PRACTICAL SEISMIC INTERPRETATION by Dr Michael E. Badley 1987 BADLEY, ASHTON & ASSOCIATES LIMITED Ayeland House Queen Street Spilsby Lincolnshire PE23 5JX EnglandACKHOVLEDGEMERTS 5 {would Like to express sy thants to the following individuals aad orgpaieatioae far help ta prepariag the course, This course would not have been possible without the great help of Merlin Profilers Ltd. I The help of colleagues at Badley, Ashton & Associates Ltd., in particular Mike Ashton and John Price, has been invaluable. dl) To Harold Nordberg and Worsk Hydro for help in obtaining seismic data. To Ana Trim for word processing and to my wife, Pam, for her help in many ways. a ISa a oS j OT ama a a CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. . SEISMIC INTERPRETATIO! Key concepts. : How to estimate the seismic pulse shape... How to estimate seismic pulse frequency or wavelength. 7 How to evaluate seismic resolution. How to identify multiple reflections............ How to identity diffractions and reflected refractions... How to recognise velocity distortions. . How to determine static shifts of marine seismic data. How to make a well-to-seisnic tie.. Data preparation SEISKIC INTERPRETATION TECHNIQUES Picking tips and well to seismic tie .... Seismic stratigraphy terminology....... Where to pick and tying loops...... Recogaising lithology from seismic sections Reflections associated with hydrocarbons and diagenetic. . effects How to digitise seismic data... Yanual contouring techniques... Velocity and depth conversion. BASIN ANALYSIS AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES Large scale tectonic processes and stratigraphy...... Structural geological techniques..... STRATIGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES Log correlation............ How to decompact sediments.......... How to construct burial history diagrams... REFERESCES. ...eer Bee Wiha! ee hee! INTRODUCTION The manual is written for explorationists working in an office environment who have to interpret seismic sections, The purpose of the manual is to encourage problem tackling from first principles. If the essence of a problem is appreciated, it is much easier to choose the technique(s) that is likely ta give the best solution. This manual provides the seisafc interpreter with a comprehensive ‘tool xit' that can te used to help solve common interpretation problems.sees ‘Ac KBY CONCEPTS i] Reflection seismic uses sound waves to investigate the subsurface. Acoustic impedance is t! rock property that governs reflections q Acoustic ‘apedance = interval velocity x density. Reflections arise at boundaries across which acoustic impedance (AI) changes, eg. q es Limestone S==seec= Ala = 2.6g/cm® x 4500m/s = a (the greater the refraction Reflection Strength The greater the difference in the acoustic impedance, the stronger the reflection. The size of the change is defined by the reflection coefficient (RC), RCs are tve (positive) if AI increases, eg shale Re AL, - AT, AT, +AI, RCs are ~ve (negative) if AI decreases, eg Limestone shale Reflections from positive RCs are compressional. Reflections from negative RCs are refractional. The ideal stfsnic response to an acoustic tnpedance change would be a spike, a ar cally! but Life Le more complicated we and we get a wave consisting = ——> =| of troughs and peaks -Roe Some basic definitions 4 Frequency = number of tines Amplitude 2 wavelet repeats per second, iansiasa wavelength 00 ors Is measured in Hertz, poe i X@s) eg. a wavelet with a duration of S0ms (05s) has a frequency of 25 Hertz (Hz) tea! oa ar a 7 © and refraction i fo reflection occurs if the acoustic impedance does not change, even if lithology changes a, 2.3g/em* x 2300m/s = $290 units 53 \_ Wo reflection 2g/ca? x 2126a/s 5290 units “-|\aly refraction ae Ray path bending (refraction) responds to velocity change: the greater thé velocity change +SSeS Vavelength (z or ft) = velocity | frequency Yaveforas are conplicated but pragmatic interpreters can, as a first assumption, hope thet the wavelet end response on the seismic section is either Rc “s Xaxinum anplitude ia first peak Symmetric wavelet with or trough. Vavelet starts at the maximum amplitude at AT boundary Al boundary Polarity is the way in which seismic data is recorded and displayed. SEG nornal polarity data has conpressional waves (from +RC boundaries) recorded as a negative number on ta; and displayed as a trough (white). A negative reflection has the sane shape but is reversed - every peak a trough, every trough a peak. Fornal Reverse Polarity Polarity . example of normal and reverse polarity mininun phase wavelet FRC. = VHAT VE MEASURE - the basics (we can do much more than this) 1. * travel time down to a reflector two-way time (IVT) which is and back to the surface = related to depth by: time = 2 x depth ales 2 anplituce ~ the relative amplitude gives @ measure = 5 of the acoustic impedance change Fa... — reflection polarity which (for interference free reflections) "aS can show 17 the toundary has @ positive or negative reflection coetticient a 4. Interval velecity - in favourable cfrculfstances All these 4 parameters o: carry a lithological and geological message! HDA LAL Dn ey CE VERBS RAEI ae oe Set vec. : one aa Fy PS ra Ts eyic wal Wate 1. Agoustic’ impedance increases with depth as rocks compact (overpressured zones excepted). Compactable lithologies such as clays increase their acoustic impedance with burial at a 4 greater rate than less compactable sediments, eg. Limestones, sandstones. Result: ATS increase but contrasts Hisfefoce reflections becowe weaker with depth for a given lithology pats! The seismic signal loses strength through transmission losses, spherical divergence, ete. \ The earth attenuates the higher frequency content of the propagating wavelet at a greater \ rate than lover frequencies. a Result: a progressively lower frequency wavelet (le. a longer tine duration or wavelength) and poorer resolution with depth. i © the combined effect is weaker reflections and poorer resolution with dept. VERTICAL 28501 Vertical resolution determines how thick a unit must be to be resolved J | ie Seismic wavefora. Vhen a unit is thicker than.4 wavelength (\), reflections from its top and base are interfere: free. 5 : +R sehepabi | a ab te Sele » delayed by Base 1A #50) -RC /-Yhen a unit is A thick reflections, froz 5 its top and base are just separate. Less HRC : than ¥s thick, ag refle-tions overlap and ® 3 (1 constructively inter: If RCs at top and =RC base are of opposite sign, but destructively LAnterfere if the RCs are the same sign. At Wo talctnees, maxima soterterence Ctuning? = MV Lt occurs. Dinsing occurs if RCs are same sign % RC At about 1/30 interference destroys the reflection no matter how large the RCs Sao gGgeguaa@aa Top Base +R 41/804 —_- — -RC vy | r ae¢ mors Rousd Horizontal resolution: On unmigrated sections reflections arise from the portion of the reflector from which the reflection reaches the detector within &\ of the first reflected energy ~ the fresnel zone. err Fresnel zone radius can be estimated from: Radius Fresnel = Average Velocity ts\TWT) 2 F Wominent frequency hertz) On migrated sections lateral resolution is affected by the trace interval, array length, processing shorz-cuts and imperfections of migration. but is usually not a sigaificant problen, {Ea NOISE AND DISTORTIONS Unfortunately, even with good processing not all reflections are primaries. Ce . setimic ecprestion Hultiples are reflections that have surface re 1 Rore than one “bélisce". They occur multiple x i Lh as ‘reflectiona” With a time-delay travel path—\X/ +nC— primary = EF equal to the tine thickness of the reflector’ ees layer in which the extra bounce(e) multiple Lvememe — f] occurred. Multiple reflections E Snvolving a reflector with a negative RC (eg. groun Mbave OF Le opposite phase (polarity) to the prinary reflection phase (polarity) to the prinary reflection om Multiples irom dipping reflectors | |§ —————_________ surface will show twice the dip of the primary reflection. ——— =~ 10° Rettector SE eee multiple Diftractions are reflections NYO contosy ecotiered ty simp aneeeeee Dittractions”—7 = eg. fault. They appear es characteristic hyzerbolic EEE 2 ection t reflections on utnigrated seismic A sections AN attractions k Reflected ref surface Feflections shat save ed fl Significant latera! travel [UL Geology. | paths. They occur when E angle and instead of heiag refracted through a layer Seismic exoression travel withia it for some Ai ffrections distance. oe Reflected refraction a fl7 comzon mid-point (CMP) seismic method surface ] assumes that reflections arise at the mid-point between source and receiver. This is only true for horizontal reflectors. If a reflector dips the and the reflection will be longer than 7 the reflector. This results in anticlines being too broad and an rettector synclines too narrow. apaean Reflector surface Migration corrects this effect but unless part of a 3-D survey, only operates in two dimensions, ie. the migration assumes that all reflections have originated in plane of the section. This is acceptable on a dip- Line but on a strike line even dipping reflections appear flat! - and arise updip from the intersection of seismic section and reflector. 2-D migration has no effect on a strike line. Consequently, after migration dip and strike Lines mis-tie. The effect becomes serious for dips greater than 10°15". ~ “VELOCITY: Varying velocity with depth causes a distortion - rock units of the same thickness but different interval velocities will have different time thickness on seismic sections - low velocity intervale will icker than high velocity intervals, because, surface : saterval velocity fet a co time - _2 x thickness Perhaps nore serious, lateral velocity _—_—_— variation will cause spurious Zin seionte seek See ANG in a salt diapir than adjacent forge cedinent will cause a pull-up of Bie pull-up of planer base underlying reflections Push=down fait resleche occurs beneath lower velocity units, eg. sea-floor canyons, low velocity near-surface layers. Velocity effects must be antictrated, MM NON A Te —=—=> eee _recognised and evaluated. = Geslog a AeWhtE OF REFLECTIONS Ten? poe Maimick sunccowek sreuctuee /]2ee REFRACTION: Refraction occurs across boundaries where velocity changes Noraallysrefractional effects are not a problem. ie. when dip is low. But when a target interval is overlain by a thick dipping sequences with velocity changes the following problen can occur: m4 s. 6 surface torget FOTN achoat wtplchon Pepeeke IEEE poi pat Ordinary migration will not correct the positional error caused by the essumption that the reflection is located beneath the mid-point between source and receiver. Simple depth conversion of the time migrated sections will not correct the error. Refractional effects are a very important consideration for targets beneath complex structures, eg. salt diapirs, thrust sheets, etc. In such situations depth migration involving ray-path tracing ts required. SSScries te SEISMIC PULSE How to estimate the seisaic pulse shape fron seis: ‘sections ‘A imowledge of the pulse shape is required before the interpreter can evaluate interference effects.’ There are many types of pulses of different phases and characteristics but, in 2 simplified way for the interpreter, we can group the seismic pulse {nto two min types:- minigum phase and zero phase. A pules where the energy 1s cocceatrated at its front can be said to be minimum phase and is ‘thought to te typical of many seisaic signals (Pig. PLS1). Minimum phase pulses ave their offset at. the acoustic Ampedence contrast. However, zero phase pulses offer the following advantages:— : : / For the same amplituce spectrum a zero phase signa! is always shorter than minisum phase and has greater amplitude than the equivalent minimim phase signal a:7 so improves the signg,to noise ratio, zero phase signals also have thei: maximum amplitude cofaciding with the theoretical reflectivity. spike, The maxim amplitude of a minima phace signal is delayed with reference to the reflectivity spike. Figures PLS? and PLSS. show contrasting interference effects for a variety Of bed configurations for minimum and zero phase wavelets. The differences between the responses are due to interference effects caused by the different shapes of the zero and minimm phase wavelets. The zero phase wavelet centred around each acoustic Impedence boundary can interfere with wavelets from nearby boundaries both above and below je mint base. wavelet; extending dowi from the boundary, can only inte dth vavelete from underlying acoustic impedence contrasts: The tigures illuctrate the isrtance for tie tatemreee er knowing the type of wavelet to which the seigyig has bees processed end dieplayed, a5 they fundamentally affect the per Bion of the geological interfaces. Although the above diécussion has: been ceutred around a description of ninimun and zero phase wavelets, unfortunately processing 1s not alvays successful in producing these idealised pulse shapes. Frequently. for example, processing can result in Binimum phase data having a second half cycle. It’ is nct uncommon to find ‘that phase changes with time in seismic sections. Determining tne seismic pulse can be difficult, fa the first instance we Gan read the seismic section label ani se2 what type of seismic pulse should have been generated by the processing sequence. For example Rinimm phase deconvolution should produce minimum passe seismic pulses. Often we, have a mix of operators in the processing, for example minimum phase deconvolution followed by a zero phase tine variant filter. The. result should be slightly mixed phase r: With the underlying minimum phase data being dominant in this situacicn. an alternative approach, or one which can check the success of the processing, ig to observe directl. ‘gduced at a boundary wits a Big in the seismic the shave of the wavelet acoustic impedence contrast. It is essential that the reflecting boundary Se free froa iaterference efiects. Figure PLS¢ shows an example of minimum phase data, where the pulse shape is quite clearly discernible at the strong une y reflection and Figure PLSS shows an example of zero phase deta, Obviously, visual inspection of the data t pulse shape a rather crude method, and the po: see interference effects acdifying this wavelet and producing an pulse shape, or of pulse, must be borne in mind. mnaa a aw lg a a sg ae a UGsssssiteenest cece he a wwSPF Ps seme een ee oot eaDix Interval velocitiesHOV TO ESTIMATE THE DOMINANT SEISKIC PULSE FREQUENCY OR VAVELENGTH Z A very important agpect of interpretation is a knowledge of the dominent i] ] frequency content of our seisnic data and how this varies with tine iy one seismic section. Knowledge of the dominant frequency enables us to calculate wavelength from the relationship: wx - a . or) (a) = interval velocit q Freq. (kz) ~Trequeney HZ and so calculate dept condly, snables us to estimate the likely interference sffecr Interference between the seismic responses Tron close! ‘spaced seustie teettee| boundaries 0 che “SF-Tie nae Sone Tie Saeae tareee igure FOF SigWe the composite seismic response frou a nunber of closely spiced acoustic. tspedence contrasts, thie comecite: Ceaeey cof ciety interpreted easily. as there is not a simple one-tocons relationship between the seismic trace and the acoustic impedance in boundaries. Interference always occurs when reflections from different reficcters overlap. Interference fe detersined tere the seismic pulse ts pilliseconse and tae. cpaclag of the poise eetase og ee bales tn which function oF TtoraT WeLeet — Obviously, we have no control over the spacing oi acoustic impedsice boundaries but clearly the length of the seismic pulse in milliseconds {s related to the doxinant frequency of cur seismic signal. The length of the soienie pulse {s critical. Ideally, the seismic pulse would be a spike whose reflections would also be spikes with amplitudes corresponding to the magnitude of the Teflection coefficients. Such a situation would resule in perfect resolution, However, in practice, the seisaic source pulse bas a duration | of several tens of milliseconds and consists of one or two peaks and one or two ‘troughs. Figure FQ2 shows an example of a selemc cource pulse extracted from real seismic data, Although seismic systens are designed to Produce a seismic source signal of both high frequency and broad band width, the earth, unfortunately, scts as a’ very efficient attenseton of a this signal, This attenuation causes loss of frequency with depth, there a potential seismic resolution and how this varies with. now] “of a-domiaaat frequency at a particular de being an almost constant fractional energy loss per cycle of ths selene wave, The high frequencies are attenuated more than lower frequencies sor f-barticular path length. This process produces a decrease in the dominant nN frequency of the seisnic signal with depth (Fig. FQ). The destene saisaic fraiuency with depth neaulte in loner febsiaos eee Eire sea ESS ee eset ton tential and are “Blssie SeGtTETren oe eratuated by to mae Sane y TE CR nS has access. to processing facilities, it is possible to estimte ths siewe wavelet frequency at various tines directip tren the doe mes Be geisatc Figure FQ. However, norsally the interpreter will not have’ thee facility available and a nore pragtatic approach has to be used - visual inspection Gf the Selenic section itaelf. "En tavouraole cireoeveanc eet messes Frequency caa be estimated by chocrving, the asrerion es Sty Sosimast prs response | cfTOe _,tsolstea reflecting boundaries that produce “strong FQ4 shows an exszpie of a seismic section where ctions are developed at different times. The ns Suggests that they are largely interference /_show the response to a single reflecting beomdary- Cn EF aga ite siaply be estimated by aeacur: dy rete one ; F 4- range of frequencies. It must be borne in mind that this method of determining the dominant frequency is rather crude and the results should be treated accordingly. However, the method does give the interpreter sone guidance when estimting the likely resolution potentia! of the seicnic data. = Integrated Composite Sonic og Lith.tog_ Vlog plog pVlog ..RClog RClog seismic trace jews SG S Salt ‘ reflection coettictent og and the Resulting composite trace for a winiaun phase, sermal polarity (5.£.6) + Tre ithologacal sequence shove at the lefe consists oft a Desai salt section overlain by thick shale, massive Limestone, and 4 hate sequence containing te sands. The lower sand is vater ated, white the Upper sand contains gas overlying water saturated sand, The welocsty is shown under V Jogi with Mish velocity in the s4Le and Linestone, a velocity tn the viter wat sande lightly higher aod 4 aajor cepretsion of velocéty in the gas sand density log is show under p log. ‘The sale density is very tow, snd the porosity in the lower sand causes the density to be councadent ith Ohat of the shales. me density in the gas sand is depressed. The acoustic inpndance og, show under BY tog, is the product of velocity and density. rot aoet Lihologaée it Nes similar form to the tog, excepting cuses share velocity and density change in opposite Bue in the sait the changes in velocity and density alaoee coetticiente of the acoustic iapedance boundaries are shown under AC log vALen shove the eign and expected strangen of reflections, A comgosite seismic trace that would be ‘Produced by convolving 4 ainimun phase, noceal polarity (3.5.6) wavelet | Ath Oe RC Jog Lt unovn. me sntagrated 20 loz shove the smeeang 4 running ous of 421 values in 4 poving vindow do RmLE cestores che pv log. (After Anstey 197 and Rabon 15= ee oo a oe oS ky La « cobey ae a as ae ag ay Hg ly yy ilps DE gy oo My Y LY + ii tei f =~ i VY aHOW TO EVALUATE SEISMIC RESOLUTION : i k An essential factor in the a interpretation of Tica setot gett, Potential, vertical and horisenal Vertical resolutica can be expressed as the nic to Gisplay reflections from both the top and the bese oo @ unit. Horizontal resolution {s the ability of the seismic to display the lateral extent of units or features. data is an resolution. The doztzent frequency or wavelength of the Seismic pulse is the Sortzol over vertical resolution. Figure RESt yetecity Mnestone over- and underlain by shales, Front” (ioP ad bese of the Limestone are opposite tn sign. The diagran shows that fac limestone thickness is greater than belf “tae pigglereth. reflections from the top and base of the attr are interference sree gGtee the lisestone thins to less thee Leif the wavelength, the Tye ettO8 from the base begins to overlap in tims with the reflection from fhe top and we have interference and a sore confusing seismic expression. This interference continues until, at 2 warter wavelength, This thickness Ie often ‘length, the interference is destructia, eee OF the Setsnic signal decreases, but note that she actual ize duration of the wavelet stays constant; it dose nee thin as the stratigraphic unit thing ypn the signal-to-noise ratio of the data, we find that by the tine the it is around one thirtieth of the Sayelength thick the seiszic response is se weak, due to interference aifecte, tae Ie ie eatnntioy eee eS noise. So we have soy _ ibtee_critical resolution parameters, the half wavelength for the vy “situation where there is ao interferance, ter wavelength for mxinua oe Was sun thickness whers_ve_cen min Shows a wedge of high Reflection coefficients ee Te STEnGE Or tuning thickness, and a’ at ticker y Eaasouably expect reflection to appear in the agtse of one eh wave: ch. With a knowledsé~orIfker ‘ely interval velocity and the dures at SESS, Piura Regptay © calculate the wavelength in terss af ieee or cs, Tigure RES is a nonogren relating velocity, frequency and rere e ee cee itt, Situation is slightly difverens however, if the reflection coer: eats at the top and the base of the ui Sigere 8583 shows = sand unit overlain by cf The reflection coefficients at the topo: = In this case, we find thet 2 Grhgial one in ¢! 2k! a wevelength, re: waver, mit have the sane ay and underlain by he Sand and its base (é~ inserzere, reflection: OO? Ez © interfere: 2 loss of amplitude. Below one ¢. becones acre construe ea itude seen on ¢: impedence ma: on OE 19~ i LYHOV TO EVALUATE SEISKIC RESOLUTION cciastae) gfttee Am the interpretation of seiscic data ts an qeigtion of the poteatial, vertical and horizontal resolution. Gietics! resolution can be expressed as the potential os the setszic to Sisplay Teflections from bots the top and the base of a ame’ forizontal saree gee is the ability of the seisic to display the leceral extent of units or features, The doninent frequency or wavelength of the seisuic pulse is the min seize) Oke vertical resolution. Figure RESI shows a wedge of high velocity limestone ever~ and underlain by shales Reflection coefficients at the top an base of the Limestone are opposite ta sign, The diagram Shows that when the limestone thickness is greeter than half the povgereth. reflections from the top and base of the unit are interference free: |, nee the linestone thins to less than half the wavelength, the fgglection from the base begins to overlap in time with the reflection fron fhe top and we have interference and a nore confusing seismic expression. This interference continues until, at a warter Wavelength, the s ei" maximum interference or tuning. Thig THGeaes is often called tunin, hs Below the quarter wavelength, the interference is-Hotheniee aud The anplitude of the seismic cignal decreases tet note that the actual breadth or tine duration of the wavelet stays constant; ic does not thin as the stratigraphic unit thins. Depending, po the signal-to-noise ratio of the data, we find that by the time the alt te arcu one thirtieth of the sovelength thick the seismic response isso weak Gee ee interference three orstegdt 1S Seeentially Tost in the baciground noise. “ce have \\ free critical resolution parameters: The half wavelength for the \\) situation where there is so interference, quarter wavelength for maximn Vu auverrereice or tuning thickness; ane mun tbickness “WEeré we can reasonably expect reflectian te api in the Seismic of one thirtieth @ the dournam fi Saye ith a Thowledge ely interval velocity weeren EN it Gs easy to calculate the wavelengts in terse 6 Monga, Tigure RES2 is a nosogran relating velseity. requency and Wavelength, —_ The situation is slightly disveress, however, if the sents at the top and the base of the unit have the se. A ny stgnf F: zi RESS shows a sand unit overlain by clay and underlain by S LineStone. The re: tion coefficients at the top of the sand an its bass are orb positive, In this case, we find that one ‘erugial oj ao wavelength, re: O¢ Ce“ interfere once the unit ay reflections froz the top and the bese, overlap ané interfere destructively vats! Rave meximsa destructive interference fe. a loss of amplitude. ang plitude seen on the apedence material 19 ow| 1 HORIZONTAL RESOLUTION Horizontal resolution is a problem essentially only on vazigrated data. Th lI extent of the resolution then is defined by the size cf the Fresnel zone re 2 ft , ajt ] rf = radius of the Fresnel zone | v = average velocity t = two-way time in seconds y £ = dominant frequency in hertz J Although ¢- migration can effectively do away with the Fresnel zon problem, cc. acional two-dimancional migration cannot tackle the other effect ofthe Fresnel zone sideswipe. Sideswipe occurs when the Fresi zone impiiges on other structures out of the plane cf the section (Fig RES4). This process can generate reflections which are derived out of the plane of the seismic section. The convention 2-D aigration takes a0 account of the origins of the reflections derived fron a sideswipe situation and they are left in the section. Sideswipe effects can only be removed by 2-D migration. Figure RESS shows an example of sideswipe. 