public domain. However, the
wiki software itself is not freely accessible. Several similar commer-
cial wiki clones, such as Confluence or Socialtext, were developed
in the past.

Selection criteria In the appendix, you will find a small tabular overview of important
wiki systems. It cites a few criteria you should look for when select-
ing a wiki. Section V also contains further tips on selecting the right
wiki.

1.5
The Wiki Phenomenon
Brecht’s Bertolt Brecht, in his so-called “Radio Theory”, written in 1930,
Radio Theory wrote that radio has one side when it should actually have two. “It is
purely a distributive apparatus; it just rations out.”17 His now infa-
mous proposal was to convert broadcasting from a distributive appa-
17
Brecht 1930/1967, 129.

22 1 The Wiki Concept

ratus to a communicative apparatus. “Radio could conceivably be
the greatest communicative apparatus of public life, an incredible
channel system; that is, it would be, if it were capable of not only
broadcasting but also receiving, of thus being able to make the lis-
tener not only listen but also speak, and not to isolate him but con-
nect him.”
Just a few decades later, an innovative mass medium became
available in the form of the Internet, which has markedly accommo-
dated Brecht’s technical demands of connecting broadcaster and
receiver. This was just as much the case with the classic visual and
audio media as it is with the “Internet revolution”. Yet technology
and new inventions alone do not change anything. A complex and
difficult reciprocal relationship exists between social progress and
technical innovation. We can analyze this relationship with the aid of
the following questions: Who uses this technology? What goals and
forms are involved? Upon what dependencies does he or she rely?
Accordingly, wikis can be used in an emancipated manner – or not.18

1.5.1
Creativity Through Group Processes

Yet beyond the question of the emancipatory potential of wikis is Wiki effect
perhaps the question as to why the “wiki effect” even occurs at all.
What we mean by “wiki effect” is primarily the self-organization
processes that can be observed in well-known and successful wiki
projects. It is astounding that people will independently research,
organize, write and publish to provide the general public with a free
service. For instance, communities have not only formed around the
large Internet lexica that largely do without central control models.
Their self-organized projects have, in the meanwhile, exhibited con-
siderable successes.
In such cases, it is often evident that the communication of large Cathedral
groups is much more effective and thus can react more flexibly to and bazaar
change than when using hierarchical organizational models. Such
wiki projects are not the exception to the rule: Similar experiences
were previously made with the “subversive” development of open
source software (e.g. Linux). Eric Raymond, a well-known author
and programmer in the hacker and open source scene, hit the nail on
the head when he metaphorically differentiated the various man-
agement methods using the principle of the cathedral and the ba-
zaar:19 While conventional software development assumed that im-

18
See: Ebersbach/Glaser 2004.
19
Raymond 1999.

1.5 The Wiki Phenomenon 23

 portant programs had to be built like cathedrals, “painstakingly chis-
eled by individual druids or small teams of high priests who worked
in complete isolation and were not allowed to issue any unfinished
beta releases, […] the Linux community seemed to be like a large
bazaar of wildly intermingled voices having a variety of goals and
approaches which could produce a coherent and stable system only
through a series of miracles. The fact that the bazaar appeared to
work, and work very well at that, was a downright shock.”
The appeal of wiki technology lies in the act of rethinking the fa-
miliar. Once again, hierarchical control models are at our disposi-
tion, and with them, valid ideas of why and how, through the divi-
sion of labor, complex problems can be solved and products
produced and distributed. It is no less than a question of alternative
socialization models whose possibility (!) becomes apparent.
Large-group People repeatedly ask why wikis work. This question has to be
dynamics posed more precisely: Why and under what conditions do people
cooperate in wiki projects without central control and external pres-
sure? Group processes are a much discussed and investigated topic
in the fields of sociology and education; so much so that we cannot
present it here in all its theoretical complexity. However, experi-
ences with large group events have revealed a few principles which
contribute greatly to the success of large group processes.20

Playful creation. “Why Wiki works? It’s cool”, is the brazen com-
ment at Ward’s Wiki. A loose, playful atmosphere and fun at work
are important conditions for self-organized processes, because one’s
creative, social and practical skills can best be unfolded in such an
environment. It is motivating when one can make his or her own
designs or contribute an article for a large-scale project. Less attrac-
tive “obligatory” tasks do not necessarily fall by the wayside if their
necessity is recognized.