1 20°Retlection trom Yop limestone ‘ D> ference —— PEs omptete No interference reflection irom ose Ee Retlecton trom % «bose imestone Bebo I30 wovelengin 0 reflection \ ee” Shale 3000 m/s —— iio interterence Limestone 5000 m/s ‘Shate"3000 m/s 50 hertz wavelet Pa Ea Amplituse : : ( sy Wavelength 5 Frequcy + Humbe worse pr second ‘wavelength per second = Thertz 3 re rT: Time Waveform attributes Ea Ee Pim SE io Cie Ty_— Se a ee a manos ce EE Oy yy[ iff ttl Hina Rott fs Ut aataeh U Ph oe |Location Map TT4 surface {rox a reflector bounces back into the subsurface again frcx tl e distace. A simple multiple will appear on the seisaic section, if it has y not been resoved during the processing, at a time double that of the 4 primry reflection. Figure ¥2 shows the comon types of multip reflections. Meltiples can be divided into two msin catagories, long path and short path, Long path multiples have travel paths which are several tens of nilliseconés longer then those of the primry reflections. Sbort path multiples arrive so soon after the primry reflection from the same interface that they interfere with, and add tails to the prisary reflection, changing the wave shape but not neccesarily appearing as separate reflections. Every effort is mée to remove miltiples during the Processing through stacking, F-K filtering and deconvolution, etc. However, even after these processing steps, multiples are frequently left in the data and it is necessary for the interpreter to be able to recognise and disregard them There are several characteristics which we can use to help us to recognise multiples in the seismic data Firstly, multiples will bear a direct tine relationship to the reflector responsible for thez. In the case of a simple multiple, the multiple will occur at twice the tine of primary reflection. For an inter-bed multiple, the multiple will occur beneath a primry reflector, at a tine equivalent to the tine thickness of the interval ia which the multiple bounce hee occurred. ae Go a Secondly, multiples which involve reflection at a boundary with a negative Feflection coefficient, for example the air/ground or air/water interface, -will have their phase reversed with respect to the primary reflection (Fig. 3). aS the a rimry reflectors stow an crease of twice the vorigisal dip of the grimsry reflection (Fig. MO. An aot Wexaggerated dip of multiple reflect: can often be useful in discrininating then from primary reflections. The primary reflection § in Figure ¥5 has a positive reflection coef it and dips from right to left. The first multiple B has twice the dip and reversed polarity. The third mileigie ¢ tas three timgg, the dip of A. The reflection qua! ple C 1s too poor to de: ate polarity raversal. It ty of the primary reflection 4. Remnants of a fourty just be seen. fo) a is quite coascr to have sore than one multiple xtreme cases, the whole 2 45 shows such an ne basement rocks out sea-floor reflection can re ion can 0 the weathe: rock | 26 ves 7 ee| $ | | Source Geophone ae Surface et Seismic reflector \ is : RC ee et re “— ———— Ist multiple t= two-way time eg Rg Og Erg Ey Meg Oe OEasa aa a + shot wonsey9s avaid sme; vousee ‘erdiyaw revojeusoy-sesuy wonsesyes moqeye enea s20u1p srouan erdninas Bo)-B0d arduinw wiedDooy erdnynws ed-vovs soy woj2e07 personas vonseye a1dwye 28{a) Geological Model Strong -ve RC Sea surface Sea bed Rettector 1 tye RE (0) ‘Seismic Expression (S.E.G. normal polarity) { _ irtce SSS SSDI SLOSS ASSIS. Sea bed Water dottem ELAM. mullple of reflector 1 eee aemmeers Reflector | + a 29Geophone Source Geophone Source Surfoce Dipping rellector Se ta mates Direct travel pain “Multiple travel path ‘ig of Ge pevnary settection A. [Courtesy of meziin Protsiers a) 30-20 - : =-- 5 TWO-WAY TIME IN SECONDS og Ong FT Ogg Og Oey OT ° 7 zwiues vith ceyataltine banenant outcropping at the “ta Bee era “es Eg ey Fin S a1HOW TO IDENTIFY DIFERACTIONS AND REFLECTED REFRACTICNS Distrsctions are a common source of noise and eMiste frou any abrupt interface in the gubsurface. Fer example, the ternination of reflectors against a fault or an unconforaity or tersination ef reflestore against the Pac ade nee arte Pea eect gaa teeee nee of_the dif bie that reflections alee fram. she, aldpoint setieen ‘Ebe Feceiver (Fig. DPI). Secauae thel?-cosvee-ErSpe car be sieatee an Peal structure, it ig important to identify and disregara Giftrections, cross-cutting, ete. Diffractions can have their uses however. in sults situations, fault planes can be found by joining successive diffraction apexes Fig, DE2). Rowever, on reflection profilac, in, nonchorivestat velocity distributions, difiraction curves fran faults wil in genersl, not culainate at fault traces; the relative dteplacesent dapenéa upon depth ane dip of the diffraction source, the attitudes of velocity ineeriaces and the mgattudes of velocity coutraste. (ilaya, 1980). Gensreliy, however, diffractions are troublesome and detract from the appearance of the seismic Section. They can be removed by migration techniques, which restore the Tay paths back to their correct subsurface positions ‘ant eiffractions collapse back tos poiat. Diftractions arising from out of the line of the seisnic section my not be properly aigrated and will remin os remant diriractions. = eo oo Reflected refractions are sound waves which have travelled laterally for sove distance in the subsurface before reaching the geophones. Normally, they do not produce events as muting before stack is designed to renove far trace arrivals due to refracted rays travelling along a bigh velocity layer (ay and Edwards, 1983). However, in certain circunstaces they do appear in seisnic sections. For example, as an upgoing ray crosses each acoustic impedance boundary {t is refracted, the angle of refrection increasing across boundaries with increased acoustic impedance. Above a critical angle the ray is no longer reflected but is instead refracted along the high velocity layer which acts like a leaky wave-guide, an only pe: the signal reached the geophones (Fig. DF3). This results in a refie-tion whose characteristics are dependent on the interval velocity of the layer ané its structure. Alternatively, reflected refractions ars often 5 r and straight, with an associated shadow zone which can easi: aterpreted as a fault. They are commonly developed in and caused by a velocity inversion in the sedize acting interval must be fairly flat lying, or gepundulating, to act as an effective wave guide. The avent ‘A’ iq Figure O74 e is a reflectee refraction developed in association with a major fault J Event 'B’ is the waterbottom mitiple of the reflected refraction ‘A'. The artefact Likely to be confused with a reflected reira nvelope of a series of diffractions. Such a situation could 20 steeply dipping fault plane generates a large number of d terfere with each other to produce no events, excest cn envelope. where only one diffraction is present (ay ane The shape of the envelope will be dependent upon the fa in many eases the flanks _ dq coSe Lt a Eg CS, gag Og ig eg a BE OO OB Sy OR: Py ag SQNOO3S NI _BWHL AVM-OML 150 ttrection trom feuttr (0) GeologyHOW TO RECOGNISE VELOCITY DISTORTIONS IN SEISKIC SECTIONS Changes in rock properties include varying formtion thickness, facies change, etc., which can produce subsurface velocity variations. Secn Neristions can cause considerable distortions in stacked tine sections when compared with the actual depth and thickness relationships. jee, followiag examples are all variatioas on the sane then, nanely that lateral and vertical variations in velocity will distort the esisne picture. Their likely effects mst be understood and appreciated to snterpret seiemic data properly. A whole range of subtle effects ces originate aerely ‘through the steady increase in velocity with depth, dve Prénarily to increased compaction, Velocity anomalies arise because the Sergnte Section thickness of 2 unit, displayed in time, is depeadent on velocity. The greater the velocity the thinner the unit. . For situations where velocity varies laterally the magnitude of the tine anomaly (pull-up or push-down) can be evaluated from the relation: where: Tr is time thickness of the feature causing velocity effect; Ys interval velocity of feature, Vadj interval velocity of adjacent eedinents. Apparent thinning downdip tiypice) example could be @ rock unit of constant thickness and lithology, that appears to thin on the seiemtc section as it dips into a basin. the y and entirely due to a steady increase in interes polocity with depth (ig, ¥D1). However, many units comoaly thia Pasinwards and in these cases the thinning my be exaggerated by iscreasiag interval velocity with depth, 4 depth-converted version of the section would remove the apparent thinning. To depth convert requires detailed knowledge of the interval velocities, which are often unavailable. Vitiia well-explored basins reliable tine/depth relationships can be coastrucres for a variety of lithologies and horizons, enabling gocd mates of interval velocity. In undrilled areas reasonable values of velo (derived from the seiemic stacking velocities) can be used to chess fhe observed thinning falls within the anticipated range. However. this will only work 1f the target unit is thick enough (at least 100s and to nest cases nore than 200-400ms) for a reliable estimation of its interval velocity from seisnic data. Where the thianing is greater (or less) anticipated alternative geological explanations can be considered. Apparent thinning across faults Apparent thissing of a unit from the upthrowm side to dowothromn side of a fault {8 Sonetines observed on a seismic section. In Figure tions X and ¥ can be correlated across the major fauit below 5 interval between { and Y, however, ts about 40s5 th downchrown side thea on the upthrow side, although in depth fhicknesses ore the same. The apparent thinning is believed to be due % 7 USE increase in interval velocity due to the greater burial depth betwe % and ¥ in the downthrown block. “Sone faults have throws which appear decrease with depth, Both gicaily plausible bur are not ver: common. The mast likely explanation for the 35 | a Be Ba Tc Tag i Oe | oo op oore Peo oe eB eS i (a) Geological Model Surface (b) Seismic Expression Time Interval thins in timeTWO-WAY TIME IN SECONDS BOR ae Bing Fy OR Bc Fy Eg MT ° ’ 2mices NPT Aeearene chaning aroun 4 fault. See tere ter enparation, Greae ISN eo me ce Re ee ee ek variant on the principle of gradual iner in velocity with deptt described above. “The units on the downthrow: side, being deeper, may Lave gher interval velocity and will therefore appear thinner on a tise The most likely explanation con be investigated by calculating 1 velocities from beth sides of the fault or, alternatively, checking 1f the observed thickness change is vithin reasonable limits for’ possible velocity increase. It may be difficult to determine the cause of She observed thinning in a downfaulted bleck froz a single seismic section. The correct interpretation would depend on correlation with other data in the tunediate ares. This, hopefully, would support either a geological Feason for the observed anomly, (eg. strike-slip faulting juxtasosing different parts of the basin; a period of reverse aovesent on a noraal fault, etc.) or suggest that the relationship could be ascribed to velocity variation Apparent rollcver into faults Seisaic reflections in the upthrown block of a normal fault are sometimes Observed to bend down towards the fault plane (Fig. VD3). Caution should be exercised in interpreting this ‘rollover! as the observed effect caa te explataed in several ways. 1, True rollover caused by reverse drag on the fault plane on listric normal faults. 2. A portion of a diffraction curve, not entirely removed by nigration, appearing to be in continuity with the:reflection. fo 8 3. 4 veloctty artefact caused by the wedge of lower velocity rocks above the fault plane waich overlie the upthrown edge of the fault within tne fault zone. Velocity facts associsted with reverse ‘and thrust faults are also possible. In all cases care sbould be tazen to ensure that diffra: have been recognised and eliminated. Curvature on reflections lying fault zones (skadows) should be viewed with suspicion. tons hin Xvelocity anomalies beneath faults Valse: are common beneath mafer lowdipping faults su thrusts ori detached listric normal faults (Figs. ¥9s and WD5). The lateral 1 variations caused by faulting modify the time struc! per reflectors. Figure D4 shows how lateral velocity. var: associated with growth faults can affect the time structure of a deepe: DS, part of a seisaic section from the inner Trough, erat, 1982). The thrust slices, beneath which reflector 'A" clear: trai Yielocity anomlies associated with salt the subsurface less has a tendency to point 3a.5 ll — lll — ll ld i) a ks cg tg eg eh sea e —Surtoce ve ve va va vn Deep Reflector Ve = Low velocity Deptn Vwi = High velocity (a) Geological Model Surtoce 40LINE H-1 05 Yetocisy pultvup baneach Dhrune faults, The setamie section we faneas Trough, SE_ of Japan (BORE &e nest satees, ermines by the eiftezence 4 MIGRATED TIME SECTION ~ \ oe CB T_T Ce Pe es pe aea 2 4 coy os cus Kee a see mst Situations sound waves travel much faster through the salt layer than the laterally adjaceat sediments. Any reflector beneath the salt will, therefore be recorded sooner on the tine section bensath a alt structure than beneath the adjacent area where the salt layer is’ auch thinner or absent (Fig. VO7). If sufficient velocity information is available, depth Sections can be constructed to correct for the pull-up. Often, there is insufficient data to preclude the possibility that part of the putl-up could be genuine structure, However, the interpreter can use the shape of the pull-up to come to a decision. If the contact between the salt ant the overlying sediments can be seen clearly, and if the pre-salt structure ghows a similar shape, thea a velocity pull-up should be suspected Conversely, if the top of the salt layer cannot be seen clearly but a velocity pull-up fs suspected and sufficient velocity information is available, the degree of pull-up can be used to estimte the salt’ thickness and so locate its top. The pull-up can be used as an approximate guide to predict the time of the top salt layer where this cannot be coon clearly on the seismic section. YVelocsty push dova under shale diaptrs Thick sbale sequences, if undercompacted and overpressured, often show flowage features similar to those of salt, forming domes, wells, etc. The velocity effects, however, are quite the opposite to those of salt, as the shales usually have lower velocity than adjacent sediments. This lengthens the travel time, and the underlying reflectors are pushed dow ty she Opposite sense ‘to Figure VD6. : Figure ¥D8 shows evidence of major shale flovage from about 800ns-1200us between shot-points 1010 and 1170. Subst push-down beneath the shale flowage affects reflections A and b. Sonetimes, even without flowage, undisturbed overpressured shale intervals can produce velocity anomalies. If accurate velocity data te available the anomaly can be, investigated and removed by depth conversion Alternatively, it ie possible to resolve the, anomaly. grashically ty plotting the observed thickening against the observed pusi-down relatice to “a straight line. If the cag is caused by velocity push-dam the points Will approxinate toa straight Line. Obviously the phenomena of pull-us or Bush-down is a useful criterion for distinguishing between salt or shale Giapirs, but could be misleading for a situation wiere salt foras a pillow oF diapir in higher velocity sediments, such as carbonates. In thie situation a push-dowa would appear beneath the salt structure Y terocity anomlies beneath reefs Carbonate reefs are important reservoir rocks in many parts of the world Reefs are associsted with rapid lateral facies and associazed changes, and are so complex that it fs difficult to generalise about tieie detailed attributes. Reef limestones may have higher velocity than the t facies, back and foreree! s y have where surrounded, for example Both situations will to velocity ancaslies on the reef has a higher in will develos, pull-up could structure Ge. pre-ree: 1 interpretation. velocity than 42,lll lil ll atl ig eg eal ty a mo a ia oe4 Gr by bs i ‘Two-woy time in seconds, 9990009009 CaIaasuN HO pulnug of 222 an on the base sale reflector beneath oho nals aiapit Surface = (a) Geological Model Cloystone 3000ms. Travel time through the solt is 1500 ms. faster than the salt reflection, Apporent structure on base salt due to velocity effect 1g claystone producing @ pull-up on the bose Top salt * Surface = ‘eve position of base sait : (b) Seismic Expression (2) castegient mote1000 noo 1200 45 TWO-WAY TIME IN. SECONDSdeveloppent, tf the lower velocity is attributed to exceptional pore: ush-down could have great prospactive interest. High-velocity wedge focussing effect Ge cay 3S) ww Aa overlying Bigh-veloctty wedge con act as a distorting leas and disrupt the reflection from a continuous surface beneate (Fig. V5IO). The figure, taken fron Sheriff (1981), shows, a geological noel snd the correspotiing predicted seismic response. Vbile the top of the baseaeat on the ode! ie Continuous ané saooth, the reflection for it has @ Fine (including cose \ overlap) because of distortion by the overlying bigh-velocity wedge “whion acts as a distorting lens). Two raypaths involving reflecting polats 2 acd F are closely spaced on the reflector (Fig. ¥D10). The raypath from E is shown to miss the high-velocity wedge, whereas the one from F my. be Fefracted by the Bigh-velocity wedge ‘so that it actually crosses’ the raypath fron £. Tals causes the basement reflection to be distorted because of the shallower high-velocity vedge. Over the sorsion of the Surface P the. basezent reflection, is observed twice, once without going through the wedge and once. going thraugh the wedge. Svcs e situation eles produces phantom diffractioss ~ they appear in the seiszic but there 1¢ a0 discontinuity in the reflector. Ey eo een oe Channels often produce a velocity anomaly. If the chasnel cuts dow {ato consolidated material there is a good chance that the channel-fill will have lower velocity than the adjacent rock. Such a chanzel would cause a velocity push-dowa. Channels or canyons in the cea-ted have the came ettect. Figure VD11 shows a deep sea-floor canyon systez with more than 200 milliseconds (about 110m) of relfef which produces undulations ia the 4, usderlying reflectors, eg. reflections A and 3. The magnitude of the qP undulations corresponds to the travel-tine differences between watér in the © scanyon. and in the laterally adjacent cedineits. Depth converted, the Y reflectors A and B-would be planar. In some channels, however, the channel-f111 can have a higher velocity than the surrounding sediments and produce a velocity pull-up. Figure VDI2 shows part of a seismic section . from the south-western African Contintental Margin (Jaunich, 1963). A compacted sandstone fill, is causing severe disturbances in the shallower horizons below shot-point 210¢. Deeper horizons show a pull-up of 200 300m i ao Yfetnay cognate stiead wth eerie an prensa Velocity push-down is a dlagnostic urally the gas-bearing interval has to be thick e ccity contrasts ta 98 a measurable pus- are often observed beneath gas-chimneys lity formation? 2 VDIS shows an ey and associat. ag push-down in the Yor: The push-down effects of gas are shown very a seismiz section across e eflectors beneath the gas push ontact is tilted. The tilt is ckening of the gas-fil led reservoirs. the lateral riking pusb-down cf both a gas- Sex Skofisk Field © VD13, are the gas/wa caused byVYfelocity anomlies caused by varying water depth Aishough act a Fock velocity, a ‘change in water depth can produce fetortion of the seismic time section. In cases where water depth paerences rapidly, the effect can be great encugh to produce an entirely false impression of dip in tine and, in extreme cases, a complete reversal ef _the true dip direction. This effect is illustrated by the setente ections an the North Atlantic slope near the Viluington Canyon, southeace gf Hew Jersey (Morgan and Dowdall, 1983), in Figures VDl4a and be Reflections ta the west of the reefoid mss in Figure VDida dip to the east and there is no structural closure. Figure YDidb shove the line after gepth conversion. The push-down effect of eastuards increasing water depth has been renoved to reveal structural closure associated with the reefoia mass. 5 EO germ ete 0 - re ooJ r ! J J | J ! 4 SEISMIC SECTION SEIsMe SECTION ea eee as _—o eee eee —_— o o Mooet waGHea ve, EVPORITES SEISMIC SECTION —_ SS Per eet eee © © vo + Vetecksy anomalies Beneath cette, (a) 4 reef congened of Bish eiocsty Lineatone encased sn lover velocity shales produces a velocity poitcve on undeelying ceflaccions. (B) Sane as (a) excezeing reef nas 48ae eee the S L ie t } 4o ’ 2uies (cd ection shoving velocity pustedova on reflections A baarine canyons. (Courtesy of Marlin Prottlere 2 50 ‘TWO-WAY TIME IN SECONDS:SGNOO3S NI 3WIL AVM-OMLSeimaic ssction shoving push-dow Deneatn & gas chianey. SSASSSG5S35 Samm m 2m a>atzzrazasaooa TWO-WAY TIME IN SECONDS oP er om pe THIN FEET a oe emfoe aos HOV TO DETERMINE STATIC SHIFTS OF MARINE SEIS¥IC DATA If several marine seismic surveys are used in an interpretation, it is common to find systematic differences in the seismic times to a given reflector at line intersections. These differences arise through sis- calibration back to a reference datum and must be resolved before beginning the interpretation. Older marine data especially may not be corrected to a sea-level reference datum. Systematic mis-ties can be upto 60ms or greater, when compared with tires observed in the wells. In such Situations it is aot uncommon to find that the water depths calculated simply from the seismic sections are in conflict with the water dapths measured by the ship's echo-sounder. (The latter are recorded on each section below the shot-point numbers). Factors which may be contributing to this error include the following: 1, the echo-soundar may have been set to record the depth be! instead of below sea-level datum w the ship, 2. the ship's positicn is determined at the antenna; as suggested in Figure SHl, this may be appropriate for echo-scunder but a setback is Fequired to related the ship's position to that of the corresponding common mid-point; 3. the reflection times my not be corrected for the depth of the’source and the streamer below sea-level datum; : ~ 4. the sections my not be processed to bring the maximum of ‘the reflection envelope back to the correct travel tine. Vhen this is not doi the time necessary for the reflection pulse to build up to its maxisun envelope represents a lag, which may be several tens of milliseconds. The echo-sounder, working with sharp-fronted pings of sound, is much less susceptible to this problex. In modern seismic data which is well-controlled and processed, none of the above should happen. All measurements should be. referred to sea-level datum, all positions should be referred to the common mid-point identified by the shot-point aumber and all data should be wavelet processed so that the reflection envelope maxinua occurs at the correct reflection tine. Frequently, Rowever, we have to work with old data, and to harson: ‘lection tines at intersections between lines of different vintage. Then the seavfloor, if deep enouga to be recorded as a reflection by the Streamer, gives us a good way of assessing the lag present on the rst. we and strike the setback problem by comparing observations on di Then, with the locations correc we turn to thi nes. Figure SH2 shows how a dipping sea-flcor may be used to calculet: reflection lag at the two ends of the section, A and 8, the water depts given by the echo-soy are 832 and 607a, The carresronding for the seafloor are 1166 and 363m, depth by the in sea-wate: ves using the ocity. 