Flat hierarchies. Flat hierarchies are decisive for creative, self-

organized group processes. The responsibility for the entire process,
not just for subareas, is transferred completely to those individuals
performing that process. These responsibilities are integrated into
the planning and workflow control processes as completely as possi-
ble. Newer methodological approaches for large-group events trans-
fer workflow and goal definition responsibilities to participants and
those concerned. This concept requires of its participants a willing-
ness toward the open nature of the process, as well as an agreement
to not only equally distribute the risks, but also the advantages.

20
Especially at open space conferences. See Petri 2000, Maleh 2000.

24 1 The Wiki Concept

 Projects based on the wiki philosophy require flat hierarchies.
This can be seen, for instance, in the fact that participants contribute
considerably to designing the organizational structure of the wiki,
e.g. through linking. Yet social structures also develop within
a wiki – and they often differ from those the initiators had initially
imagined.

Modification pressure and the complex topic. The pressure to mod-

ify (as intrinsic motivation) and the will to want to solve a problem
represent, according to Raymond, an indispensable motor for the
“bazaar”. Working on one’s own topic creates dedication.21 Self-
organization processes build on a responsibility that stems from
interest in the matter. Inevitably, in step with the wiki philosophy,
incomplete or faulty wiki pages are bound to remain unedited for
a time. Only after someone has deemed it necessary will the page be
modified or existing errors corrected.
It is important, as Raymond has explained for the bazaar, to be
part of a worthwhile cause and that improvements in which one is
involved become apparent. In addition, a complex topic representing
an intellectual challenge promotes the dynamics of large-group
processes. They develop their full strength through a fascinating and
challenging topic which can, by all means, have a high potential for
conflict.

Simple system, simple rules. The decision to sit down and join in
is the greatest obstacle for self-organization processes. Successful
self-organized group processes are often founded on very simple
basic systems, because favorable – if complex – decision-making
and modification processes depend only on a rough overall concept,
access to all relevant information and clear basic conditions. Thus,
the conference model Open Space functions with just a handful of
rules.
Wiki technology, with its low technical access hurdles, is ideal
for web-based group processes. Several wiki communities have
implemented simple codes of conduct.

Open access. Free will and open access are vital conditions for mo-
tivation in self-organization processes. The success of the bazaar
principle as well as the wiki philosophy is based on the fact that
discussions are removed from alleged expert and specialist circles,
right from the start. This creates transparency and incentive.

21
Of course it makes a difference whether a goal is self-set or stipulated, or
whether external goals have been taken on as one’s own.

1.5 The Wiki Phenomenon 25

 A large pool of participants testing the system is also a way to
identify errors at an early stage. The system becomes more stable
and can be more quickly adapted to the changing needs of its users.
For wikis, this approach is supported by the principle of “open
postings”. With wikis, users are invited to edit an existing page
within their normal browser or add new pages. In contrast to the
classic editing principle, articles are not first proofread and only
published when completely error-free, but rather as soon as possible,
so that users of a page can be integrated in the cooperative process.

Diversity of the participants. For the dynamics of self-organization

processes and collaborative work, a climate of openness and mutual
trust is necessary – despite inevitable conflicts. A variety of experi-
ences, backgrounds and knowledge is seen as the basis of creative
processes and as an enrichment, and thus, every user is initially rec-
ognized as an expert.
The wiki philosophy is based on the assumption that those indi-
viduals will become involved who also want to contribute to the
situation. Their knowledge and motivation are sufficient to contribute
to the issue. A certain degree of heterogeneity can also be observed in
participants of wiki projects regarding their areas of interest.22

Extremely flexible scheduling. A relatively flexible scheduling of

one’s work time within an overall process is a further motivator.
According to the bazaar principle, which knows no deadlines, it is
possible to tailor one’s work time to suit one’s own rhythm and in-
dividual daily life. Work begins when the time is ripe, and ends
when it is finished. It is less bound to fixed schedules. Time pres-
sures exist only when problems remain untouched.