1g the two-way of raflectic: (We hope thet b-s0u:have a first estimate of the reflection tine lag on this survey: 40me. The true zero time of our section should not be at AS, but at A'B', 40m later @ sane exercise perforned on intersecting lines from another survey my yield a different lag (because of a different source, different instruments, and/or different processing). By correcting both surveys for their individuel lags, we would hope to improve the line ties. In practice, after establishing and correcting the lags, one survey showing a good tie te the well infomation is used as a reference, and the times of all other surveys adjusted to those of the reference survey by applying eppropriste positive or negative static shifts. Once established, the Static shifts must be used consistently throughout the interpretation. Unfortunately, aot all static shifts are systeimtic, eg. onshore, where differences iz weathering zone corrections occur. In such cases the interpreter must make the best of a bad job, recording all mis-ties in the interpretation diary, so that they can be dealt with when preparing contour maps. 55 C oeFOR EP a mapriates by peraiation of (aprintad by peratarion of Tune from tadley & Anstey. 1904) processed. ( S41 Re swtaaer atetance Detwoan posttioniog antenna and coonHOV TO MAKE A VELL-TO-SEISMIC TI Although there are several intuitive approaches to reflector identification there is no substitute for a good well-tie, Tying well snd seismic data ic an essential step in an interpretation and the process begins with an anlysis of the data collected in the well In preparation for tying wells to the seismic a thorough review and analysis of the available well data, including wells adjacent to the area, is essential. The results of the review are used ta: 1) calibrate the seismic to a reference datum. The well tines are assumed to be correct (unless there is evidence to the contrary) and systemtic deviations in seismic tine are corrected by an appropriate static shift; ; ii) detect inter-survey static shifts. If older marine data is being used it is possible that the seismic is not corrected 'to the sea-level, reference datum, This results in a systematic mis-tie between well(s) and seisnic for the entire survey, and can produce seismic tizes upto 60 milliseconds greater than those observed in the wells. Other systematic misties can arise because of phase distortion, wavelet interference, or Ancorfect static corrections. It is not possible to correct for such uon- systematic effects; : 411) to provide a preliminary identification of the seisaic sequence bouadaries and other reflectors for both stratigraphic age and local lithology; ° iv) to provide a deteited anelysic of reflector origins The well log stratigraphy is dominantly lithostretigraphic (arising mainly from the correlation of wireline logs with subordinate palacontologica? control) whereas seismic~deprived — stratigraphy ic both chronostratigraphic and lithoetratigraphic. s can lead to significaat differences in the placing of sequence boundaries (unconformities) between the well and seismic (Fig. WIir. Wells are also often drilled at stratigraphically anomlous locations. The setemic is the more powerful tool for demcustrating unconformity relationships. fowever, in vntavourable circumstaaces, eg. closely-spaced reflecting boundaries, interference can produce a composite waveforz and a tie to the well is no longer straigatforward Before proceeding with the interpretation discrepancies between well and seismic stratigraphy should be noted and, if possible, 2t this early stage, resolved. ven if synthetic seismograms are available, it is recommended that a well ie first established using times and tops extracted from the available well logs. This approach involves a full consideration of tbe raphic implications of the seismic. Jumping strai synthetic seismegram, can focus too much attention on nate! and cha: 2 considerat, y they are first place. Vertical selsuic profiles are mre satisfactory in, with a eflections a direct between 2 measured se: Fae However, in a danger of concentrating too much eflections and character and aot on the geology thet generat Af synthetic seisacgr. 2 prof 87=) mG oO te Go Go Gp Co oe ee Big sond formation Interpreted geology I fom vell logs Geological Model S555 Uncenfersity Bop CBS LL op Ry Seismic ExpressionED & a a Obtain coptes of the completion log, together with calibrated velocity log and density log if detatled studies are required. If no sonic log, synthetic seismogram or Well velocity is available, the interpreter bas a problem. A formation density log can be used to give a very qualitative indication of the relationship between the geological section penetrated by the well and the equivalent seismic section. [f there is some confidence in velocities derived regionally from seiszic and well data, the gamm ray, spontaneous potential (both reflecting lithological changes?, formation density or even resisitivity depth scales can ba converted to time and used as a guide for making the seismic-to-well tie. Where a reasonable log suite is avatlable, the likely problems should not be so serious. If a completion log is not available, use the sonic log and obtain preliminary formation tops from the area geologist. In any case, always discuss the well results with the area gealgoist before beginning the interpretation. Vell results are often reinterpreted and revised as nore information becomes available, and the completion log tops-my not correspond to the latest interpretation. Work through the composite log noting depths to important (relevant to the interpretation) stratigraphic tops and significant acoustic impedance changes. If a reduced scale sonic log, two-way time log or a pict of acoustic impedance on a synthetic seismogran display is available, use thea to help locate the acoustic impedance changes. Tabulate the results-in the format shown in Figure W712 with columns for tops, depth, anticipated sesimic response and two-way time. Tops and depths: The use of subsea depths or depths to a reference datum, rather than driller' depth, 1s recommended. Tabulation of both stratigraphic tops and acoustic impedance contrasts is necessary as they do not always correspond. Stratigraphic tops aay have no seismic response at the well location. Moreaver, the stratigraphic tops based on palaeontology could also be wrong, as generally the palaeostological resolution is much poorer than that of the seisaic or my not correspond to a significant acoustic impedance change. For example, ia the northera North Sea refleétions from tuff beds in the Palaeocene/early Eocene Balder Formation, provide an excellent regional marker horizon, The top of the Balder formation is picked by geologists at the first occurrence of volcanic tufi (Fig. WIS). There is usually no sigaificast acoustic contrast at this level. The main acoustic impedance occurs several tens of metres deeper Simply tying the seismic to the top Bélder Formation will result in a tie 20-50ms above the min seismic reflection. Significant acoustic impedance changes should be used to supplement the stratigrpabic traps for correlating the well and seisnic tines, and locating the lithological changes associated with the main reflectors. Select only major acau: impedance changes or those that may be especially relevant, eg. ne: or within an objective horizon or sone other critical level. Tt is not necessary to select every change on the log - the main purpose is to suppleneat stratigraphic tops and prov: seismic correlation. Ve should also renember that reflections from t and base of units thinner thaa half of the sevent interfere. Tuning thickness and maximum amplitude occ quar the wavelength for units with Mgher or lower acoustic izpedance thas adequate control for wel 60,the composite log. As mentioned above, a reduced-scale sonie curve, or better still accustic impedance curves, produced as part of a synthetic seisnogran display, are ideal for detecting acoustic impedance boundaries. Select sone acoustic impedance changes in the shallower section (1.0-2.5 seconds) as {t is generally easier to use these points to confirm the correlation between well and seisnic tine and to detect static shifts. Remeber to use the caliper log-to check that the velocity changes are real and not caused by bad hole conditions. Deeper events are auch more likely to be influenced by processing factors, structure, etc. and are sometines difficult to correlate to the seisaic without reference to shallower horizons. In the vicinity of the objective(s), or if there is some vacerteinty in the sonic-derived acoustic impedance boundaries, use the density log to supplement the sonic. Sometimes the density varies in the Opposite sense to velocity and chenges in acoustic impedance and. therefore, reflection strengths do not correspond to the velocity changes. This is often the case with salt layers. The deasity log can be used to verify the sonic log results, and to locate other acoustic impedance changes due to density variations not producing a change in the sonic curve. Anticipated seismic response: The anticipated seismic-response depends on the seismic display polarity. For lines of normal polarity: 1. an increase in acoustic impedcance should give a trough (white) at the boundary, @ decrease should give a peak (black) at ‘the boundary. Indicate with a syzbol in the table whether a peak, trough or no response is expected (Fig. W12). Tworway Time: A problen can arise in calculating the seisnic two-way time 4f there is no calibrated velocity log relating time to depth. Usiag the integrated transit times on the sonic log alone, it is possible to calculate interval velocities and elapsed time between the reflections, but these still lack a fixed tine depth reference. One possible way around the problem, givea suitable data, is to hang the tie on a prominent reflector of fairly certain origin and fix all other levels above and below dy reference to this datum. For’ exeaple, in areas of the North Sea whe Upper Cretaceous chelk is developed, the top chalk reflector can often bo used as a datum on which to hang sonic log derived tines A perfect fit should not always be expected as the error in the ITT can be significant If a calibrated sonic log is available the tesk is mich simpler, ag she fines corresponding to any dapth can be read directly from the log However, note that the tines givea on the log are frequently one-way trave tine to the seismic data, but the depthe msy correspond to a different datum, eg. the dr: Fig, kelly bushing or rotary table. Also note that the colibrated travel times’ values should be used. No further adjustuent for emsll discrepancies with check shot tims is necessary. From the table of depths, ti and anticipated acoustic response prepare a well-tle strip cn film (or any suitable transparent materia!) on the same section. The well-tie strip can then be overlain the well location. Sefcre doing this, however, es the seisz: mic section at er a EB FE BE EBwell location if the tie is being sade to a migrated seismic section. but thea only if it is a dip line. If we are tying the well to an unnigrated line, the tie point will not be at the well location but at some distance dowadip from the well location (Fig. WIA), The actual distance dowdip depends on the reflector dip, If only a strike line is available then neither the unigrated or migrated line will tie dipping reflections. The tie can be more complicated if the well is not located on the seismic lo: and some of the reflections are dipping. The same considerations apply as before for the unmigrated versus migrated lines, but even with migrated data, there. is the added complication that the best tle-point ts aot necessarily the shot-point where the setenic line passes closest to the well, The best tie-poiat is found by contouring the dipping reflector locally around the well location and then using the countour trend to establish the best tie-point (Fig. WIS). If there are several dip: reflectors, with different dip directions, there could be several well. polats on the seismic line, each one suited to a particular reflect direction. Once the best tie-point has been established, a tie is made by overlaying the vell tie strip at the well location and observing the mitch. Doee the well-strip tle the seismic with the anticipated sesinic responce, corresponding to-at least some of the siapler reflectors (originating from a single acoustic impedance contrast) and do unconformities concur between well stratigaphy and. the seiemic? Ve should reneaber that on seismic Processed with a alnimn phase type wavelet, reflections do act oven begin until after the two-way tine of the reflection. Picks made with this type Of seismic wavelet will always be late with respect to travel tine. If, after taking all these considerations into account, the well strip and Seismic do not tie, try the following: 4) check that the well is located correctly on the base map, 11) check the shot-point intersection at the corrrect well location. 111) chack the seismic polarity. If all the above are correct try the following: - Move the well strip downwards (ie, to increase observed tines), upto about 60 nillisecands, 'to counteract any static shift left in the seismic. Such Ris-ties can be caused by incorrect norm]. mave-out and/or static correction, incorrect corrections for weathering or other low velocity dstuz corrections on land, and offshore the possible use cf inca: datuz corrections for gun and cable depths. It should not be subtract tize from the strip (ie, move ‘t upwards) to make a he seismic has been overcorrected during cal!) concentrate on flat or lowdipping strong ri g froma Single acoustic iapedance contrast in the shallow : ortunately, 2 static siift established in the shallow not recain constant, but may vary with depth dus caused by processing: instrumentation effects. velocity log calibrations, migration effects on dipping strata, etc 2 earlier review of the seismic should Pay special attent 62stratigraphy. It is most important that significant differences between the geology derived frou well logs and seismic are resalved, or good explanations found for the discrepancies, before proceeding with the interpretation. At this stage, it is very useful to incorporate and tle any synthetic seisnograns and vertical seienic profiles to the seismic. This my help Fesclve outstanding problers between the well strip and seismic and give a more detailed correlation to both reflectors and character. The choice of which synthetic seisuogran display to use is a ustter of trial and error but the polarity and type of wavelet should be the sane as used for the seismic processing (eg. zero-phase, minimn-phase, etc.). Often a version showing primaries and short term multiples provides a good match. The synthetic seismogran can be overlain or spliced in the seismic section at the appropriate locetion. 4 good well tie is one in which there is a gocd correlation of shape and amplitude for peaks and troughs between the synthetic seismogran and seismic data. Vhen comparing real and synthetic gata, more emphasis should be placed on correlation of high amplitude and continuous, rather than discontinuous, reflections. In most cases, a reasonable tie will have been established and the min Feilectors dated with soue confidence. However, detailed correlation between setsmic response and the more closely spaced acoustic impedance boundaries may still be uncertain and require a sore detailed analysis of reflection origins using an expanded scale synthetic seisnogran. 63 CT GP EO TERM BP a er. l fSonic tog > Increasing velecty ‘Top alder Fm, picked ——>* by geologists by regional og correlation, ot ‘occurrence of shallowest tuff bee. = Geological pick (no acoustic impedance contrast) 1Bms. difference 1 oir ccoustie impedence contrast, - Balder Fm, F toterbedded 10m. timestones clays and tufts, ‘Tersiany Voleanie tulE Buiter Ta, in the Morthesn HOFER seteCorrect Ce point well ATTA, Seismic tine Reflection trom reflector A woulé te feo shallow in well o~ Reflection peint o'> Assumed location ‘He of veld te selsase fata for « digging rettecror and Best tie point for sequence 8 Contour trend of sequence D \ ‘Best tie point for sequences AondC g ‘ “Contour of sequence 8 oe orm er | ! mE oo| | PICKING TIPS Find sequence boundaries ~ this is the key to efficient picking. Recognising seismic sequences subdivides the seismic section into episodes of deposition and erosion. These episodes can then be analysed and internal reflections picked. For example, sequence A was deposited, subsided, infilled by $ prograding beds 2.3,4 - which are sequence B, Progradation stopped sand the infant sequence 5,6,7,8,9, Meee ieee from sequence C, The natural sub-division into sequences is made by observing reflection terminations. Eases of sequences are recognised by: eS ae Seer or beselep rihen we are rok sore if HS onlp or conmop Tops of sequences are recognised by: Truncation Tee lop La Yarking schem . Fmention + Hoala Baselap = = prs a SS # SF lrg ttl Ft wih OE ah Gor hin ‘haere ong Shen = use a red penetl Vhat to do when reflections split MSE EE pee pec hy ca when pry egal se SE Gili rrcrtas ci tae Ee oe seue ving 27 Onlapatig or dovenlepping reflection smimivigerce FR nad P fee we wes ef E. vec Tncation ond helo Slay In when Ze direction of reblectn termnrabiins 7 wearin tak the robeoop pitting agains the Beriore of ching Teese Ane WPS war Butts ~ rey were 2 fret out of 2! 66Vhere to pick - Assuming we have either mininun or zero phase. Minimum phase: it is usually better to pick high - remember reflections start only at the acoustic inpedance boundary. Clearly ‘the situation is more complex when interference occurs Do not pick beneath a strong peak unless you have # good reason - Femember the pesk has had to come from somewhere. Either it te from a negative RC cr an even shallower positive RC (for normal polarity SEG data) : el i a BR; Tee I. cto enee fee ee pte a aa aed cele eh upne seteade then « pen ox gee seth pen Interference: this mecses-up the above guidelines, and the effects cannot generally be evalusted without detailed kmowledge of the interval in question. 87VELL 70 SEISMIC TIE Otnval technique) Odjectiv : to relate time and depth and identify reflections. SOBIC LOG OFLY - a problea, as there is usually no time datum ac the i sonic log starts at an unknown time interval below the surface. Solution: {¢ we can identify at least one reflection, the intergrated sonic travel times can be used to provide times of horizons or reflections above this datua. Sere peigsan SCRA Ontet, B'S, @ Btw ened pee ae Oe eeferne ddfe, >} ess Shpe 1-3 ean be reversed, hiake @ aisech= Sime eens 9 tec tt ts poet aa Problens: The sonic log measures velocity over very short travel path in Dorehole wall at very bigh frequencies. Errors (or differences) between sonic times and seismic for the same interval are common and can be Several tens of ms. over a thick (several hundred ms) interval. Be t prepared to ‘adjust’ (fudge) the values. This is called pragnatien! t ] - ‘CHECK SHOT OR VELOCITY SURVEY A geophone clamped in the borehole measures one-way travel tine to aknown om depth. Several readings are takea at each tere Whee FE nl eee depth. Typically control points are 10- r “ 50m apart. The results are compared with the integrated sonic to produce an edited and calibrated version of the velocity oe ios. q, as, ( 3 To use a calibrated velocity leg staply: 1. read the one-way tiae corresponding ¢ a the selected depth; 2, evaluate ‘the anticipated seismic | Bee nd his tel cores eed ne emma oars il wed ol te response from the sonic and density log, (= { i mm, pe of seismic pulse and seisaic eS hagated (177) . For example, a minisum phas MSTA YS polarity. For exanpl inisum phase, normal polartty (SEG) processed section Zl fe stertevence should produce: Fy Eee repectars z ae 4 lnteeference Sey complicates the situation, ord con be aibreute 4 eweluste. we need fe evens wavelet Shoo ond Pega eeTHE TIE: Assuming flat dip, perfect migration (and the correct location) well and seismic tines should match for interference fre= reflections. They often do not! This is 2 potential nis-tie. Reasons: There ere numerous possible explanations. Seismic tines are often longer than well surveys (due to acquisit{on, processing delays, Phase shifts, incorrect corrections, ete.) A fit can often be found by adding (occasionally subtracting) tine to the well times. Several tens of milliseconds may be needed, ‘There are situations when well and seismic times will not correspond: 1) When tying to dipping reflections on an unmigrated seismic section. better te pale me — reflector & refctan 2) When tying to 2 migrated trike Mine for a dipping surface at the baa reflector Inigrsted clemic eeehon — migration has no LE tin of reflection actual atereceD09 between seit Sectin end tePecion The situation improves as the seismic line orientation approaches the dip direction. 9) hen tying a well that does act lie on a seisnic section - unless you are lucky? Hf dips are low the best tie point will perhpas be where the well and sefsmic are closest - but fo> dipping surfaces the best tie point will probably be along strike. ' ©) Mop " wer 69 ON a RL, ere ee reeSynthetic Selemograms - a more sophisticated, but better, approach? Synthetic selsnograns are made by convolving @ wavelet that actches the seismic section with a reflection ce hte coeffielent series calculated fromthe “ sonic and (elso hopefully) dessity (out } ¢ | Acnustie Inga Meety taped respon Pens not always) logs. 4] In practice the process may be a bit nore sophisticated but the objective is to match the synthetic trace with the seismic section. If it fits all is well, but it will also aot fit in the three cases Listed above. a Ge Go & Synthetic seismograms also often do not fit for the following reasoas. The synthetic seismogran was designed to match a particular seismic survey. If yours is different - a new survey perhaps - it is 20 use pulling a synthetic seismogran out of the file and hoping st will fit. It might ~ but beware! Synthetic seismograms are often designed for a particular objective and Processed with a seismic wavelet af a frequency that matches that of the Objective depth. The resulting interference effects above and below will * not and should not be expected to match the seiemic if you are investigating an interval above or below the design Zone. Moral: Ideally make your own synthetic setsmogram to match your setsnic and your objectives. Do not rely ony old synthetic sefsmogran that may be lying in the well file. c$§eee eee SeSEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY TERMINOLOGY Seismic reflection profiles have the potential to bridge the gap between litho and chronostratigraphy. Vail et al (1977) argue the case for the ehronostretigraphic (time-stratigraphic) nature of reflections using examples from log correlations and seismic. In favourable circumstances reflection relationships can be used to deduce chronology, while reflector configuration and attributes can be used to infer lithology and depositional setting. It has long been recognised that the rock record ts divisible {nto depositional sequences, comprising many individual beds, within which the strata are genetically related. Depositional sequences are bounded at their top and base by unconforalties and/or their correlative conformities (Fig. SS1). The term unconformity is used here in the sense of Mitchum et al (1977) who defined 4t as “a surface of erosion or non-deposition that separates younger strata from older rocks and represents a significant hiatus (at least a correlatable part of a goechronologic unit uct represented by strata)". Unconformities are recognised By discordant reflection relationships and, in seismic stratigraphic jargon, are termed sequence boundaries. Sequence boundaries taclude: 1, disconformities, an unconformity separating parallel strata where there has been significant erosion. Generally palaeontological control is required for the recognition of disconformities and they are difficult to recognise seismically; 2. paraunconformity, an unconformity between parallel strata where there hes been little erosion: They are alsa difficult to identify seismically; 3. angular uncenformity, an unconformity where tilting and erosion of strata below the unconformity hac been followed by deposition; 4. other discordant relationships, eg. the progradation of inclined strata across underlying flet-lying beds; Depositional sequences, lying between seqience boundaries, reprecent a geologic episode during which the depositions] eavironpent(s) and procegs(es) were essentially constant, eg. a prograding delta systen and its Co¥val basinal mds. At the level of seissic resolution, seismic sequences approach the duration of standard stratigrephic stages, eg. Bathonian, Oxfordian, etc. However, seismic sequences are not directly analogous to the stratigraphic | formatione which are based on lithostratigraphy and are comscnly time diachronous. Seismic interpretation using these concepts has become popularly known as seismic stratigrapty and has provided a whole new approach to relating Seisnic reflections to geology. Brown and Fisher (1980) provide a good discussion and introduction to the topic. Numerous papers in AAPG Memoir 26 (Payton 1977) provide further inforsation. To help etaadardise this approach and provide a basis for more detailed analysis, a set of terme have been widely adopted to describe reflector relationships. Figures S31 and SS2 display tke suite of reflection terminations that define vacouformable boundaries of # depositional sequence and sequence boundary internal struct Figures S83 and SS4 display possible combinations of ‘tor relationships and how they can be used to estimate the magnitude of uncanforaities. n COOL Oe Gem, eee, ee ee re a: malfas) Cay) Ln o tl ag? oe tee? ce ete nar Antone Kien su UPPER BOUNDARY SS EROSIONAL TRUNGATION = TOPLAR 3 CONCORDANCE LOWER BOUNDARY —, 1 ‘ONLAP z DOWNLAP 2 CONCORDANCE 8 ( saserap——_ ous of so4t to wpper boundary ofa sequence. Al. Ersonal cncaoe: sata 4 gp of given sequence ‘apuot upper boundary pnily a reat of onc leg. ted sev termina apna evtning boron ‘tonoa suface. or tantooial seat teesoatag aga ner Chae artace AZ Topp. talline fra at op given sequace wrmsaie alas upper Dounaary macly ater of sonseponion (ef. forts! sate reatong ‘gues oveyog boop ace a base-evel equim where no comou opinion ook past 3. Topeoneat ‘ice tinue sbch sai ttep of given sequence do net wrmnne opine oper Poe 'B. Retatns of att lower boundary surtce ofa seqeence BL Oslap. ease a sequenet itl hascomal sata vermin propesively sas ltl Igeinedsutace. 