Self-determined work. People involved in group processes and

members of communities have very different strategies and just as
varied an understanding of their own function within the overall
relationship. In addition, strategies and self-conception are subject to
continuous change, such that it is difficult to determine certain roles
or types – perhaps it is not even advisable. However, for better un-
derstanding, it would be helpful to consider that each individual –
once freed from a socio-economic background – enters into relation-
ships with other participants via a wiki in a very multifaceted man-
ner. Cooperation in open wiki projects is attractive because strate-

22
As in the case of many other Internet projects, we must mention the limiting
factor that we expect the circle of active wiki users to continue to be limited to
certain social groups for the present (keyword: digital divide).

26 1 The Wiki Concept

gies, focal points, and work intensity can be self-determined to
a large extent.

Reception behavior. We have to distinguish between whether and

how often participants visit a wiki system, whether they read the
articles fleetingly or closely, and whether they are searching for
articles on a particular topic or across several subjects.

Writing behavior. With regard to writing behavior, there are

a number of variations. Some visitors of a wiki never write there.
Others proofread, edit the style and layout, and make small changes.
Others still, the specialists, acquaint themselves in detail with a sub-
ject and contribute articles with a great degree of content. In com-
parison, “generalists” jump from article to article and bring in
knowledge from other areas.

Structural behavior. This category refers to the extent to which

responsibility for an overall project is assumed. It includes the ques-
tion as to how intensively one participates in fundamental debates or
voices considerations regarding general procedures. Some partici-
pants take on functions as mediators or moderators. Others assume
regulatory tasks, such as checking orphaned pages. Accordingly, the
technical administrators and maintainers also belong to this cate-
gory. People in self-organized processes ideally receive functions
through their authority and the trust they have earned through their
work.

Social behavior. This category encompasses atmospheric aspects. It

refers to the form in which criticism and encouragement are im-
parted. Does one enter the discussion with a provocative or coopera-
tive stance? On another level, the organization of the social and
cultural periphery is also part of this realm, such as a regulars’ table
or seminar weekends.

The forms broadly discussed here are naturally not pure, but rather
overlap each other and evolve. Due to the interplay between the
individual practices and goals, the overall relationship is continually
restructured as a process. The members of a community have just as
much of an effect on the individual through their actions as the indi-
vidual does when contributing to the daily design of form and con-
tent of the community. All of these behaviors, including those that
are passive and, in a broader sense, “destructive”, are necessary to
a dynamic community. However, the community can also be de-
stroyed by them at any time. Knowledge of specific and general

1.5 The Wiki Phenomenon 27

 group processes within a wiki community is still in its early stages.
At the 21st Chaos Community Congress in 2004 in Berlin, Jimmy
Wales presented some initial considerations using the example of
Wikipedia. A few of the “types” he outlined serve to illustrate the
degree of diversity.

Bees. Wales describes as “bees” those participants who perform

very important work and without whom Wikipedia could not
achieve or maintain its quality. Nevertheless, they are the least
recognized group. They include generalists and specialists. They
provide important content articles, proofread texts or negotiate
with difficult users.
Sock puppets. This group is comprised of people who publish
under more than one account. This is done for a variety of rea-
sons. A few wish to preserve their privacy (such as a professor
who also writes as a fan of Britney Spears but fears a loss of au-
thority). For others, such as those using multiple identities to ma-
nipulate polls, it represents a despicable attack on the mutual trust
upon which open editing is based.
Judges. This is obvious. These are people who focus on conflict
resolution and decision-making. They are active in juries and ar-
bitration committees. They organize polls and further develop
proposals for regulations.
Moths. This rather strange label becomes clear when considering
that “moths are drawn to flames”, as Wales explains. Flames in
this case refer to flame wars, that is, heated and often insulting
verbal duals. While people who start aggressive flame wars gen-
erally do not enjoy a good reputation, Wales sees the fact that in-
dividual participants seek conflict and do not try to avoid it as not
necessarily negative action. On the contrary, these discussions
can lead to vital advancements.
Vandals are a common problem in open editing systems. They
willfully destroy content, and yet they pose a much smaller threat
to the community than is generally assumed.
People “outside” of the wiki are often overlooked in terms of
their significance. They continue to develop wiki technology as
programmers. Even those individuals who primarily develop wiki
content in other communicative media (e.g. chats or mailing lists)
also play a role.

28 1 The Wiki Concept

1.5.2
Limits of the Wiki Philosophy

Wikis are not automatic “successes”, much less a cure-all. Produc-

tive group processes are always faced with destructive practices that
even the large wiki communities have to combat right from the start.
In problem analysis, we need to differentiate between whether the
group dynamics have stemmed from a constructive start to the proc-
ess and then slipped toward the negative, or whether wikis are sim-
ply not being accepted as normal tools.
If wikis are not being accepted as tools and are thus not integrated Lack of interest
into the daily work routine, they share the same fate as several
knowledge management systems. Usually one person alone does the
writing, and the others only read. Or the wiki system is not consulted
at all. There are several wiki systems whose possibilities cannot be
fully unfurled due to a lack of interest or out of lethargy. The causes
are manifold. Generally, social elements are underestimated when
dealing with new software. More than a few users already have high
expectations when a wiki system is made available, and are quickly
disappointed when it is not met with immediate positive response.
However: Even if the technical hurdles are few, using wikis must
still be “learned;” people still have to be interested in or introduced
to the system. This includes the realization that a wiki is never “fin-
ished” and that not everything is going to function properly right
away. The fact that one is not dealing with a WYSIWYG system can
cause apprehensions that need to be taken seriously.
The acceptance of wikis depends on the degree to which I as
a person can truly benefit personally from using them. That is why it
is still important that the wiki not be empty at the start, but rather
provide a certain quantity of content that can be further edited or to
which additions can be made. This also means that a small core
group that uses wikis for itself and thus feels responsible for it is of
great significance.
Using wikis, the work environment can be influenced, and at the Social
same time, be dependent upon it. Using open systems in today’s environment and
working world is met with many types of resistance. The lack of working world
willingness of managerial persons (project managers, area managers,
etc.) to permit open systems in private companies is only one exam-
ple.23 However, the same thing can occur in authoritarian organiza-
tional structures.

23
Even in companies in which hierarchies are being disassembled, this does
not necessarily translate into a higher degree of transparency of company
structures.

1.5 The Wiki Phenomenon 29

 High workload, family and social responsibilities or social security
worries often allow little room for free forms of cooperation which
are admittedly also complex.
Vandalism Let us return to the issue of “vandals” and vandalism. It has gen-
erally been observed that in wiki projects, destruction and/or damage
remains relatively insignificant. It is assumed that cracking an open
system poses no great appeal to “serious” crackers. The WikiWiki-
Web server principle provides its own evidently effective antidote in
its version control. It enables the previous version to be restored at
any time. In systems with a high visitor frequency, disturbances can
be detected quickly, as systems with several participants tend to be
more “stable”. Wikipedia, for instance, places pages that are fre-
quently damaged on a separate list, to which the administrators pay
special attention. According to an IBM study, incidences of deliber-
ate destruction at Wikipedia are often eliminated within five min-
utes: “We were surprised at how often we found vandalism, and then
surprised again at how fast it was fixed,”24 reports Martin Watten-
berg, a researcher at IBM TJ Watson Research Center in Cambridge,
Mass. The fact that many people can control the process and anyone
can take instant action is the most significant element in the quality
control of large, public wikis. It only requires a corresponding sense
of problem awareness on the part of users, who anticipate such at-
tacks. Yet even willful alterations to small details can greatly inhibit
the quality without being immediately noticed. Another – last –
method has already been mentioned: blocking a page – which means
the end of the wiki philosophy for that page.
Attention- Greater problems stem from people who use wikis as a platform
seekers for attention-seeking or those who do not wish to conduct discus-
sions cooperatively. Provocation and posing general questions can
be useful in breaking through a rut in thinking. Various opinions on
a topic often develop into “editing wars”. So-called trolls knowingly
incite flame wars with lengthy, superfluous or provocative articles.
Such conflicts, which contribute nothing to the issue, cost a great
deal of energy. “Wiki pages represent consensus because it’s much
easier to delete flames and spam than indulge them.”25 In many
wikis, trolls are kept away from the articles through discussion
pages, so that, where possible, they only need to vent on this meta-
level without “adding noise” to the real content26. In addition, at
Wikipedia, a few mediation procedures and open instances have
been established, such as ad hoc mediation commissions or openly-
discussed exclusion petitions.
24
IBM 2003.
25
Why Wiki Works, http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?WhyWikiWorks, Feb. 10 2007.
26
Aronsson, 2002.