2 ill ieinee sev termonte pei pogrteney gan ‘nese ol pester a elaaton, BL Dowalap: a bae of sequence neal ince Hrta ermoue Soreaip Pager Sey agate iialyNeraowal ot incnedsutice eg inital inkned at teresting nuiet. Sorabail sre) BX, Basecoueordane: sata at bus of aequence do a0 ermine apusutfove Sou roventwina ‘ayncanion uncowronsrry: % ukcoeSamirn i patiection selationmaps, (a) Aelationshipe a she top 36 8 72pana, susesnauet, rd = me ae at Bas SSS TRG rion Some modiying wesc rection coir schoo compu sono oruave Seine rftucion pater ntrpvedm progading cinoma eS ES aS E> SS Ss Some fl auc ase wt 73o coe Gaus! pee ert ee eee 1 baie — S The following description of reflector types te largely taken from Mitehus et al (977). Discordance is the main criterion used in determining « sequence boundary. The type of discordance is the best indicator of whether an unconformity results from erosion or non-deposition, Two sata types of termination are recognised. kta the lateral termination of austratum at its original deposition 1 Truncation is the termination ofa be subdivided into more specific categories which are descrited below. They are deternined with greater confidence where several strata within a sequence show a pattern ‘of discordance along a given surface. Table St summarises the terminology used to descrite reflection terainations, configurations and geometry. ratum resulting from post-deposttions) erosion, Theae two types can Baselap: Onlap and dovalap (Fig. SS1 and Figs, 995-10) Baselap is a general term for lapout at the lower boundary of a depositional sequence. Two types are recognised. Onlap is baselap in which an initially sub-horizontal stratum laps out against an initially inclined surface, or in which an initially inclined stratum laps out against a surface of greater initial inclisation. Downlap is baselap in which an initially inclined stratum terminates downd!p against an initially sub-horizontal or incline surface. Usually onlap and dowmlap can te readily distinguished, but later structural complications my necessitate Teconstruction of the depositional surface ta determine the type of baselap. Onlap and downlap are indications of non-depositional breaks (htatuses). Successive terninations of strata at their depositional limits along the initial depositional~surtace produce an increasing depositional hiatus ia the direction of dowlap or onlap (Fig. S84). Toplap (Figs. SSi, 7, 10 and 12) Toplap is lapout at the upper boundary of a depositional sequence. It is a fora of offlap. Initially inclined strata, cuch as foreset beds and clinoforns, may show this relationship. The lateral-terminaticns updip my \"staper and approach the upper boundary as¥aptopically. On seisnic sections, ‘the resolution may be such that the toplap lapout interval is too thin aad the reflections appear to terminate abruptly against the upper surface at a high angle. Toplap is evidence of a non-depositional hiatus, Occasionally the reflector relationships can be very complex. Figure SS12 shows an .example of a sequence(s) displaying offlaps. This is a form of toplap and ‘the upper sequence boundary follows the offlap terminations. Truncation and erosion (Figs. SS4, 7, 11, 12 aid 19) Erosional truncation is the lateral termination of a stratus ty erosioa. It occurs at the upper boundary of a depositional sequence., . Truacation is evidence of an erosional hiatus. Sometines toplap can reseable truncatice (due to limited vertical, resolution) and distinction between the two may be difficult, but in the latter case reflections tend to retain parallelisa as they tarninate abruptly against the upper boundary rather than taper to it. Both apparent truncation and aiatus of a stratua can also occur by structural diéfuptioa. The truncation can be produced by faulting. Slumping, salt intrusion, igneous intrusion, ete. Distinction betwecs Structural asd erosional truacation say be difficult, su: should es tex Althougs structural truncation aay produce discordast reflections and appear to be a sequence boundary, suct a disruyeion sos any, regional chronostratigragbic sigaificance with respect +2 es and biatuse: 74EROSIONAL, NON: DEPOSITIONAL UNCONFORMITIES UNCONFORMITIES conconpant_ ssove covconount sove SOT TS MOOK? EROSIONAL: ANGLAR/STAUCTURAL, TORLAP eciow omar avove EROSIONAL! ANGULAR/ STRUCTURAL THLTING 08 ORIGINAL OEFOSTIN ATRTUOE BELOW ERosiont ancuanrsrfucrunat, EECOROANT BELOW omar asove 2 | LL a, ee re TORCORGNT BELOW ctl Lepout Rellecton Terminations cm oncogis EE oraer —— EROSIONAL) ANGULAR/NON- STRUCTURAL, . a Enesionat EROSIONAL: ANGULAR/NON- STRUCTURAL, ond $$ fer aepostions! Uncontormities ( 75 ITt c= roo co ooo oe me ae ee2, rn re Ja epence barony Sequence baendory CO rl f 7oa sccion shoving AWBELE lowangie oniap. (Gourseny of rr “Kans Ramee Ae estH 3 8 3 ee a ee aJ q 34 Lee me ee ne ee Seisaic facies analysis By combining the analysis of stratal relationships with the attributes of the individual reflector, it is often possible to build up a quite detailed picture of the cubsurface geology. The attitude, continuity, pinchout, Tapout or truncation of reflections permit the interpreter to use the Selsnic section to infer superposition, depositional topography, erosion, non-deposition and other stratigraphic aspects. Seisnic facies parameters and their geological interpretation are listed in Table S2. Fitted into this wider framework the attributes of the single, or small package of reflections can be grouped into characteristic seismic facies, Feich can often be directly translated into the most likely lithologies and Gepositional environneat. For sone lithologies the external form of the resulting deposit can be diagnostic, eg. salt diapirs, In mst instances, however, the translation of seismic sections to geological cross-sections involves two distinct phases. Firstly, the recognition of the principal seismic sequences which are correlated throughout the seisnic grid to provide a first order tim Seisnic stratigraphic framework. This caa be illustrated by individual seismic sections and/or by structural and {sopach maps. Secondly, lesser reflection units and individual reflections within each Sequence are analysed to provide a detailed picture of possible lithology and, by implication from this, Lithofacies. Seismic facies are Charactertsed by responses displaying distinctive reflection continuity, Configuration, amplitude, frequency, external geometry and possible nterval velocity, Detafled analysis of individual reflectioas permits © Greater “Gophistication in the iaterpretation of facies through evaluation of wavefors, axplitude, eto. Reflection configuration Reflection configuration is the shape of a reflection or surface. Some depocitional enviroments produce charateristic reflection configurations. for example, a prograding delta produces a characteristic reflection package consisting of subparallel topset reflections, inclined foresst or Elinoforss and subparallel bottomset reflections ia the basinal area. Ye Gan-infer lithology from bath the location and also individual reflector attributes. For example, sigmoidal prograding configurations are more Likely ‘to be shale-prone than are oblique prograding vonfigurations, slumps tend to occur in sbale-prone or carbonate-prone sequences, etc ‘The philosophy of, and assumptions implicit in, the above discussion ts that seismic interpretation is not serely a mechanical following of reflectors through a grid, but can go far beyond this prosaic ambition. Seismic, interpreted imaginatively and intelligently, can reveal details o: depositional environment, lithology, rock properties, etc. Tables $3, St, 55 and S6 from Browa and Fisher (1980) descrite how this approach can be implemented vtiliciag the relationship betweea seismic facies, depositional enviroanent and lithofacies for parallel and divergent, progradational, novnded and draped, and onlap aad fill reflector configurations, The approach act only extracts more information from the seissic but can also be used in a predictive manner as an interpretational eid, The seismic section, thern data grid, a sinimom phase rev Techniques’ eeLithotypes in these intervals without the help of well data. The oldest and thickest carbonate interval is present from 1285-1470ss. The carbonatés are easily recognised by their associated high amplitude reflections, These mintain their character over large areas facilitating mapping of lateral seisnic facies change. The underlying sequence, undifferentiated from Perno/Triassic arenacecus sedinente, hac a less characteristic seismic expression at this locality. The interval ts seienically quiet, its base being picked using the low angle truncation of the underlying Carboniferous, eg. at 1460ms, shot-paint 2250 Carboniferous: In figure SS4 the Cartontferous can be subdivided into two main sequences; an upper _,sequence of hgh to moderate continuity reflections (faulting spoils the continuity), truncating beneath the Perm/Triassic Arenaceous Group unconformity; lower sequence of subparallel, low frequency reflections (eg. 1860m9 at shot-point 2100), onlapped by reflections in the overlying interval. The upper sequence consists cf Upper Carboniferous Coal Keacures, “which onlap the underlying Lover Carboniferous Linestone, The positive nature of the top Lower Carboniferous Limestone reflection coefficient con be determined from the onlap relationships. The strong top limestone reflection bas a duration of around 40ms (fron the os8ét of the lead cycle peak to the end of the follow cycle trough) and can be used to demonstrate that the seismic has a frequency of sbout 25%2 at this depth. Figure 15, 18, part of a seismic section through part of a complex shallow water prograding sequence, shows examples of clinoforms, onlap, dowalap, toplap and truncation. Apart from the characteristic overall shape and internal structure, other important diagnostic characteristics are the changes in amplitude and continuity. Amplitude and continuity increase gradually up the clinoforms with come of the highest amplitudes in the upper pert of the clinoform zone. Reflection spacing is also at a maximum here. This is the zone where shallow water sands and silts and more basinal clays have a maximum {nterfingering. These reflecticne pass-up into the subparallel high amplitude, good continuity reflections of the topset sequence ~ in this particular case, probably consisting of interbedded sands, clays and ignites, In detail the prograding sequence is. very complex. The ultimate goal of any interpretation, within the limitations and constraints imposed by resolution, data quality, etc., is to identify indtvidvel lithologies. The examples in Figures SS14 and SS15 show how difficult this can be in practice. Other seismic examples can be found in Brown and Fisher (1980), Payton (1977), AAPG Memoirs 29, 30," 32, 34, journals such ds AAPG Bulletin, Geophysics, Marine and Petroleum Geology and occasionally other journals. It is generally much simpler to identify a seismic facies, typical of a depositional environment and consisting of several possible lithological ccmbinations, rather than to ideatify individual lithologies 85 BO Em Br eR pe ee a eS.ees Eames Saeeme mm meeKems mess shows very clearly not only elements of the local stratigraphy but also the faulting style. Using the two-way tines measured beneath shot-poiat 2150 as a reference the following can be observed: Tertiary: A zone of high frequency, low amplitude reflections with poor continuity characterised the upper 435 ms of the section. Interpretation of this shallow interval is made difficult by muting effects of the processing. For iastance, the water bottom reflection is very attenuated. Great care should: te taken in using reflection character in an interpretative manner in the. shallow section. However, the effects are partly geological as the sequence consists of Tertiary marine clays with interbedded thin sands and occasional carbonates. A sequence boundary, recognised by truncatioa of underlying reflections, is preseat at about 270ms at shot-point 2350. The sequence boundary, at around 300ms beneath the shot-point 2150, is extremely difficult to detect. Cretaceous: Upper Cretaceous chalk is present from 435 to 520m. The top eaalz is a sequence touadary ~ low angle onlap can be seea to the right of shot-point 2150, The lapout of the onlapping reflections can be used in tais minigum phase data to position precisely the top chalk pick at the onset of the black peak. This {s exactly where we would expect the pick to be located, as the top chalk reflection coefficient is strongly positive and so should appear as a peak, with a trough follow cycle, in aiaimum passe data displayed with reverse polarity. The width of the top-chalk Feflection, arcund 25ms, can be used to demonstrate a frequency of about 402 for the seiemic at around 500ms. The character and continuity of the top chalk reflection {s extremely stable, a characteristic. of reflections from laterally extensive carbonates or chalks. The base Chalk, characterised by a negative reflection coefficient (we anticipate a trough followed by a peak) is also a sequence boundary characterised by truncation of the underlying reflections. Botice how the truncated reflections ‘terminate against the follow cycle peak of the base chalk reflection. Truncation terminations are a poor criterion to use for locating the correct position of a sequeace boundary and pick. Apart from the ebaracteristic reflection coefficients, there is little else that can be observed in the seisaic that is immediately indicative of a chalk or carbonate. .The interval is just about thick enough, however, for its interval velocity to be assessed from a seismic velocity analysis display. A Lower Cretaceous sequence \is present from 520 to 570m. The thin interval is identified using the sequence boundaries developed at its top and base. Both sequence boundaries are characterised by truncation below, for which the negative reflection coefficients (at least at shot-potnt 2150) can be deduced. The thinness of the interval aitigates against the development of characteristic reflections, as does the probable litaolegy - predomiuantly clays with sone sands. The negative reflection coefficieats at top and base of the sequence indicate a lower interval velocity than that of the Chalk above and the Triassic sediments below. Triassic: The Triassic interval is beautifully depicted by the seisate. In this part of the basin the Triassic is characterised by four intervals curing which evaporites and associated cartonates were deposited. . These Lithofacies produce packages of hign amplitude, high continuity reflections which can be picked easily between 640-740ms, 330-920ns and 100-1050me exe! quality of the seismic data enables the facies relationsbips to be anpoed consisting of claystones, silts and aandetones, produce a } seisaic response and it is difficult ognise individual @ intarventag 86i le ld ld ld et ls a ad de ssmim ™ z > aWl tae a ne ae mais Naa Aeneas Prapein ‘Depanional Enveamenlbanngs Seacea | Shumate guBtfaailetSin ATPL, Banal Pin Refictian | Prato] Prlefigny cverent Pa gneaiy | Paaelignty Songurtiod Srerget ip onanekceeptyaverseny —|padwstineanl | gagralner deerpent near | new grow aso Fetodetasan” | grstinerint Bape” | ds aeraias ohio eit Ro aeren, Tiatices | Alernaing | Shalow marine dea hon | Meander and alma wea ‘ete Umextone sandstnetale wading upward | channel ndstoe | hemislape cave Srneion| dha | a uber 8 pat, | el Raoaatn maa | ta ten Gein’ [proldaacer duces) | findetu uncon) gercr tampon Gepost” | Except wnere tooep i absent | pola Neeastons | tndsform devon Enaafoen doosits | seoonit Geamaury | Shestiee to, | Shesvne wo wecye Hyped | Sheesice to Sheaitne a edee oe Sredge hazed | ertabulr cn soa primate, | weage sages | shaped, ray be Sauce | Srabuars | Tlenaculgrbginedes af | Tadaly Hghiy wey Serysabie | Sibicne self edge wien. |longteiOborsor | drtped or sie: tine: outs fault andeikaver “| febey commonly. | et moandy gener Gnorm | nines; elavelysabie, | Sitedindwocee’ | Sysabie Duktorm] Siosidence | tpitoem mirigenet on Subgenee may elfrapd buses and Pale ateniy eo alle in deepater dla iat Sewanee Tiel | Way wade | May pase tndwara win Gadelundaard nia | Cormeniy gades rdatonships | andvard into | aol syseme and basnward | refesvontiee mph | Shltead Ske cousal faces, | Into predetafite cinotarms | nditonefce:®” | ounded ori Sed Sataward | (onshet) or powecauited "| slwal acer grde | or sone cinctorns int thetnari| prelasone es Stsinwardinta upper | Say grace nec eatonate faces (eepreaer tog) ‘ie platy fon dee | Int Seeoater feesteabonste ee grade busnward] mounds ors moved intoimoucionm or Inte Sope efor Trareot (Coa, | Rea coca aing Une nace | Coy $eeedaes” | Sndlor Set | orbuclrpedrupeeraurice | Gvtenal Acar | fopanatuct iperupper sit: | may be eroded brsubmarse, | tpiaiy be mpsiar | wy casa Rextroe _ | aotenatae wrice wy] merranre | celal sore sutace may be | Splipoed by prewttahiope "| Sueeegeersly | Sinaformy oe ‘ded by'ube | Gholorme ten elfiiwey | eareorentctan | Soded mounds, frarne cryons| eococantrtn pradera” | Sstarcaly renie | Goperaartce, Gislustacecen|orelf butcammenin | enalorms (osaa) | trey eroded earner] Sevbante rbot weston ‘esboeed ya Reais | Fes Taw dea Foc cal) | aro low aR | Tose ligtte of marine vanigrecsre spose ‘eis win dia palo? SGinprocers ance ruinaey with ae Fone Conary [Fis igh in dela front, coal] | Dizontranon | Ripe giieind mete taniyeive| anna es fow moderate ese lane malar of gee pi rosea where inser vei cle ont Broader in gla Geaigaracr banca ting Savmelblcior Rerowerimemer dea avorm bead: Dials ana pee a wnere in ougot Exndecity wit gla front > suamasy of facies cnaracterisad Sp pars 30 Sat Gunpnby Brown oa Fane: Sepa Enema TRE | spe: auacte wn ocean: ced wih prong sel seer ol pee | rede el oled oem Beit everga exis er Slopes oubcited mi progeaing set WEF naples Sek Cates eecion |S Toto Dot dts fserton|regacrionln ep srotie; | Pepataiend nda profle hunmaty, srr aoe pute gingied nd | tomounded nome peftingurar nee oontan iovnded nite patie | erp son tn sascaione so heh TBST | Hemp oe Iai in] On shel rds leper sow tose ror Scan | azamirlaotor: tbmasne | fino nd oe canton seis ca ‘resiton | Hs canmon'e wer cnalor: | bmarge ultcamponien erect Ere eres cy tan | asian add cacao A nee Sereand uc ot cinco) | fn noe eins Sesto aegsted in det>” | Beyond se ed pela deep sone water bayent lf ecpe | tec Sal atta areca Bo {ed ay stand and foe oat fa sf dep-raur dope cate mio prgey eft ef pied pray oy fotos Seta rd for a epee | Lenchapd pe peas ——| Comper ingramey win apc sanclicepol es, [Baxi dtd mdrcva'n- | eortaret Maae hn anata ee, unce |huirefinrand pene ure | tulsa nan ie wacaeasse eich eke pai ay tect fas | uct ar arene ciel ome eee ‘Pact ouale cw sigoy | namic cet essing tay taste eae Deed eantgunttnsriy | Indforms tect tarnghy ork detec ieced by gown fags | Wir acpi esas oe ase, ins oe reenter of edinene : Semone eatvcy writers itn vie nore rs Ta Gadeund ea Tea ap as ae oa Geo tsninos| aaifattorm dee cinine | eaulisador Gratien) Geeta Due Balcehertet elton | Somap mio tucal in forisorn or oeelece lento] ecsans may” | fer may cnr ates apna tite cowndip inion plain | pate songs mm necnond hal sey Uenétcnl & eundlenge "| Rares yr oer | si di pase one mie may chee | bndrwe Goble at SET] every sonorant atop nd Tani urminaca ip Edo BOT jeeefwer | sows nial wiinetont | urmnasor aroun sarconasond a ae ens’ | neuer nae af age’, | stmte veselons emcees ese £3 Simos maybe ries | Sige Csslow conmoy ekete Sribrarreroden arabe | Sob nd aboarce yen i aed Palecinyaireed wae |S teel aloo y Contac 0 a enoniy eiped oy Share heal ASB | Nedere wo hcunioos | Naas hig ppd RSTO TS toiow mown binalrn Soar abe Coa | ey coins Gere conic woe cater i Sicomitees mmidctacerm ed foes cna \ iar bet contunes be Taps | Salaam ne Gnelem when | Sealer as wearers (a [betes unorm amgsuike downdip as beds thin; variable along strike (nV 4 119% 9616508 nage by Breen aa Fe Hummacy of seLeaic Cartes chazaccesized oy ar SOT. er ~— a -— SO eee, ee oto.Depoinal EnvvonmentSeringy 4 SEER | gatbeiten wan, eden Henipeiae Canes: cine | gulbtieney, eee “gata dg caeen, — egammia Titan f foe, ee eee coe aa ET ee ee ee penser [Seaaae ibemiaceo jane mehmtaort (etn ee i motte on, ee | pieciepeand ponies em, | Seva tact Reuben |osmay andre meee fees |ieiectliio |S kr oe tienen [ebeerce |e sheen, |e Seriientee | oon: _ eile ' Bohm { Senta ery a et ee [ heerind | opmay be onlipped by trowinal and oniapped, oncoedang, bue may be [ sero |gakesiaedey” |ieieewmesy, |eectrs tne ouncaries | saace concordant bee | (wid drapel ban Boa arace gery sSearmapouic, | iepianybizapne | oneoren : Beem Calavsutun | tarioperconcaans | ay io waded f SREP Ca? | Pelican omer | mound o Soe i She commen Sots Taos ci fay Tamaiade | ip arg boundvigy | Vue gemray ow: [ow fo nae Aittnbienn colo | wneniperinwral Sore state : Tuesyeconmeny’” | nphates my oetsin | fect fected | inti Stbageatee away, I Sate sa . ‘Continsity | High along boundaries: ‘Discontinuous High eer oe ‘ret Famarey | Brot ole my Tir aes Tao aor ose [EGET ay | Sty moe Shay | ERI SE sec tam Va ea 09 teaped raltection configurations eer eee 92Fre neray ica Rurneenbarnen: faces etsy torsese etidloneses Depa Enronmene Ea treperies | couse (Paraic) ——_Cantinenl Ries ‘Submarine Other Decp-tater (Boome | Bama) Saeco set toonw ti Besa xe oe tots ese ie, reton_| ale Reais onfgurition| eos enlap Bhttorm ot fangward ehaatle;mourced Rikiloans (Rea [he TRS | Dam ATT | sees Sg | Sd REOS [Ritinitaans [agscwens | seuecSyurvin | eeoouecoy Shootin |Rashargaer | mae aby | owing way An Sesion, | Bclderncen” | neybikeempsane| nae vs Feeyyemnimortie | Remicsac "| dvesie al | femoesc ay Setmoacdigtn [tengo Soest SERINE | eter rs Pees Baty ti conain "| foal proximal Sauter | skkes Seat Gepncay | Sea BEART —| Wedieaeeg aR | loner oapet | VERT ine elm iene mybelisehsed Inari ction: pace commonly peiekicaiingsse — | Sewgtow'” "| Sinthencut updo: | seaymeine sia BSESE SEE | Seren ecb sear seu 0 | Rat ben Tae Ta Ba | Paso wpe— | Poste oot icin isin’ |mduaatyceie |v srccion reat dita |Ristaal gine | Senay Sreserang'™ | Rept tase” | eiet te, weiss, [Reecentnvas | tnced wien, gle wbmarne Tate af | Upper stiee commonly een | el eed oe | depesrtae of facies ‘selipruncontonnty, Upper uieace come ‘ory bucitoped Gace alte antgy apagar cae ate eth moy. Siow bat ban, Sard Spina mounts srbadimetae hips ‘Upper gaier maybe | amare rae Reece nd iseralyouaap Ena [eae ace mar iochemipeasic Pere tiated Shactormes ba Satie oni in Si drectons ott ober. ‘Rape | Vanity nigh | Variable penpals [ Vara geecally | Varia generally Plas |Satnormatylow” | facies mosente to” |iowtamasente [low tomaserue wmocente phi ceasr tow femotente Contnaly | law nate Woderte HPT WaribipearTa Wiheracirocnae | coninaouarfetns ator mounded| bs aesrenes nrespone ithign iniow Hndeiea Reming facet esi wraiies fed hemp EauRa Weie erea i ateto narrow Nivowanitorm Vari br oer narow shot to Yat (1977, 251616): nnge by Sw ane Fates 93 Variable Brehda ears inerail ee — Fa oe,tz) dae tae HARK A PICK ON A REFLECTION AND LOOPS stage. During a data review sequence boundaries my have been indicated on sone sections, and reflection relationships marked with the red-arrow code shown in Figure Pl However, this will have been done only sparingly and not in a methodical manner.” To complete the interpretation, all the selected horizons, and perhaps soze others, have to be carried throughout the seisaic grid. One of the first questions to answer is where on the vavelet should the horizons - acoustic impedance boundaries - be marked. Knowing the shape of the seismic wavelet can be an important guide to the positioning af sequence boundaries and picks. For well-processed seferic data it is often possible to identify the type of seiszic wavelet fron the shape of strong reflections or froz reflection relationships. For land seismic data, however; recognising the wavelet shape is often difficult and not infrequently impossible. In such cases, application of the techniques Aiscussed below will be difficult. Two main wavelet shapes are commonly produced; zero and minimum phase (Fig. P2), Zero phace wavelets are produced by wavelet processing which shapes the reflections’ pulse to a form which 1s symetrical about the maximum of its envelope. This manipulation is termed phase-zeroising or bringing to zero phace. Thus - a discrete reflection, looking like Figure P2a before wavelet processing; afterwards the reflection pulse (and its envelope) are nominally symnetrical-about the envelope maxinum; that envelope maximum nay coincide with a white trough (Fig. P2b) or a black peak (Fig. P2c), The visual effect of the zero phase process is not mjor, Reflections move ariier, and their form becomes a Little sharper Tale can make ie harder to lecate sequerce boundaries, as the wavelet interferes both with basolapping and truncating reflections ig, P)- Homver, the process Ceasumiag that 1s has worked) doco mate ft easier for the interpreter te decide wBore to plck on the vavefors {teelt, On anrine sections shot {2 deep water, the success of th zero phase pracess can be aauassed {rou the searfloor rafTsCtisny-bocalee thls Peflection ie uauallytaicip. aiserate Tts foru-snould approximate cero phase symmetry. ewe have this coufort, there te tr doubt where we should plek a reflection, we aust pice fhe peak or rougs which lies at the enveloge mexima (Fig. 20). Ho ovter pick ta perafesiole ona discrete reflection, “if the esvelope’ maxima is chen toe sseerecniotrane rane reeriectsTinY gv ar estaeeetr eae ruicesear CrtSe peat. Of course, reflections are not always discrete. Often we can see a band or complex of reflections waich merge together into one long wave train. Then we scan all the lines of the survey, and ask whether (ia general) the reflectica trata shows just one envelope maxima, or two; is there a e" in the envelope? If ig are we just in making two = ponding to the two anvalope maxima ~ provided, of course, the extra t brings soze explorat a we might wish a layer thins, we my reflections froz Pers the ¢1, Truncation and toplop Sa 2, Baselap: Onlap and downlap Greet guck of the azrobead drt.Betore Foo. IMO TTD TPB ae SSase Unconformity +re positive -re negative a reflection coefficient Unconformity Ly ccoustic impedance increase acoustic impedance decreose Geological Model SRS et Sho Seismic Expression 97 a 4 Oo eo er TL oeJ a j Co pm positive reflection coetficent J negative reflection coeticieat === pick pA setenic section shoving emamplas of acousticnsapecence fe of the 2020 phase Coundartan located using te Fymateie 0 aceua 74 Reo sere phase eetlaccions coos together, Lllurtriting the ees thar result. (Maprinted Dy pocie changes in vavetorn attVhat if the layer is not thick enough, anywhere, to show us the top and base separately? Than we do nct have the thres or four traces on the right of Figure P5. Ve go to pick the envelope mxinum and find that it does not correspond tos peak or a trough. This tells us thet we have a thin layer. and that our reflection is actuelly an interference between two reflections. If the layer is our target, we pick both the trough and the peak, This is not perfect, but it is the best we can do. ae If we have a long reflection train which does not show any saddle in its envelope, the train is almost certainly composed of three or more reflections. Vbat can we say? The interpreter just does what seems reasonable, taking into account whatever is known about the geology and the importance of that level in the exploration play. Probably most interpreters would pick the first major peak or trough to show good continuity ané label that pick *near-top yellow complex What about sections without wavelet processing. or sections in which the success of the processing ie in doubt? The traditional approach has been to pick the first clear trough of each reflection - the trough in order to make the colour visible, and the first trough to minimize possible Lag. However, if -the wavelet is minimm phase and the reflector has a large reflection coefficient, relationships at an unconformity can often be @ very good guide as to the exact position of the boundary (Fig. P6). The figure shows how onlaps can be traced almost directly onto a sequence boundary, their terminations mrking its position. Truncation and top lep, on the other haad, are poor indications of the boundaries’ positions as they terminate against the sequence boundary follow cycle sone distance short of their true terminations. Onlap is the best criterion for locating boundaries with minimum phase data. Figure P7 shows @ sequence boundary located using the oulap criterion. A boundary with a positive reflection coefficient is best draw at the onset of the compressional wavelet (top of the trough for normal polarity data) for a section processed to minimum phase, and for @ zero phase section the boundary should be drawn at the centre of the trough. If the boundary has a negative reflection coefficient, the same rules apply and either the onset or centre of the black peak should be mrked. If a soft wax-based crayon with suitable selected colour or soft pencil is used, there should be little problem about seeing the boundary érawm on top of the black peak. Reflector terminations are best indicsted ty a red arrow at the end of the reflection, even though the boundery causing the reflection extend bayond the arrow's tip (eg. on truncated reflectia on einimem phase seismic). tuations where the boundary, detersined from reflector relationships, is a very weak poor continuity reflection. This is common with Inter: ts that are gun phase or ze: phase. In these cases the best continuity is always found near the wavelet envelope maximum. The lag to the better continuity part of the reflection can be used as a guide to locating the true bow In situat any cony - which is near 99 PO CTR TR rr ee j tus F I Even waen we have decided where to pick on the waveform, probless usually arise where there is a change in the reflection character. For exemple. the reflection splits and the decision has to be made - where does the pick go? Geology can often come to the interpreter's aid. The following rules have bean found to be useful and correct in the majority of cases. 1. For a surface that is being onlapped or downlanped, stay down when picking against the onlap or downlap direction (Fig. P&) 2. For 2 surface below which reflectors truncate or toplap, stay high when picking in the dip direction of the truncation (Fig. Pé) These rules are intended for guidance only and the interpreter will instances where the rules do not apply. As always, seolo; is the best criterion tind al plausibility Loop TYING Once the picks have been sattled the icop-tying can begin. The interpretation 1s best begun in an area where the seismic response is good and the horizons selected for mapping are well developed. This often results in an interpretation beginning in off-structure areas. Here the seismic stratigraphy can have more importance than the wall control (because the wells are often on the structural highs, where the sequences are usvally thinner and seismic resolution poorer). The objective of the line tying and interpretation is to trace the lateral continuity of each selectad event. The most prominent feature of an event is its alignient rather than the details of the pulse shape. vents can be traced laterally until there is a break in continuity, such as a fault, pinchout, trunction, pocr data area, etc. However, rather than attempting to follow each event as far as possible it better to adopt a more methodical approach and follow Loops around the seismic grid. Select a dip line where the events are il-developed and fold at intersections with the strike lines. Transfer the picks onto a strike line and carry to the next dip line. Sometines it is possible to carry the picks through several strixe line intersections, but it is best not to carry the picks too far. The picks transferred to the new dip Line are traced to the next strixe line intersection and then again to the original dip line, so closing a loop. If the picks fit adually expand the loops in a methodical fastion until the entire grid ic ed. If not, back-track, locate the mis-tie and try again to close the Careful progress, with methodical checting and back-tracking, 1 ewarded by the substitute. It my seem tedious, but will be wel: and confidence in the interpretation. fn major structural features such as fau sed by tying loops until an area cf mes no way around major struct iroz one side to the gee w ertheless. s side by juap cor: bet usp correlation involves usiag @ fault blocks, i the precrtft s lactions (Badley et 100,character, whilst other reflections in the sequence retein their continuity, the most likely couse is lateral facies change. Minor thickening and thinning con produce subtle changes in the sensitivity of the. seismic system itself due to operational or overlying geological conditions. It is good practice to pick and correlate too many reflections, rater than Goncestrate on one or two. Many reflections will prove to have limited lateral extent but my be of great help in achieving a proper geological understanding. The decision 2s to which of the picked reflections should be timed and mapped can be mde at a later stage. tor ER a a ER ref i J J ooo ee oe koe es <= ‘Unconformity re positive 7. reflection coefficient mre negative Geological Model a KSDI z 2 SSS = SES » cf SS o Unconformity Ly acoustic impedance increase A acoustic impedance decrease at : Seismic Expression we teeasdand reftection selatioeahipa a8 2 sequence Douotary for + nce affects are not shown). (4). pe inimum phase sefleceion fron the waconforeisy against theFS} com, ae ie pr gee gt eet a OO a oe b( J J J J J J J J Geological Model Onlep and Baselap ote SAL ONE £10 = sign of reflection coefficient SSigss RETIIELNLELEET one Siig Cetra So pe Continuity of reflection from top sondstone to limestone. Stoy down when picking against SToy dow the direction of onlap or downlep. SCY down J 2+ picking criterion ~ onleg and dovaiay. (2) ceotegicat novets A tandetone of intermediate acousnie Sapedance be ontapend Dy shatee,' om X Truncation and Toplap Geological Model fre. sign of reflection coefficient No reflection Correct pick uh : Ee BOO SSCS SSS Or ee SP $= ee and e, coureany of sactin Peotiiees) oP Gee ee a a ndstructure may be the product not only of depositional processes but also of erosional or reworking processes. Figure L3d. shows part of the saze clastic complex and, although the interval is about 400m thick, {atervel reflections are entirely lacking. The seismic here is totally non- Alagnostic More typical, however, is the case in Figure L3a, a seiemic section across Part of the giant Oseterg Field, offshore Norway, where the clastic target interval lacks any dtagnostic features. The reservoir interval, middle Iurassie Brent Group, sand sequence, although nore than 100m thick, has a Sheet-like external form, and is too thin to produce diagnostic seismic features of its clastic nature. K cortonstes density compared to other common sedimentary rocks. Only in cases where } the carbonates are very porous or fractured are reflection coefficients of E $f, 5800s would be represented by only 36ms two-way tine. Alternatively, L base is 110m, and the M wavelength tuning thickaess 1 sem, E } From a seismic viewpoint, carbonates can be conveniently divided into three groups, ~ ne msettike deposits, often extremely extensive laterally, coneistiag of fine-grained carbonate particles or calcareous aicrefessile are depostt from suspension, eg. nicritic limestones, chalk, calcareous clayetonee, see geese Meposits show stutlar characteristics to other fine-grained , Ggpostts but can usually be recognised by their high emplitules, gocd contisuity and, if thick enough, by high interval velocities, which “sca rarely less than 9500u/s. Mistaking volcanic ash or tuff beds foc fi Gafbonates is a potential interpretation pitfall. Tuff beds have bigh interval velecities and are laterally extensive, producing a seierie response similar to that of bedded carbonates ; em ferentiate between bioclastics and non-carbotate slastics: W 3. Buildvups, reefs, blotherns, banks, sounds, ete category. This type of deposit has a large ot the skeletal remins of living orgaaicae gharactertsed by shape and igh iatarzal reflection configuration criteria fer 113,“og fHEV. 1690515" DEPTH IN FEET Soe eo FLEV. 169 (51-541 gfLEv 169.01 5m) ee nee tere eae a ak i - L te TT TT Tt Ifom te Be ame tee ee TH ; (ee Be ) ie cu errs rr alias oo ieee eB UNASi ma oy seismic profiles. Bubb aad into 4 major types (Fig, 16); tied (1977) subdivided carbonate build-ups Xi) Barrier build-ups - tending to be linear with relatively deep water on both sides during deposition. Hits Ptanacte busid-upe ~ roughly equidiaensional features surrounded by doep water during deposition. 44) Shelf sargin build-ups - linear features with deep water oa one side gnd shallow water on the other. Figure L7 shows a carbosate shelf build-up from the Aptian/Albian of Rodessa-Mooringsport Formation of centrat Louisiana, The back shelf margin to the north consiste of an interbedded Sequence of Limestone and shales, with a seisaic response af parallel, Mgh frequency, low amplitude reflections. The shelf margin build-up, consisting of high energy porous deposits, has poorly developed iaterval reflections, The basinal area to the south, caneisting of fine-grained calcareous deposits, 19 characterised by downlap aod lateral amplitude variations. Vine _ratah totténupe ~ forned usualy tg Proximity to shelf nargias or over broad, shallowséas. Figure 18 shows 3° ‘seienic profile though aa Upper Jurassic build-up or reef in the Suackover of the US Gulf coast. The reef, S0-40m thick with a lateral extent of several square Kilometres, 1s associated with a dim-spat on the Smackover reflection. Wexwater, either in close A grid of good seismic data, often with spacial processing and meticulous interpretation, is required to define the shape and depositional environment of carbonate build-ups. The often relative small size of the build-ups compared to vertical and horizontal resolution Limits is always a potential problem (Figs. L9 and L10). Indirect methods, using. for example, velocity pull-up or push-down effects beneath a boild@ap or differential compaction of overlying layers, can scnetines be used to overcone the problem. The loss of reflection amplitude oftan associated with reefs ts not always a good indication of lower acoustic impedance and high porosity. Hach (1975) describes how defocussing, by dispersion of the seisnic sigual from the coastal areas of Silurian pinnacle reefs ia Michigan, due to the convex shape of the surface, causes dimspots in the seismic. The apparent fall in reflection coefficient, in these cases, is entirely geametric and sot necessarily related to increasad porosity. Veatt cstg tan Salt and associated evapcrites are quite common ta ay sed{neatary sequences. Salt has a lower density (2.2g/om*), lower than that of meet other commonly occuring sedisents and, if deposited ia sufficiently thice layers, ‘becomes inherently unstable it if is buried and a density inversion between overburden and salt is achieved. circumstances, 5: is initiated, which passes though tar: Fecognised stages of pillowing, diapiriom. and-sost-diapiri (2979) discusses the complex interaction between depostsion the surrounding sedizeats and salt structu: Controversy waether the demiaant devalopaent surroundsRegardless of the mechanism responsible for salt movement, flow of salt into @ growing structure creates a withdrawal basin that 1s a structural low and an isopach thick. Figure L12, a schematic diagran from Sedi end Jackson (1983), showing the three main growth stages of salt diapirs observed in the Hast Texas basin, has more generel applicability. The model in Figure Li2 can be used as a basis to interpret seismic reflector configurations. Diagnostic configurations for the various stages are: or Pillow etege: Syzdepositional thinaing of sediments over the pillow crests ad flanks, developed ia response to the pillow's growth, is the nos diagnostic feature of this stage. Only minor thickening usually develops into the primary rin syncline Diapir stage: Vittdraval of the sslt into the growing diapir leads to a “SoHE ci the Hasking sequence that thinned tovarce the original pillow A secondary rim syncliné its axis immediately adjacent to the diapi-'s edge, develops above the collapsed area. The secondary rim syncline is ustally more extensive than the primary rim syncline and also accumulates a thicker sequence. The thickened sequence in the primary riz syncline ts usually outside of the collapsed zone and, in {nterdomal locations, undergoes passive structural reversal from eynclines to enticlines, the ‘turtle structures' of Trusheim (1960). - Postodiapir stage: During this stage, diapirs stay at or near the sediment ie ane Gscuming there is sufficient salt for continued movenent) despite continued subsidence. 4 mall, often subtle, tertiary rim syncline flanks the diapir. Bot ell diaptrs, however, pase through all three stages. The reflector configuration produced by shale diapirs can be the saze as that of salt diapirs. If reflectors are present beneath the diapir the two lithologies can usually be distinguished by velocity effects. Salt should produce a pull-up while shale diapirs should produce a push-down on deeper reflectors. In the absence of deeper reflectors, distinguishing the two lithologies may be difficult. Longman (1979) discussad seismic criteria for the recognition of salt diapirs. Frequently, collapse features are associa (1984) discusses the formation of collapse features above salt structures and Seismic criteria for their recognition. Dissolution can potentially occur in deeply buried salt structures, through dissolution by salt under- saturated water deep in the subsurface being brought into contact with the salt. Increasing brine dencity causes gravitational flow and renov salt (Anderson 4 Kirkland, 1960). Alternatively, in the shallow section, meteoric waters can come into contact with a shallow diapir or salt layer and cause dissolution. Shale diapirs would aot nermally be expect exhibit collapse features. Care mst be taken, however, to distin true co} features, due to dissolution, from crestal faulting jtypicall in competent units due to extension above any type of janticlinal feature. Interpretation problems can arise in mapping salt! diapir flanks, a c: a of potential traps. Reflections steep dips or even overhanging walls, typical of salt di to record or display correctly on normal setenic profites. 38 ‘ tng by sany methods can be Sm oT m7 oF. ae ee d with post-diapiric dissolution of salt (Fig. 113)i | } } i ] ] | | ] | Gulf coast, where salt diapirs intrude relatively uncompacted clays and sands, the acoustic ispedance of salt is usually large enough to ensure a moderate positive reflection coefficient. In basins where salt pushes up, or intrudes sore compacted sediments, the acoustic impedaace contrast between overlying lithologies ard salt aay be too szall to produce good top salt reflection, This can be a serious problem {f potential prospects al located above salt diapirs (Fig. L14). [t ie very embarrassing to drill such a prospect to find the reservoir interval absent and top salt much higher than expected. In such a eituation a possible, though not foolproof, solution to locating the top salt in the seismic ie to use the pull-up on the base salt reflection if one is developed (Fig. 114). For the method to work it is necessary to know the interval velocity of salt and of the sediments adjacent to the salt and also to assume that the base salt reflector is planar in depth, In such a situation any structure on the base salt reflection is assumed to be due to the pull-up effect of the salt. Knowing the difference in velocity between the salt and adjacent rocks, the thickness of salt required to produce the pull-up can be calculated from: Salt thickness ~ + pul: x Ve x Vs We = Vy where pull-up = observed pull-up we = velocity in adjacent lithology Ve velocity salt. This thickness, converted back to time, is subtracted from the top of the pull-up time to locate the calculated top salt in the seiemic section. ~dasemeat. There are two definitions of basement rocks; igneous or metamorphic crystalline rocks or economic basement, indurated low porosity, sedimentary rocks that have no reservoir potential. Heither type of ‘basenent' necessarily have unique reflection character. Figure L15 shows an example of, shallow crystalline basement. Beneath the strong top basement reflection (positive reflection coefficient) the seismic is reflection-free and seemingly. dead. Figure LiSb shows crystalline basement outcropping at the sea floor, The strong interval reflections are multiples. Potential interpretation pitfalls can be produced by salt or shale diapirs, basalt flows or igneous intrusions into the sedineatery sequence, that result in basemeat-like reflection igurations. buried, crystalline basement becones zere 4! to ystalline basesent should have a positive reflection by practically any sedizeacar: [ few teas of metres may aot o! gures LISA and L18b are The presence of internal reflections, bility of crystalline bdaseme: can internal layering or str 129a a a a eeHib ma 12a(Bourresy Merit > i‘ salt diaper base salt ere eae eee ase ee ee pee eg pase ase cea ame eee ana eae eee CaeEconomic basement is more difficult to define as its definition ts subjective. As a generalisation, low porosity indurated rocks will be characterised by weak discontinuous reflections and poor dats quality (Fig Lise). Veak reflections with poor continuity, will be common because, although the actual acoustic impedance values would be high, acoustic impedance contrasts would be small Structural closure involving either type of beseement can never be immediately downgraded and disregarded. Plan (1982) describes of] and gas fields with basement rock reservoirs from many different basins, eg. the near billion barrel La Paz field, Venezuela, the fields of Central Hansas Uplift, etc. Basement reservoirs are charcterised by thick resergvoir intervals end although porosity and permeability are usually highly variable, production rates are high and reserves large Yrgreous and voleaste rocks Theco two categories, including intrusive and extrusive rocks, are Esa as ara Mig cearoan aucsaves pocl euon coe ecttononactiotone Sad. high ampiftuce reflections, when ‘overlain by practically all Sedtmatary ‘Iithologiea. Yery poor asta quality {e alco not uscomnn. Gravity and aaguecice, cen te ou tnvsluable oud to, ceiomic “data ta deutlfying. iguesue aad volcanic ‘socks, “On the basis of their geometry Intrusive igncove rocks con be grouped {nto najor bodies, eg, leccelithe tod botholithe, ues! vertical serusions = dpiee and letereliy extensive Sheete = wits, Large intrusive bodies generally produce seismically dead intervals. The intrusive nature of the body may be evident from upturning of the adjacent sediments. Igneous intrusives will not show the secondary rim syacline characteristic of salt or mid diapire. If, however, only the upper part of a deep salt diapir is visible, it could prove difficult to separate the two possibilities seismically. Figure L16 shows a seismic profile through the Ultramphic intrusion kaowa as the Great Stone Dome, 100km east of New Jersey in the centre of the Baltimore Canyon Basin. The igneous stack was intruded into and deformd a sequence of shallow water mrine sandstones and shales. The effects of the intrusion, rather than the intrusion itself, are the main features of the seismic. Uplift and disruption associated with the intrusion are evident up to 16x away. Differential compaction