30 1 The Wiki Concept

 In very stubborn cases, there is also the opportunity to block cer-
tain users for a limited period or forever, using an IP list. In order to
promote transparency and exclude arbitrariness, users can access
a list of blocked users at any time and find out about the initiator and
grounds for exclusion. Such blocking of certain IP addresses, in turn,
leads to the problem that non-excluded users may be mistakenly
barred from having continued access.27 A further problem is that the
disruptive parties can re-register at any time under a new name.
In his book “Die heimliche Medienrevolution” (“The Secret Me-
dia Revolution”), published in 2005, Möller provides a comprehen-
sive look at the problems and possible solutions in dealing with
difficult controversies and vandalism in blog and wiki community
environments.28
The best overview of the discussion culture and decision-making Project portal
processes can be had with a visit to Wikipedia. Let us take a short excursion
excursion to the project’s Community Portal page.29 Here, we find
guidelines and conventions, discussion pages for admin candidates,
moderation information and pages collecting opinion statistics.
Completed problem cases are documented on the arbitration com-
mittee page. And of course, a visit would not be complete without
taking a look at some of the discussion pages of individual articles.
As we can see there: For quality assurance and conflict resolu- Quality
tion, a few mediating instances, rules and practices have formed at assurance and
Wikipedia. We find name and formatting conventions; well-made Wikiquette
articles are presented as examples, and quality offensives are being
performed in certain topic areas. A Wikiquette offers recommenda-
tions for cooperative communication with other users:30 Suggestions
such as assuming the good intentions of other users, objectivity,
mutual help and encouragement, and kindness are proposed, as is the
advice to keep cool in conflicts that will inevitably crop up. After all,
there are always the arbitration committees. And yet, the overall
character remains true to its democratic fundamental principles.
Anything else would cause the project to fail.
One especially touchy subject is the credibility and objectivity Neutral Point
problem. At Wikipedia, this is addressed, among other ways, under of View
the heading “Neutral Point of View”. Since many people from
around the world and having the most varied of political and reli-
gious views take part in the project, Wikipedia is obligated to formu-
late articles as neutrally as possible. The point is not to write them as
objectively as possible – this is a common misunderstanding – but to
27
Since IP addresses are not always issued on a permanent basis.
28
Möller 2005. To an extent, also in: Möller 2003.
29
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Portal, Feb. 10 2007.
30
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikiquette, Feb. 2 2007.