bas caused structuring of the overlying Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments (Crutcher, 1983). Dykes are more difficult to recognise, as the reflection selsnic is unsuited to imaging near vertical features. In addition, the lateral extent of dykes is generally aot great and may be below the Fresnel zone size ior horizontal resolution in may cases. Linear dykes are perhaps most easily recognised on unmitigated sections, where it my be possible to follow the course of a dyke by mapping diffractions from its top through a seismic grid & cccur together (Fig. L17). Sills are igneous into rock sequences and are more easily + in the seismi g thousands of square 125 (la. Se aeCom ese Re less for the recognition of sills is to observe discordant reflector relationships that demonstrate the intrusive nature of the sill (Fig. Lia). Volcanic rocks are, by definition, extrusive and form three main groups; lavas, tuffs (airborae deposits) ‘and water deposited volcanic deposits, Lavas can be up to thousands of metres thick and may be difficult to Gitferentiate seismically from intrusive igneous rocks, but they may be gxPected to show sone relationship to a volcanic ceatre or fissure syste Figure 119 shows a seiemic section across the Palaeacene Erlend complex, north of the Shetland Islands {n the North Atlantic. The fora of the volcano can be seen clearly in the profile with raflections from the lave flows dipping radially outwards, at up to 20°, from a central volcanie vent, The vent is roughly circular in plan, with a diameter of about oka and a depth of 300-400m. Drilling results show the basalts to have unusually low interval velocities of around 3500m/s, which Gatliff et a) (1984) Laterpret to be probably due to the lava pile having been bullt up by the extrusion of thin flows, each in turn being weathered before burial by the next lava flow. In the absence of a central vent or gravity data, a seismic interpretation of the volcano in Figure L19 could be difficult Fok only are the interval velocities uncharacteristically low for "typical* javass, but the clinofora prograding pattern of the radially outward dipping java lows could be mistaken for a prograding sedimentary sequence is Situations where it was not possible to demonstrate the overall shape of the feature, eg. with a widely spaced seismic grid. Tuifs, ignimbrites and water-laid volcanic clastics will share external forms and internal structures in common with other sedimentary rocks. if thick enough, interval velocities my be diagnostic, and such deposits could easily be confused in the seisafe as being carbonates. Figure L20 shows a Middle Miocene volcanic mound in the Sea of Japan. Mcrphologically she feature is similar in appearance to a reef, but consists of besaltic lavas, tuffs, dolomitic intrusions. In som cases volcanic mounds are the Sites of of] accumilations (Suzuki, 1983), eo they are not always bad news, 128aw a as a le ey soot W001 327129 TivO-WaY TIME IN SECONDS te.fous may TERADOMARI OKI 12-1 ESE SONOO3S NI SWLL AVM-OML Brees Seana Si) Btiere 130 NOOSS NI SAIL AYM-OML rcEO¥ To IOMISE TIONS ASSOCIATED ¥ITH AND DIAGENETIC EFFEC’ CARBONS, . se, eg. multiples, diffractions, centred on reflections arising from lithologica s extrezely impor: acoustic 1 These ere ¢ etc., attention has bee: changes. However, there nt group of reflectors that originate fros edance change not directly related to lithological change Fedlections associated with hydrocarbons and diagenesis. Gas = The presezce of gas in a reservoir often produces a detectable suite of responses the seismic. It is obviously very important for the interpreter to be able to recognise gas effects in the seismic. below are the main criteria for recognising its presence. Yacoustic Impedance Effects: The way in which a reservoir responds to the ( presence of gas depends on the acoustic izpedance of the gas filled portion Of the reservoir, the water filled reservoir, and the caprock and the thickness of the gas filled interval. If the gas column is thick eucugs and there is ea acoustic impedance contrast between the gas-/oil- or the gas~/water-f!lled portions of a reservoir a reflection, commonly called a feces spot’, will result. As a rule of thumb, flat spot. ikely to be found in porous sandstones or carbonates downto about 2-sim Figure HDi ‘cumertses"experisental results showing the relationship between acovstic Flat spots will always have positive reflection coefficients appearing as a L spets sre perhaps the best indications of gas, yet there can be other Giagnosic acoustic Impedance cbenges betveen the caprock and gas-searing £ reservoir, affecting the amplitude and polatity of the top reservoir S fall into two groups: gh amplitude anomalies, commonly termed ‘bright spots tow amplitude anomlies, comsonly terned ‘dim spots! i be ted in eny local chance of re: : not appear to ave its crigin to the geo! ots are susily associated with porous sends. In enca, the claystone to wend reflectis is or for witer of ofl saturated a covffictent becomes wee But ea ive reflection spote du ection HloF eR oea Sasa a i i SONOOIS NI BWIL AVM-OMLglaystone/conpacted-sand ar claystone/carbonate would usually have ‘a strong Positive reflection coefficient. Gas in the reservoir reduces the reflection coefficient causing the top reservoir reflector to lose auplitude and dim (Fig. HDS). Amplitude anomalies are usually accoupanied by corresponding polarity changes. These polarity effects are summrised in Figure HD6.' A polarity reversal of the top reservoir reflector at th gas/oil or gas/water contact {sa comzon feature of sright spots felocity effects: 12 the gas column is sufficiently thick, a push-dova my be observed on underlying reflectors, The differential velocity required fo produce a push-dowa can provide a check on the possible gas column. If the calculated interval velocity belived to be producing the pust-dowm is yareasonable, for example 1000n/s (3300%t/sec), thea something is wrong and the effect cannot be caused by ges alone Other effects: A frequency loss is cometises observed beneath bright spots. This is caused by greater absorption of the ccicmic wave witeiy gacwbearing than within vater-bearing tatervals. . This absorption Selectively depletes the signal of higher frequencies. Both aupliiude decrease and increase are sonetines observed associated with bright spots Actually anticipated transuission losses through a gas~saturated resesvoit ara so low as to be scarcely mearsurable on real data. Amplitude decrease both above and below a bright spot may be due to automatic gain effects - a procesing step to balance amplitude across a seismic section - and merely a yesponse to the extra high amplitude of the bright spot. An amplitvde jRerease beneath a bright spot is most likely due to increased signal levels associated with multiples of the bright spot. However, if a shadow is obvious only below, and not above a bright spot, it could be caused by transmission losses through multiple gas reservoirs. acoustic impedance and are often seen at the edges of bright spste. They will aot be expected in cases where the gas interval thickness decreases gradually. . Meckel and Hath (1977) show a synthetic seismic section across the orth Sea Brent Field with a flat spot developed at the ofl-water contact. In many cases, however flat spots associated with oil/water contacts are not due to acoustic impedance decreases caused by the presence of ail, but are due to the inhibiting effect of oil on the diagenetic reservoir growth of cementing minerals in the reservoir (Hancock and Taylor, 1978), A number of fields within the North Sea Province show this effect: within the hydrocarbon-bearing intervals the sands are relatively uncemented, but beneath the oil/vater contact the sands are well-cenented by kaolinite and/or illite (De'ath and Schuyleman, 1981), The effect of cementation on the acoustic impedance can be large enovgh to produce a reflection at the oll/water contact. It must be a pleasant eurprise drill a flat spot expecting gas but finding oil instead. Gas Hydrates Under appropriate conditions water saturated with natural gas, frequently composed mainly of methane, can freeze. Instead ct crystallising in the usual hexagonal crystal lattice, the ice crystallises inte 2 cubic form, which enables methane molecules to becone trapped in voids within the crystal lattice. Gas hydrates are only stable over a limited range of pressure and temperature and their thickness is largely determined by water depth and the geothermal gradient withia the gas hydrate bearing sediment g. #10). As a general rule the greater the water depth the thicker the potential gas hydrate bearing interval. Maclosd (1982) discusses the factors controlling the occurrence of gas hydrates. 4s the reflect from the base gas hydrate tend to follow the sea~fioor topography are somatines called bottom simulating reflectio} BSs. Gas hydrates are aportaat the interpreter because the accustic impedaace contrast between the gas hydrate and underlying sediments can produce a reflection g. HDID. Gas hydrates increase both velocity asity of the bos: ediments and the associated reflection at the hydrate layer a stroag negative reflection cooffici ections. Addition1700 1800 1300 2000 TWO-WAY TIME IN SECONDS D7 cas chunney aftece above the gesrbearing 11/10 alpha oes_ og LeESe 140Gas hydrates bave yet to be exploited conserctally. In fact, their main interest my not be as a source of hydrocarbons but as the seal to gas accunvlations trapped below the hyérate leyer. Diagenetic Effects The possibility that diagenesis effects have potential to produce reflections has already been described in connection with oil/water contacts. Another potential acoustic impedance bouadary could be caveed by the diagenesis of fine-grained silica-rich sediments. Hein, et al (1978) showed that the dissolution and precipitation of diatom frustules (the silicous cell-walls of microscopic single-celled plants) involved a change from opal~A to opal-Cl. The change causes a marked porosity reduction which results in increases in both density and velocity increase. Thesa incressee can potentially produce a detectable acoustic impedance contrast. As the change from opal-A to opsl-CT is dependent on burial depth the resulting reflection tends to perellel the sea~Jloor and is another type of BSR. Opal-cT eventually changes to quartz and the associated diagenesis front also has potential to form a reflection. 4s the opal-A to opal-CT diagenesis changes are depth-dependent, they should migrate gradually upwards through the sequence with tine and burial. Below ‘the migrating front, diagenesis could account for the commonly observed, reduced reflection amplitude and coherency often seen below BSRe. Homacnd and Gaither (1983) show examples of ES%s from the Bearring Sea Shelf, Potential interpretation pitfalls are possible where a BSR intersects other reflectors at an angle, opening the way for its incorrect interpretation as a sequence boundary or even a flat spot (Fig HD12). In this case, it my be extresely difficult to determine that the reflection comes from a BSR. The configuration could show the features associated with a gas accumlation, eg. a flat spot, polarity reversal and edge diffractions, etc. rm oe om i fSEA LEVEL, -————~ 2 iste Assumed geothermal eae pee om Lona) Haste con oder the ocean ss ydeate foraet correct for tydrat ‘ie fettoving assenpeions apply: (2) geothermal gratient of 27.3°/ka: (2) Ligestatie and nyerontatig pressure gradients of 0.1 ata/ay and (2) bottom water cempecatuce sange fou 2.8 bo 220 depeading on water depen, (Haprineed bY perwisaion of the AKEO from Rrenvolden and 082) 4 ] | ] ] ] 1 ] Setrale vection from the sagtern Clank of tha slate outer Ridge. The reflection at the base of che gas nyt ssolissee o€ radiations above the gan hyézate tay be the Feduend Acute Lnpadance conteasts ia the Dytrace. (rran suatey o€ a, 1979) wes 142,SONOOZS NI SWLL AVM OL a wd ldfae! te le HOW TO DIGITISE SEISKIC DATA ‘The first stage in contouring is to measure the two-way times to the picked horizons on the seismic sections and post these values on shot-point base maps. The simplest method of digitising the section, but certainly not the best in terms of efficiency, is to read off the values directly by band using a scele the same as the sections. A recommended procedure is to digitise, and record with an appropriate symbol, all slope oreaks (concave or convex), highs, lows, tops and bottoms of all faults, or other structural features. Mapping symbols are shown in Figure DG1. Methodical digitising in this manner, optimally carried cut as the interpretation progresses, not only ensures that all information required to produce an Accurate contour map is racorded and resolves mis-ties, but also provides feed back into the ‘aterpreta If, however, this procedure {s not strictly adhered to, the horizontal distance between each reading should be sufficient to ensure that a straight line interpolaticn between each point will describe the structure adequately. It makes no difference whether ne sample at regular intervals af shot~points or at regular intervals of ti provided that the measurements ara made at appropriate intervals. Thus @ loag and simple nonccline can be specified by just two nidely-spaced neasurenents, but a rough eroded surface requires at least two neasurenents per cycle of corrugation. Furthermore, an additional step (reconstitution) is necessary before values can be interpolated tetween the measured values. This is {llustrated in Figure D62a, which shows an anticlinel feature with a faulted crestal area. The black blobs represent the digitised points at regular shot-poiat intervals. The interval 1s too coarse; when we post and contour these values, the structure appears as show dashed, and all nenory of the collapsed crast has disappeared. In Figure DOZb, we see a major igh, a second high and a small saddle between them we represent by black plobs the shot~point values corresponding to regular intervals of reflection tize. The interval is too coarse; when we post and contour these. values, it ie not possible to determine whether the high is single or double. To be completely safe, therefore, it is necessary to time the reflection at least twice for each cycle of undulation or the reflection surface. It is also necessary to apply the process of reconstitution before interpolating between these tines for contouring purposes. This leads to a set of basic rules watch we should apply to marking and digitising (or, if we are using A computerised digitising system, which should give an excellen’ repraseataticn of the tined surface) when posting the tized values from our sections. i) During the picking, ignore ar smooth trace-to-trace variations waich we judge to be due to noise, or poor static corrections, or artefacts of the seisaic netbod. [a this, we are applying the criterion plausibit 1 2 sections overall, in the ligh explorat: play, and Judge what degree of relief in the reflection surface is mater! = anything less than tais we judge to be of no importance gas. ding ofl 144Sv) If we wish to time the picked reflector at regular progression of tines, we do this at the chosen countour interval. In this case, no interpolation of tines is necessary in the contouring, and co we are not at risk for failing to reconstitute. ¥) If we wish to tine the picked reflection at a reguler progression shot-points, we look at the sections again, and decide what convenient contour interval corresponds approximately to the contour interval on the steepest flanks of the smllest material relief. In this case, we are at risk for failing to reconstitute. This can be seen in Figure DiZa if it happens that the times at A and B are 1987 and 2007s respectively, then a simple interpolation of the 2000s contour ‘¢ significantly in error. (as noted above, this problem does not arise if we tine and post at the chosen countour interval) Vnen ve elect to tine or post on a regular progression of shot-potats we err oa the side of caution, and adopt shorter intervals if there is aay doubt Vnether we sample and post regularly in cime or in shot-pointe the major protection agefast our flagrant violation of the sampling theory is that we mark on the map the position and tine of every significant high, and every significant low, and position of significant slope breaks, and position and throw of every significant fault. This is the step which saves us from error in the examples of Figure DG2a. The practice is mandatory. Finally we gain additional protection by marking on the mp zones of extended sonclinal dip and of zero dip. Sensible ucdification of these precepts my be indicated in practice, depending on the scale of the sectious, the eye and the hand of the interpreter, the aechanisation available, the admissibflity of skipping sone seasurements over featureless zones and whether the timing is done by the interpreter or by a tecnician. Once timed, the readings can either be directly posted onto a shot-point map of suitable scale, or, if nore than one horizon is involved, tabulated and the values posted after digitising has been completed. The seismic tine or depth velues are posted against the appropriate shot-point, toge with symbols for faults, truncations, etc. If mere than one seiszic surve th interpretation it is quite Static shifts between the surveys initiation of the interpretation but will have played no significant role in the proceedings until now. Vaen the data digitised, the static shifts should be ved by adding or subtracting fate amoonte to reader all values toa commen dstus, Di gitisiog by suming and tedious. Efficient computer-based 5 are now commonly available for digitising. & typical system consists of an table, co-ordinates for the borizontal and tine d, 2 check made for excessive paper stretch, and, once all is d horizons dij acluding positions, data Snformation is store le where up to twenty or ‘The data is the electronic digitising scales record 145 Sree eer ero fo]vas ee aa ms ill contours F comectss REVERSE FAULTS IIE Fault ace -nanging wat block ALA Fautt race -tontval lock Mogntuee casing z 2s for cormal feats | STRUCTURAL FEATURES Ue fr ED Salt aurcement Ma dope 148 : NL connaie oresk ot toe Ny Cer etc foe Lid Bult 3 rege ina foutes) ten ees rs > stot angie (cestees of eeatve rete) GE out tones STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS “sens of movement 4 how i appicobe FoLos + armeine Ee Sprctine arene tn ange UMITS OF HORIZONS DAR Thecation ARR AA Toon onto(a) wrt ee oP em met ete ety Oe aa =MANUAL CONTOURING TECENIQUES SINGLE CONTOUR MAPS - PREPARATION The following description sets out a suggested pr single nap. edure for contouring a Establishing the overall structure: Attempt to establish the ain linear features. Interpretation of faults, fold axes, flexures, etc., {s more reliable and secure than correlation of surfaces. Fault: Intersections on each line should already be marked with an appropriate syabol, together with values for the up and dowathrown sides. It 15 useful to review each seisnic line in turn at this stage, and to mark on the mp suitable colour sysbols showing high and low axes, breaks in slope, etc. (Fig, Cl). The of faults and other structures are thereby’ systematically correlated from lise to line. There is-nothing in the data that can be measured that will reveal that the faulte seen on two cross-sections are, infact, the same fault. Geological plausibility must be used to test the likeliness of faults correlating - similarity in geological - history, direction and amount of throw, structures associated with the fault, timing of initiation and end of fault movement, etc., can be a great help in correlation. Dating the initiation of fault ovement is nade by tracing up the fault plane to find the top of the zone with constant throw (allowing for velocity effects on either side of the fault waich can give a thinner time thickness on the downthrowa ide for identical rock thickness). The shallowest reflection to show the maximum throw dates the initiation of faulting. The shellowest reflection to be displaced mrks the end of the main fault movement, though renewed minor movements may induce flexures of still higher levels, The correlation of fold axes 1s usually more obvious, but can be difficult in areas where fold axes are en-echelon and the grid spacing is relatively wide. A knowledge of an area's strutural grain or an vaderstanding of the tectonic style can greatly aid ¢ initial interpretation stage. For example, if a major strike-slip fault passes ‘rough the area it say be possible to predict the directions of first, second and third order related structures, using knowledge of the strece pattera associated with strike-slip faults. The fault patters stould be marked using a red (or another colour) pencil to make a very faint line joining the main faults, [£ correlation is in doubt, completion of the fault pattern is best left until the contouring stage. At this stage, assuming that the grid size is dense enough to samp} the structures, the map should show the basic fault pattern, fold axes, highs and lows and major slope changes for the massed aorizon Traces of the fold axes are a useful guide when contouring, so as to ensure that all contours intersecting then turn along the same avis - as also are aificant slope changes. The latter can often be a of some significance waich can te id values are used, Contouring rules: The map i cantou: 3 now ready for ¢ he nature of 148polder contours that are traced first, not as a bold line in but made using 2 bard (et lenst 2H) pencil te prosuce a line trace. | These initial contours are used a within which the the overall cantours will be pt identify likely encil point duce a very in the section Surfeces on 5 and rarely violently undulat: the knowledge of shapes assuzed by s which become a: t during this and the next stag y rete to the sections. Often the ural trend 2 by nearby lines will ake it obvious which of two mis-tying correct. Following completion of the outline, infill contouring can proceed. This is done using sharply pointed softer peacils (# or HS are ideal) to trace out the intervening first and fourth contours. Use smooth hand movements to produce a single, graceful line of even density ~ these contours are the finished product. Break the contours into shertish intervals that can be drawn without excessive hand movencnt. Aft completing the first and fourth infill comtours over a short interval, mark in the second and third contours. Continue thie process until the entire aap is contoured, completing the fault pattern details as and when dictated by the contouring, Attempt to produce evenly spaced contours ov. intervals wiere no dip changes are anticipoted. Use the break in slope syabols to guide the contouring. Mark in the final fault pattern, breaks ib slope, ete., using appropriate synbols (Fig. C2) with soft pen colcured crayon. Neatly number every fifth contour where necessary, using the adjacent first and fourth contours as a guide to its final locat the Righ, lows, valleys, ed on the map. Syntole that show lezent to the co: cant gecl) bie thet con be ple ering s: fo) i omcontou: TIE Fou Hace-honging wet block AL Feu trace-footwal bet MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES 1 prea a ore t Butt eer = stooe ong (aegrens ot aerve genes SEE ron senes STRIKE-SLIP-FAULTS >—_———_S_ 7 sane of movenet es toe if peed FOLDS Syncine Anictiee mtn plunge LUMITS OF HORIZONS: wee AAA er ui roe BT ere co ee. or em ar.ia os vem aed sl ts addition te sysbols, the following “should alvays be displayed on every map: latitude, longitude and other pertinent map projection values, map scale and projection, regional location map, legend, labels. The label should include at least: map title, author, date drawn, scale, contour interval. Typical Countouring Problems The procedure decsribed above works well in most circumstances, but there can be instances where just contouring the values is no longer simple. Briefly described below are some typical contouring problems. Mis-ties: It is inevitable that the values at many line intersections will disagree. The problem becomes sertous when a discrepancy approaches or exceeds the magnitude of the contour interval. The values can disagree for @ number of reasons; genuine mis-tie of the data, eg. due to nigration between a dip and strike-line, poor marking of the section, digitising error, processing effects, etc. The majority of errors should be random but some, eg. due to migration, could be systematic over areas with similar structural attitude. If serfous, the mis-tie should be checked by reference to the sections. In many cases, however, the trend of the contours will indicate which of the two values is likely to be correct. It is usual to smooth through small mis-ties to produce a filtered version of the values. Failure to do this will produce a contour map full of noise that will be difficult to interpret. Irreconcilable mis-ties must te handled with common sense and a decision about which value to accept mde in the light of acceptable evidence. The map should be suitably annotated where the mis-tie {s irreconcilable and significant. Faults: ‘In the real earth, viewed in plan, normal faults with hade (faut plane dip) produce a gap in au horizon. There will be a band on the map where the horizon is atcent. The converse is true for reverse fault: where the horizon will be present twice within the fault zone. However, the seismic reflections do not always display faults with the required clarity. On filtered stack sections reflections at nornal faults oftes appear to overlap fault, This can be either because i: is, in fact, reversed, or because it is a aormal fault and the reflections are continued as diffraction hyperbolas which intersect {a cross-section. [a these circumstances, it caa be difficult to identify the exact lccation of the dowathrown side of the fault, and the fault apgears as a single lize on the map. Recognition of the downthrow side can also be a p 2 for major normal faults where noise (diffractions, ate.) on the downthrown side of the fault can obscure pri reflections, and mike the fault zone appear wider than in reality. Such faults appear too wide when mai should also be exercised in interor: 152Suggested symbols for marking faults on maps are shown in Figure C2. Major fault zones and fracture zones can have a separate smarking scheme. Poor Data Areas: An important role of any map is not only to show the interpreted structure but also to convey the degree of certainty in an interpretation. Tae fault symbols shown in Figure C2 allow for this and so should the contour lines. The same figure shows recommended symbole for contours displaying varying degrees of uncertainty. Character Change and Leg-jumping: There are cccasions when it is impossible to follow a reflection over the entire study area. It can change in character, be recognisable only intermittently, or simply end If it is important to map the reflection (eg. it lies near the top of the main prospective horizon) any changes should be noted on the mp. In extrene cases the mapped horizon my aot be the some across the entire area. For example, it my be impossible to correlate with certainty across a aajor favit and a datum change of the mpped horixon my be suspected. These changes should be noted on the map. Structurally Complex Areas: Often details of local structure camot be easily resolved using the mapping contour interval. The likely solution can often be found by reducing the contour interval locally until the structure is displayed in suffictest detail for the nost likely alternative to be selected. Summary of Coutouring Rules: The following points, taken from Anstey (1977), are good guidelines that apply in all situations. 4) Recognise trends, establish regional dip, search for dip-reversals and seek 2 geological rationale for trends in anomalies (whether folds, faults, reefs, ete. ). ii) Contour from dense data and simple geology toward sparse data and the complications. 411) Locally reduce the contour interval in complicated areas if the tructural form is unclear, iv) Be suspicious of a closed high within a low (except for peripheral sinks around piercements) ¥) Be suspicious of closed lows on top of = big! yD Look twice at a low trend running toward a bigh. vit) Be wary of like contours “hich run parallel over considerable stance. they are likely to correspond to nis-ties. Ba wary of contours that bear a relationship with the seismic grid, xiv) but not least, check the interpretation agai Sections, especially in regions of complex structure st the seismic nally, it is always resulting ma; uportant to bear in mind the intended use of the when contouring. This can influence the way the data is exploration maps the objective is locate potential be opt) c. This is ta ensure should alway 183 eT ay como ee ao eewe ist haat that every potential trap is given a reasonable chance of being recognised aad evaluated, In an uncertain contouring situation it is far better to be optinistic and perhaps Kindle enough interest for further investigation than to be pessimistic (which can too easily lead to a lack of interest and 2 possible discovery being overlooked), On the other hand, contouring for locating a well or delineating a field should be done with the maxima of odjectivity. CONTOURING KORE THAW ORE BORIZON For a single contour map the scheme described above works well, but when gore thaa one horizon is to be mapped from the same seismic grid a further cousideration ts usually necessary, ie. the relationship of the surfaces to each other, Except across aajor angular unconformities, it is rare for Successive horizons not to share aay common structural features, especially features such as faults and folds. Even overall dip aud strike trends, reflected in the contour pattern, xftea change only gradually with depth. It 15 essential that the relationship between successive barizons be taken into account when contouring, and the mps be treated as a set, ie. each map is no longer contoured independently, but is contoured with continual reference to the other horizons To achieve this goal, a contouring scheme should be adopted that establishes the main fault pattera, fold trends and ‘other. structural elements of the first map to be contoured. This will usually be the Surface showing the greatest structural relief, folding, faulting, etc. However, the first map contoured should also be on a reliable seismic horizon as the map will becouse the standard reference for the subsequent mps. In cone complex areas it is possible that the horizons mapped group ito two or more structurally distinct sets; for example, an angular waconformity separating two sequences with quite different attitudes. Each Sequence grouping would be mapped as a distinct set. Once completed, the reference map is then used to guide the contouring of the other mips in the set. Mapping {n sets can be very helpful when faced with anbiguous data on one of the horizons. Often a trend, established at a deeper or shallower level, can be used to resolve the.problem, It is in such situations that hand contouring scores. over machine methods, which always contour completely independently of what lies above or below ~ completely devoid of geological feeling. Making naps. in sets is best achieved by contouring onto transparent plastic fila or, better, using a light table on which the maps can be overlain The recommended procedure is as follows: Overlay the map to be contoured onto the reference aap, and witb a coloured pencil trace out in very fine lines the reference fault pattern or fold axes. Use these lines as a guide to forsing the fold or fault pattera on the mp to oured. the fault dip is correct the faults, ed, have the correct hade) and obviously pattern agrees with the collective seismic evidence. Af. pattera has been established, @ contouriag procedure above, but usa the ence map as a guide. S procedure should result in a coherent set of maps which di . RS to their best advantage fed Bp 154The overlay system is especially useful for making combination maps. These are maps which show the combined structure of two or more surfaces. For example, to uke a map of a truncated reservoir it is necessary to produce @ top reservoir map consisting of both eroded and uneroded parts of the vait. This involves combining maps for top and bottom, reservoir and unconformity maps. Using a light table it is relatively straightforward to locate the updip limit of the uneroded reservoir and determine its updip truncation limits, where like contour lines for top reservoir and the vuconformity surface intersect. In complex situations it may be necessary to combine several maps to produce the required map, but this presents no special problem so long as the maps have been methodically contoured as a set. ISOPACHS An isopach line is one which foine points of equal thickness of a unit, Strictly, the term should be applied to just that - the true thickness of a unit, However, the term isopach, together with its synonym isochren (which is comonly used for both time-structure and tize-thickness) are in common usage for thickness maps in tine or depth derived fron seismic data. Only in the very simples case of flat-lying reflectors and vertical ray-paths are isopach and isochron likely to be the same. In most cases a dip cr structural complication will cause an isochron mp to differ from the equivalent tsopach. However, for the following discussion, the term Asopech will be used to describe any seismic map, whether in tine or depth, which describes the thickness of an interval between two horizons. In this usage, isopach map also encompasses the term iscchore map, which is used to describe a map that expresses the thickness variation of more than one unit, which can also include the possible effects of one or more unconfornities. Isopachs have a great many applications and uses in geology and are extensively used in presenting seismic interpretation results. Sone typical applications (but not an exhaustive list) are described below: 4) Isopach maps can be used to describe the shape of a unit for whicl some depositional and structural features may be very diagnostic. In such cases, the isopach maps can be used to predict facies, depositional environment, ete. For example, aa isopach of a fan or unit within a prograding delta system could be expected to have diagnostic shapes (Fig. C3). an isopach cf a fan gould be used to predict the directions of sedinent transport, and thereby be a guide to predicting potential reservoir properties, ete 44) Isopact maps can, in special circumstances, be the main exploration tool. For example, the search for reefs on seismic sections my be simple, or it my be difficult. In this case, we are concerned with reefs whose expression on the section is very subtle; even if the seismic line passes right across the reef itself. Typical of suck situations are the "patch" resis of Alberta and the Michigan Peninsula. We can use isopachs rationale patch arch for these subtle reefs. In sone areas the ¢ from the situation of Figure Ct, in which a the carbonate platform and has later become lime auds. The latter are sore fal compaction of 155 oo free kttae le lle kL is not directly visible on the section, its presence can be inferred by mapping the time interval between the reflections from interfaces A and B the reef is represented by a thick line on the map. In other areas, the rationale may result from the situation of Figure C5. The actual situation, plotted in depth, is that of Figure CSa; the Tesulting seismic section, plotted in reflection tine, is that of Figure cst. The reef has a bigher veclicty than that of the surrounding sedinents, so that a reflection from below the reef shows velocity pull-up If we map the time interval betweea reflection B and reflection A (or any deeper reflection), we can hope to infer the presence of the reef from a tocal thin. Sonetines the effect of velocity and the effect of differential compaction exist together; the one tends ta cancel the other. In this situation, the soundest teclnique may be to map the taterval B-C (or 3-D ur C-D) in Figure ¢S, and to search for a thin. The techniques of Figure CS my be of value even when the reef is clearly visible on the seismic section. iii) Isopach maps can be used to help unravel the geological history or nake palaeostructural reconstructions. To reveal the early structural relationship, it is often necessary to produce isopach maps which etfectively remove the later tilting. This particular application is a very valuable tool in an interpreter's armoury and one that sees much use. iv) Isopach maps can be used with structure maps to produce a new structure mp. Frequently, seismic reflections are not developed exactly where they are desired, ie. precisely at the top of a reservoir unit. More often the nearest reliable reflection is present some thickness above or below she level required to be mapped. In such cases often the only way to nake a top reservoir mp is to produce an isopach of the interval between top reservoir and seismic horizon and adé or subtract the values (whichever is appropriate) to the seismic mp. The isopach mp can be mde by using a combination of well data and any available seicmic thickness indications. ¥) For detailed reservoir mapping, isopach saps ‘are an essential step, especially in reserve estimation. The level of accuracy demanded of the {sopach maps varies with the type of application. The first two examples ara nore conc: the latter two examples depend on an accurate, detailed representation of the data values. There are two aia methods of isonach map construction, cue offers speed but poor accuracy and repeatability, the other is time consuming but more accurate. Vbatever the method, al) isopach values taken seismic data contain appreciable distortions caused by sost- depositional and velocity effects, In some cases on can help accentuate a featur f exampla, the shape of @ o! faa averlat a thick shale sequence will be enhanced by subsequent is velocity effects which dominate th 2 problea aay not be too se: ignificant structural rel implications full ed with shape, whilst 156The least accurate of the two methods of tsopach construction involves the simple contouring of thickness values posted on a mp. The first Anterpretation step is to ensure that the fault pattern (1f -applicable) agrees with the fault locations at the unit's respective boundaries. Using this method it 16 difficult to take into account the trends and/or shape of the bouading surfaces whilst contouring, and all mis-ties and digitising errors can be magnified in the icopach values, For example, if at a perticular intersection the value for the upper surface was 19 milliseconds too low and at the lower surface was 15 milliseconds too great, the resulting isopach value would reflect both of the errors and be wrong by 30 milliseconds. It is quite easy for acceptable levels of error during structural contouring to become unacceptable, when combined into an isopack value. In the example above, if the contour interval had been 20 milliseconds the sopach error would have presented contouring difficulties. It can then be difficult to establish trends, and isopach maps constructed in this manner contain mich local ‘noise’ due to these effects. However, the maps are easy and quick to prepare and, i! 2 coarse contour interal is used, can be very useful to give the overall shape and trend of a unit, As such they are suitable for the first two applications described above - qualitative assessment of shape and palaeostructural analysis, where it is reflection relationships thst are important rather than absolute thickness values. The disadvantages of such isopach maps ic that they do not necessarily agree with the values obtained by subtracting the structure saps at the top and base of the unit, becausd the isopach contours are made independently of the other maps. The second method of isopach construction uses the technique of mp subtraction. It is nore time consuming but more accurate. Maps upper and lower surfaces of the. isopach unit are overlain on a light table and an isopach constructed by subtracting the contours. The xethod restores the values at the line intersections (assuming nis-ties have been resolved) and creates new values within the grid each time contours intersect. The resulting isopach map is in full accord with the bounding contours. This method is recommended for derivation of new structural maps from a combination of structural and isopach maps and for maps used in reserve estimates or where accuracy is required. A Vord of Caution: Any isopach mp constructed using this nethod will only be as good as the structure maps from which it is derived. If the structure maps have not been contoured as a set, then the resulting isopach map is likely to reflect ac much the vagaries of the contouring on each mapping sets described above {s the best method to produce at reflect the true spatial relationships between mapped However, there are occasions when the reliability of the structure maps is in doubt, for example, in areas where the quality of the deeper seismic events is very poor. The validity of the corresponding structure would be, at best, questionable. In such circumstances an alternative ach is to produce structure maps for the good horizons and combine peck maps of the uncertain intervals. The method uses the id structural inforsstion and any relevant geological input to areas to their simplest by isopaching ~ an isopach will ra than its associated bounding surfaces and is easier to reasonableness. The method employed is 159 OT me era i Ree ea! se eee eee 14) An {sopach of the faterval between this surface and the next horizon for which a map is required {s produced using any reliable setsmic inforsation, and supplementing this in poor data areas by geological reasoning. The isopach will have a simpler contour pattern than tha structure of the deeper, poorly detected event. Some geological control can be exerted over the isopach - for instance, is the shape geologically reasonable? - and in areas of very little or no data it can be much siapler to extrapolate tsopach trends rather than those of structure contours. 444) The tsopack is added to the shallower structure map to produce a new structure map of the deeper horizon, The process can be repeated for the next horizon, with the newly created structure map acting as the control surface. The process can be repeated as often as is necessary to produce a structure aap of the target horizon. Obviously, there can be no substitute for maps aade directly from good dota. However, if mada with care and geological thoughtfulness, nation mapping, using structural and isopach saps, can be an invaluable technique. Naturally, care must be taken, especially when significant discordant unconfarmities are involved. 180VELOCITY AND DEPTH CONVERSION The majority of exploration projects include sone seismic date. Seismic sections, unless processed to a depth migrated section, are norsally displayed with a vertical scale showing two-way travel time. The resulting interpretations and mps are mde in terms of the two-way travel time and not depth. [n many circumstances these maps are quite adequete for our needs. In the absence of lateral velocity variations, the shapes seen on the naps should portray well the subsurface topography and can be used in a predictive sense to help us locate potential traps. However, for aany applications, it is necessary that cur maps, or specific points on our maps, be converted from time to depth. For example i, when lateral variation in velocity overlying our objective level cause a distortion in the time structure to be significantly different fron the real; 2. to calculate accurate reservoir volumes for reserve estimates; 3. im preparing a well prognosis ~ when it is necessary to know the anticipated depths of interpreted reflections, etc., or the depth to anticipated reservoirs or geological horizons. Depth information can be crucial for the location of casing points, coring, or knowing at what depth we are likely to encounter drilling hazards, which my have been identified from regional knowledge or, in favourable circumstance, directly from the seismic. In all of these cases, the transformation of time to depth is achieved from a knowledge of velocity. The velocity at which sound is. transmitted throogh a material is a fundarental rock prope and characteristic values for sone lithologies. For example, salt hes a velocity of sound transmission of around 4,500n/s. However, for other lithologies, such as shale, sand or limestones, it is not possible to define a velocity that is typical and characteristic. Instead it is found that the velocity is dependent not only on the rock type but also on porosity and the manner in which poraci changes with depth Plots of velocity versus depth, elther linear, semi-log or been found to provide good predictive relationships in different areas. The comnoa underlying assumption in these techniques is that the variation of porosity with depth is a function of compaction. The exact nature of the compacticnal changes and their effect on porosity, and Urn On velocity, are variable. In some areas it is found that a linear relation provides a good fit. In cthers, log-log plots are the bect. Anstey (1977) vides a good discussion of the basis for the, correctuess, or otherwise. Of various equations relating velocity and depth and porosity. Kleyn (1984) gives exazples of velocity versus depth plots. It should always be rical, established ty, og-log. have 161 om. Fr bLe em hemnshes tw emi anisms as HOV TO DETERMINE VELOCITY FROX VIRELIEE Logs Two types of velocity are routinely calculated from wireline logs and velocity surveys: Interval velocity {s obtained from well velocity surveys or continuous wireline logs. Interval velocity 1s influenced by lithology, density, porosity, fluid content, ete Average velocity is the weighted average of the component interval velocities of a number of adjacent layers and 1s the velocity used ia depta conversion, ey where 7 Hy = thickness interval at. = one-way travel tine through interval VI. = each interval velocity Two types of velocity distribution are common; discrete and continuous. Discrete velocity distributions are typical for lithologies which usdergo only relatively sual! compactional effects over limited depth ranges, for example, limestones and other more competent or cemented’ rocks, Lithologies with discrete velocity functions can generally be recognised or characterised by their velocities irrespective of their depth burial within, say, 2 1000m range. Continuous velocity ‘functions, on the other Rand, are characteristic of sequences composed of rocks which undergo continual. compaction, such as shale or interbedded shale and sand sequences burted to deptas of less than about 4000m. Ia such circumstances, the Ghaage in velocity with depth can usually be approximated by a linear, log= Linear or log-log function, depending on the area. Velocity functions con be calculated using standard statistical techniques, The standard practice for fitting these formlae is to plot the data froma continuous velocity log agains? depth, and establish trends and fit regression equations to the data (Fig. DC1). The assumption always made is that the sections are Rorsally pressured. Overpressuring causes anomalous departures from the trend, with velocities being toa low for the depth of burial when compared with the aormslly pressured rock (Fig. DC2). Interval velocities oan be readily calculated irom such regression equations. Alternatively. if detailed check-shot surveys are available, it is possible to caleviate interval veloc: wa points by neasuring the cize between thes. Care must be taken to avoid the pitfall shown fn Anetey (9? 98), when averaging velocities over long intervals (Fig. DC3). 