1.5 The Wiki Phenomenon 31

 present all aspects of an issue. Most wiki users have thus learned to
express themselves in a conflict-free way, insofar as possible. In-
stead of writing “Apples taste good”, one would instead write “Some
people like the taste of apples.” We will address the issue of appar-
ent neutrality at the end of this book.
Open editing Giving up the author principle is an aspect of collaborative work.
It leads to a few questions: Is someone who has contributed to col-
laborative texts legally accountable? Who is the author? It is true
that traditional newspapers and encyclopedias also represent a col-
lection of articles by a variety of authors, but in open wikis, there is
no traditional relationship between publisher and author. Wiki texts
are thus not directly subject to the compulsion of marketability. In
such cases, the individual author, on the one hand, receives a much
stronger, more independent role, while, on the other hand, he disap-
pears in the open system as an individual author at the same time.
Open text A further area of interest is the issue of ownership and copyright.
Since many individuals contribute to content, the question must be
clarified as to whether anyone can claim copyright on individual
articles or even the whole collection. Wikipedia, for instance, allows
every user the right to protect his or her own contributions. How-
ever, when the page is being saved, the user is informed that he or
she may only benefit from one type of copyright, namely the GNU
Free Documentation License (FDL). In short, this means that anyone
may copy and use the text for other purposes as long as he or she
makes the original text available to other readers, which is most
easily done by linking to the Wikipedia URL.31
Another question which arises deals with how materials protected
by copyright are used in wikis, and who is responsible for any aris-
ing damage. To date, there has not yet been a precedent case. How-
ever, the law in most European countries differentiates between
newspapers having an editing department for which a publisher is
accountable and bulletin board systems or services of an Internet
provider, where individual users bear the responsibility. Wikis are
more likely to be categorized with the latter.
Careful Wikis will also have their share of problems and setbacks. The
optimism wiki philosophy may see some things too optimistically. Neverthe-
less, previous experience has given reason to adopt an open and
optimistic stance toward these developments. The problems known
to date and mentioned here do not negate any grounds for optimism;
if one considers human relationships as being permanent collective
learning processes, one cannot simply say, “people are the way they
are”, and stop there. Instead, one must question the causes for obsta-

31
Aronsson, 2002.

32 1 The Wiki Concept

cles to “learning” (prejudices, insecurities, lack of complete under-
standing of group processes). Brecht’s comment on “Radio Theory”
is good advice for dealing with the “impossibilities” of wikis:

“Not feasible in this social order, feasible in another, the sugges-

tions, which are only a natural consequence of technical develop-
ment, serve the propagation and form of this other order. [...] If you
should consider this utopian, I kindly ask you to consider why it is
utopian.”

1.6
Wiki Pages
Pictures are worth a thousand words. That is why we would like to
present a few sample wiki pages on the following pages. We used no
special criteria in selecting these examples; moreover, we wish to
convey an impression of the diversity of wiki software.

TeacherWiki (http://teacherwiki.pbwiki.com): An open platform for

teachers to collaborate and share knowledge on education, curricula,
instruction, resources and technology.

Recipes Wiki (www.recipeswiki.org): A free collection of cooking

and baking recipes to which anyone can contribute easily and with-
out registration. Includes integrated cooking videos.

Wikitravel (www.wikitravel.org): Project with the goal of generat-

ing a complete, current and reliable international travel guide whose
content is freely accessible.

Open Guide to Boston (boston.openguides.org): One example from

the Open Guide travel guide.

DorfWiki (VillageWiki) (www.dorfwiki.org): Virtual wiki-based

meeting, learning and workplace to which anyone can and is encour-
aged to contribute who cares about the topic of “villages” and all
things “village-like”.

Memory Alpha (www.memory-alpha.org): Free, community pro-

ject for the generation of a comprehensive encyclopedia all about
Star Trek.

1.6 Wiki Pages 33

 1.7
Important Resources on the WWW
c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiEngines WikiEngines on Wards Wiki lists
a number of Wiki engines, including categorization according to
programmer language.

usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl The English language Meatball Wiki is

a platform for practitioners concerned with online communities.

www.wikimatrix.org On WikiMatrix, approximately 70 wiki clones

can be compared with one another.

www.opensourcecms.com OpensourceCMS offers the opportunity

to test the most popular open source CMS and wikis.

www.wikiservice.at/gruender/wiki.cgi?StartSeite The Gründer-

Wiki (Founder Wiki) is a German-language site comparable to
Meatball Wiki.

wiki.LIBERAL (https://my.fdp.de/wiki): Online dictionary concern-

ing Germany’s FDP (Free Democratic Party). A site where informa-
tion about the FDP, its programs and history can be collected.

Placeopedia (www.placeopedia.com): A wiki that links Google

Maps and Wikipedia articles.

Semapedia (semapedia.org): Its goal is to link the virtual world of

Wikipedia with the real world using Semapedia tags, which are
physical hyperlinks that can be read by cell phones.

34 1 The Wiki Concept

http://www.springer.com/978-3-540-35150-4