4lshough average cate sn increase across Souadary 4, the actual Lecal This bas obvious inplications for the Care should be taken that average interval local velocity changes. shan one eccur eat depths equation way of Bid-point depth a majorOS ee em eee —ag a a a a eaTOR 9 ey ee i iae a ga a ke eaLm’ hens provide an adequate means of converting tine to depth (Fig. DCL). However, in many situations, the result will not be satisfactory, as lateral velocity variations, because of differing layer thickness or lateral lithological change, are the rule rather than the exception, In cases where velocity varies both with depth and laterally it aay be necessary to use threa-dinensional regression equations to determine in detail where and why velocity is varyiag laterally, eg. using aid-point plots (see Davis, 1975, for a discussion of multivariete statistical techniques). HOW TO DETERAINE VELOCITY FROM SEISKIC Velocity ts routinely determined during seisaic data processing to provide the normal move-cut (WMO) correction used in stacking. Careful analysis of the seismic velocities can yield much information about the real subsurface rock velccities. However, not all velocities obtained from the seiszic are directty comparable and care must be taken to define and understand the differences between the various velocities obtained from seismic data, Normal sove-out velocity, V5¥O or stacking velocity, is the velocity obtained from reflection tine/distance relationships and is used to stack seismic traces. V4NO is given by the following formula! vMO - x Ji Te where x = source to geophone spacing To = reflection time when x = 0 reflection time for any distance x VS¥O varies with offset (source to geophone spacing) and also varies with time, and is affected by dip. The steeper the dip the greater the value of VIMO. -‘VSMD_ {Ss invariably greater than average velocity, because ascumptions of the ray-paths used in calculating YNMO do not coincide ‘with he minimum ray-path followed by the sound waves. RMS velocity, or VRMS, can be derived from seismic data, YRS is the weighted root mean square of the component interval velocities, and is a mathematical quantity devoid of tangible physical meaning. VRMS raters to a specific ray-path, the least-time path through a layered medium, and small offsets T2¥S equals V¥I0. VRES is obtained from the following relationship: vems - /VI.2. ots ar cs and, es. ever, for horiz source to geophone spacing) TY¥O appr: 2 velocityReflection time to Reflection time ty VE ea = VET GV = * te VG ENE Image of source in reflector 183 To a er erm ee em eee a x eod eas as (sn Leaman rae as” Ii travel tine for different source to receiver spacings (offsets). As Figure DCS demonstrates, the principle behind the calculation of normal moveout velocity is that the extra distance between source and receiver divided by the extra travel tine gives the velocity. For subsurface geonetrics that are relatively simple (flat layers, conformable dipping surfaces, etc.) norasl moveout (HMO) or stacking velocities have a fairly straightforward relationship to average and interval velocity, Dix (1958) showed that for unifors horizontal layers and small offsets, the N¥O velocities are equivalent to the roat nean square velocity (VRNS), the time weighted roct mean square value for a series of layers, and that interval velocity can be calculated from the equation: satel velacity = (ween aoe ~ two-way or one-way tine to shallower level ~ calculated root mean square velocity to the respective level - the weighted, root mean square of the component interval velocities. It is always greater than the actual interval velocity for a geological sequence, except where there is only one layer involved. Tae Dix velocities are correct only for horizontal layered strata and are larger than the true interval velocities for dipping reflectors. Values for dipping reflectors can be corrected by dividiag by the cosine of the dip. Also the error of interval velocities calculated for thin intervals (less than 200-900ms) may be unacceptably high, In favourable circunstances, interval velocity calculated from the Dix equation can be diagnostic and helpful to the interpreter. They are especially useful as they can be estimated directly from seismic data. Velocity analyses to obtain WHO velecities for processing are performed every kilometre or so along the seisnic line. The results of these analyses are often displayed along the tops of seismic sections showing time as VRMS (the assumption is sade that VRXS approximates iO), and Dix interval velocities (Fig. DC7). The Dix velocities can be used if the interval velocities calculated using the same reflections as those used as picks during the interpretation, Unfortunately, they are rarely coincident, nor are they consistent between velocity analyses. The levels picked duriag processing are usually made without reference to a specific reflection, but tastead are chosen on the basis of reflection strength at each velocity analysis Lccatioa. In practice Dix fi rely more accurate than 300n/s for a single observation and my be es accurate for short intervals (100 milliseconds or less). The inaccuracies in the Dix ocities usually becore a: ilable ere are a number of rant when well chack-shot data is av ce in the al and tray 170obtaining interval velocities from surface measurenents which promise to be euperior to the Dix method when the velocity layering is not horizontal Ip addition to these problems, there are pitfalls in using Dix interval velocities for depth conversion and there are certain geological situations when they should te avoided (Fig. C8), To obtain the best results the velocity analyses should be made with regard to the following points Gastey, 1977) 1. Locate analyses at the crests and troughs of folds where conditions approximate uniform horizontal layering (1 on Fig. C8). Velocity determinations on the flank (6 on Fig. DC8) would produce unrealisitically high velocities. 2, Avoid CMP gather locations where the ray-path will have passed through faulted or disturbed zones (area 2 on Fig. DC8>, However, within this constraint, analyses should be mde on each side of the fault. 3. Avoid analyses at levels where there are divergent reflectors that may distort the ray-paths (area 3). 4, Avoid locations where ray-paths will have travelled through an ob: near-surface anomaly (area 4) 5. Locate analyses over areas where intermittent reflections are visible at depth on Fig. DCG), as they may provide the only velocity inforzation at depth. Greater reliability can be obtained by statistical treatment of many observations. the Dix interval velocities are to be used for depth conversion it my be necessary to edit, smooth, re-edit and smooth again, to produce a satisfactory interval velocity map. If well data is available it my be necessary to apply a correction factor to reconcile velocity contours derived from the seismic velocity analyses and the wall data. The application of good geological sense is often one of the best tools for reconciling anomlous paints in a velocity distribution. Velocities derived from velocity analysis data Waen the values displayed on the seismic sections are not adequate for determining the required interval velocities, velocities can be estizated using the raw velocity analysis data. It is usually possible to obtain copies of the original velocity analysis data. The data is presented in a forms, eg. constant velocity stacks, corrected gathers, function velocity stacks, etc, The P form a particular CMP gather (Fig. DC). The plots are con: @ are those which show how well reflections tack for a wide range of stacking velocities tructed by stacking the CPM traces at szall time increments down the traces, using a range of reasonable 2g ies each tine results are presented graphically, showing time versus velecity and contours, or some other statistical summary be degree of ng achieved by a particular veloc: plots are erpreted by observing wa ccity provides the best fit to the traces lems arise with poor quality data, wh tionship. Mi at a lower vel stows an axa: E oo — 2 om ortee core oo 7 wm292 400 TB 295 350 fol4 ea a a elcngenesvsee) oon, [= Cartes Marie Prot Ut Une No. 25 SP 2660 i i i 174OR me ren rere sere onvotto mitiple completely dominating a velocity plot. Figure DC10b shows the velocity spectrum after removal of the mitiple. The following tips my help interpretation of velocity plots: Check relevant well logs to find the anticipated velo changes. y breaks and 2, Assume that velocity increases with depth unless a local decrease is expected. 3. Take care to avoid picking the velocities of multiples and other noise Pick on the high-side of the contoured values to avoid picking multiples 4. Pick strong flections. The acoustic impedance contrast must be reasonably large to produce a reliable correlation point on -tie velocity plot. 5. Check the velocities for geological plausibility by computing Dix interval velocities. 6. Look at the lateral interval velocity picture from several velocity analysis locations along a section and check thet it fits the geclogy. 7. Correct velocities of dipping reflectors by dividing by the cosine of the dip. Velocity plots and Dix interval velocities have applications besides depth conversion, They can often provide a quick indication of whether a noticeable improvement could be expected from reprocessing seismic data using a new set of velocities, and can sometimes help in correlating ‘eflections ecross large faults, by using velocities to characterise units between reflectors. Anstey (1977) and Robinson (1983) are recomended for a detailed discussion of the topic. HOW TO PREPARE A VELL PROGNOSIS Once a drilling target has been delineated, the preparation of an accurate well prognosis ts one of the most important jobs of the explorationict. It is perbaps one of the more exciting exercises that we have to perforn, because the results of our work are actually tested. Taare is obviously some kudos tc te obtained by getting the right resw: Figure 0C13 shows an example of 2 well prognosis. STEP 1: Obtain velocity information. The velocity information should be as accurate as possible. Its source my be wireline logs, seiemic, or a combination oth. Attempts should be made to determine the type of velocity distritution expected in the well, whether they are discrete, continuous velocity functions or a combination. [f continuous velocity functions are anticipated, some effort should be made to obtain a reliable estimte of the velocity function, using linear, sea! techaiques. a locity distributions are usually necessary 12 utilise plot showing the variatio: nid-poiat each interval the pres: RR aero oe oerKe ss’ ik ae seismic data is to be.veed, it will normally be necessary to construct some form of tine/depth curve either from average velocity or from Dix interval velocities, In situations where there are lateral velocity variations, the use of regression equations, which take account of the 3-) aspects of velocity change, may be the best way to obtain velocity estimtes for the well location. Once the velocity data has been assenbled, depth can be calculated for the reflectors. A well prognosis Should: include depth and potential depth error té all sefemic markers, anticipated formation tops. casing points, drilling bazards, etc. The progacsis should also {nclude = tine/depth curve and a seisaie section with marked picks. Both depth and tize chould be shown oa the prognosis log. The prognosis should show the seismic picks and anticipated lithologies. Uncertainty in depth, caused by uncertainty in the pick and also uncertainty in the velocity estimates, should be indicated by a depth range for each level. Uncertainties in the pick ara likely to arise from vncertainty of exactly where, on the seismic waveform, the horizon occure. This can be a considerable problez when the picks are being carried where the.data is poor, or where there are severe interference effects. It may be difficult to quantify this type of uncertainty, However, generally it is possible to ‘make an estimate in’ terms of plus or minus several milliseconds. Uncertainty in the velocity data is usually easier to quantity as the either continuous velocity functions or a series of continuous and discrete velocity functions are involved. Regression equations can be calculated for such functions and uncertainty expressed in terms of standard deviations. Sufficient documentation shauld be provided with the well prognosis so that it is possible to back-calculate and denonstrae how the prognosis was derived. The prognosis should also contain all information regarding potential grilling hazards, all unconformities and likely overpressured intervals. Drilling hazards, such as shallow gas pockets, can be determined, hopefully, from the seismic, as can ovarpressured intervale in favourable circumstances. They can often be recognised from tine/distance plots used in seismic velocity analyses. Velocity inversions or lack of increase in velocity with depth in the same lithological sequence can be indicative of overpressured intervals. 178| i [deal a LARGE SCALE TECTOWIC PROCESSES AND STRATIGRAPEY =— Basins and Stratigraphy This chapter discusses end describes some of the large scale tectonic processes and how they exert a primary control on stratigraphy. The control is provided by tectonic processes that operate on a large scale and over long periods to provide the framework within which local stratigraphy is developed. — oe Tectonics, the expression of lateral and vertical novenents of the earth's ovter shell, ultimately driven by heat loss from the earth's core, is the lead player in the development of stratigraphy. The discussion below concentrates aainly on tectonics occurring at a scale which influences local geology The opposing effects of subsidence and uplift are crucial:subsidence creates basins or sites where sediments can be deposited and accumilate 4 L and, hopefully, be preserved, while uplift provides a mechaniem whereby areas become available for erosion and provide a source of new sediment in adjacent basins. Tt is helpful conceptually to view the earch ac a machine. Deep-ceated processes, especially the mechanisms of heat loss, effect and perturb the outer layers of the earth, and produce effects which manifest thencelves on tae upper ew kilometres of the crust. To evaluate these processes, we need to lock at the effects of changing crustal properties, their effect on the earth's surface, and also to model and consider the effects that sedimentation itself has on further modifying basin development. Two approaches ta basin analysis are commonly used. The first aperaach, used over saay years, do essentially one comaoa 70 geology description and classification, where basing are judged against establiched stereotypes. E Kleaze (1980) and Kingston et al. (1983) are typical of this approach ey recognised, for example, type 1, cratonic, interior basins, passive sargin aad convergent sargin basins, etc.,’ etc. Such classifications to place a gi ea into a pre-determined pigeon hole, which usly, tor better or worse, encourages the emergence of stereotyp approach has it attractions and benefits but also brings along the ger that it lacks a predictiv element. The approach is essentially 3 basin as it appears today as a basis of classifica presupposes ay ngortunately, al ugh many as f } scale, ie 379 Ccw tee Naat! din earth's core controls the outer structure of the earth. effect of pressure and temperatura on rock sateriais ermines their nature at depts. Rock at the surface of the planet is cold and brittle and relatively weak. With increasing depth, the rock strength increases predominantly under the influence of increasing pressure. greater chs, the effects of temperature begin to dominate until a depth is ached at which the streagth of the rocks tegins to drop exponentially This lateraction of pressure and temperature praduces an outer layer of tha garth which has mechanical strength and is “nown as the lithosphere, The underlying zone lacking mechanical strength is the astiszospl The base of the Lithosphere can be conveniently defined as the toundary below waich beat is transierrred by conduction. Tais cccur round 0.9 cf the melting point o: boundary is usually assumed ta be Lac: The underlying astienosphere, because o: nc mechanical strength, combined at arcund a temperature of mantia lithosphere material, The dat around the 330°C isothern, the convection, is plastac and has in oceanic areas the lithosphere is divided into an up: + cooled portion forming oceanic crust and an underlying aantle lithosphe Ia continental areas, on which our main interest will be focussed, the lithosphere is subdivided into the mantle lithosshere overlain by continental crust. The boundary between the two ia the acho, a physical discontinuity related to a compositional change in the rock materiale, which {5 located most readily ty a change in velocities irom the range of 6.7 to 7.2km/s in the lower crust to an increased velocity of 7.8 to 8.aem/s in the upper lithospheric mantle. The thickness of the lithosphere is obviously temperature dependent, ranging from approxinately cero at active oceanic spreading axes to nore than 200k2 beneaca som contiae! areas. A ‘typical’ value of 125ka is cfzen used to charact continental areas, Continental crust thickness varies fron 0 to 70ka, wits typical thickness being around 30k. Crustal properties vary with depth and it is convenient (out probably not always correct) to divide the crust ‘ato two layers, aa vpper layer characterised by brittle deformation (faulting) and a lower layer characterised by ductile flow due to the influence of the higher temperatures. tectonic theary describes how the oceanic nental are affected by the < from the earth outward flow this theory are not discussed ia The details a: eductary chapter but good descriptions can se found in Suppe Our ccncera is for the emaller scale and compression, aad with the chiczness 130doth a regional and local sense. If the lithosphere is weak, for example through being extensively faulted at shallow crust levels, crustal loading or stretching can be compensated on a very local scale. If the lithosphere is relatively strong the compensation between changes in crustal properties oceurs over @ more regional area and is accommodated by flexure. Howeve: in both cases the isostatic considerations are essentially the same. To evaluate isostatic effects, it is useful to view the outer earth's crust as consisting of layers of water, sediment, crust, lithospheric mantle and the athenosphere (Fig. T1). Any changes in the thickness or the density of these layers can cause an isostatic response, An overall.decrease produces. uplift, while an increase in the mass causes subsidence, compensated either locally by faulting or regionally by flexures. We do not know in detail the thickness and density details of these layers, but fortunately we only need to Esow the difference in either the thickness density or elevation, which cf course is the result of changing the former two parameters, ¢ evaluate the isostatic effects. These effects were termed differential isostacy by Suppe (1985). He gave two fundamental equations of isostacy. 1, The sum of the changes in the density of the thickness of any datum in the asthenosphere is zero. EM =aK, + aKa + OMe + OMe + OMe = 0 where mss: wewnter; sssediment; c=crsut; m-mantle; atasthenosphere, OF (pubs) + ACpERL) + ACPmbm? + A(paba) = 0 2. Changes in the elevation of the surface are equal to the sum of the changes in the thickness of the crust and mantle. OE = aby + Ghe + Ohm + Oba where OB = change in surface elevation; h = thickness ach of the layers may vary in their thickness and density as a result of various geological processes, which through iscstacy control the topography aad bathymetry of the earth's surface. Processes that change crustal density and thickuess Some of the important processes which change crustal density and thickness deposition of sedizents and displacement of sea-water; evaporation of seawater; crustal thinaing; thermal expansion or contraction of the nant! associated with the temperature changes; erosion: addition to mantle by igneous intrusions; chemical changes: etc. 1. Thioming of the mantle lithosphere Tataning of the mantle lithosphere is essentially a therma ease of the lithosphere is defined by a temperature (+ 1930°C), boundary below woich the mantle is abla to transfer heat by convection The lithosphere and the asthenosphere are composed ci essentially the sane and because sat a higher temperature it has ty = the Lithosphere floats buoyantly on the asthenosphere ed either through sechanical extension or th beacepheric material, the result is a reduction in thospheric material resulting ia © k orn eee ae 6r7 OTT eT ai ie eepaeeeer © = Continental erust L = Mantio Lithosphere remem em A A= Asthenosphere (a) Original conditions A ol gre (b) Rapid thinning of mantle lithosphere = hsostatic uptitt to compensate for lower density of & Eee é compared with L, plus element of thermal expansion uplift. a Temperature anomaly reaches surface aporox. 20 ta lat eT a (©) Immediate uplift of the surtace L t E E Figure 12 ThLaning of the mente 1tthoeptere 183tae ] ] J J J J | J J | Occurred (Le Pichon, 1962). However, the Lithcspheric mantle beneath both rifts has undergone significant extension ar thinaing, a consequeace of which has been the domal uplifts which are characteristic of these tno areas. Uplszt associated with thermal events are typically ia the order of 1 or 2km, with diameters cf a few hundred kilometres or more and the duration of the main phase of uplift is in the order of a few tens of millions of years or less (Morgan, 1963). Morgan has modelled uplifts associated with thinning (heating) of the santle lithosphers and comparisons of uplis rates with the model results indicate that Lithosphere appears to respond in a manner which suggests a combination of partial heating and rapid thinning. P P ted to cccur after cessation of thinning due to theral relaxation of the litheshere. Surface heat flow anomaly is always delayed due to the tize tazen to conduct the hea: through the Lithosphere. Yareschal (1983) indicates that, if heat flow is by conduction, a significant surface heat flow anomly should act develos about 0.5 of the lithosphere temperature tine conctaat, or about 30 Once the heating stops, thermal contraction of back to its original thickness begins. Cooling increases the density and co causes isostatic subsidence common to both tha oceanic and gontineatal areas. in oceanic areas, the subsidence associated with the cooling follows an exponential relationship wich time (Fig, 13). A similar exponential relationship has been observed in continental areas. Continental areas waich have experienced heating or thinning of the mantle lithosphere, for instance above a hot spot or through mechanical thinning, experience similar thermal subsidence to that shown by the oceanic lithosphere, once the perturbation of the lithospheric thickness is removed and the lithosphere cools to its original thickness. Using data obtained from oceanic mid-ocean ridges (Parsons and Slater, 1977) the exponential decay of lithosphere cooling is estimated to have a tine constant cf around 65 aillion years. in approxinately 125 million years 87% of the sub- thermal subsidence generated by the cooling of the lithosphere will have taken place. 2. Crustal Thinning The effect of crustal thinning is the opposite to that of thinning of th Bantle lithosphere (Fig. T4), If the crust is thinned and the lithospberic mantle maintains its same thickness, the thickness of thinser, lighter crustal material ie taken up by denser asthenospheric material - the net = is subsidence, 9. Combined crustal and mantle lithospheric thinning when Lithosphere are thinned sisultaneousiy, suena sechanical extension ce been outlined above - tha! deace due 184Aaeinss Oa eee ww Ge Wee Ta Tine tm) Figure i i te . 4 a eereer eran Tema “pte ea eH ea 5 2 Sesmouis ieee | bo Oot a oe BE Be AS Be BT TORTI TED is jcogeie sunsldenea a8 a Knesen of square root oltre. Ts fr he awaian swol ig cba rom ie alstance along te Mawalan chain (Figs. To and 1-12), (Gia tor Morgan, 1975; Davice, Selatr, ane Tede, 1977, Device and Cough, 1972; are ‘oory Mountain Assocation of Gelogsts, 1972) 3 Sutsideace as a function of equare foot of tim. Froa Suppe, 1985 1B5 me eee eee Fr FT coe aoe woeco a ss mia ist Ce Le hn ld cae (8) Rapid thinning of the crust = immediate DES eases L eae a (©) Surface response gore TA Tetsstog of the eevee 186considering the effects of stretching on buoyancy, or aa approach which ts perhaps conceptually is easier to visualise The total ancu! subsidence due to stretching is governed by the height to which the asthenosphere would rise if the earth's crust and lithosphere were totally thinned (Fig. 15) For a \eter-loaded coluan this approximates to a depth of around km, if allowance is made for partial fon resulting in segregation of the oceanic crust following instantaneous stretching, Le Pichon (1982), For sediment-loaded columns the limiting subsidence during complete stretching is appromiately 7.3km (Garr, 1986). This aeans that for = particular reference level, eg. taking a datum mean sea-level, the total amount of subsidence due to stretching is independent of the originel crustal thickness (Barr, 1986). Clearly, all other things being equal, the pre-rift surface elevation thick continental crust will be higher than for already thin crust, enabling the former to experience more subsidence per increment of thinning. However, the saximum depth to which the crust can subside (tectonic subsidence? during stretching is buffered by the buoyant rise of the asthenosphere. Barr (1986) shows that the reiationship between the initial subsidence (S.) the stretching factor (new width/previous width) is linear and has the following relation Si = 3.3 GH1/B) ..........++ for water-loaded subsidence S273 GAB ee for sadinent-lcaded subsidence Beta (p) is the amcuat of stretching being equal to the new length divided by the former width of the rift basin. Thermal relaxation of the lithosphere occurs after the cessation of thinning in an identical manner to that discussed above for thermal relaxation following thinning of the mantle lithosphere. If a sufficiently long time period has elapsed since the cessation of rifting, eg. at least twice the tine temperature constant (ap: 125m), the thermal subsidence (S.) aleo shows a linear relationship to the stretching factor at infinite tie, Barr (1986) shows that thermal subsidence can be estimated at infinite tine from for water-loaded subsidence for sedinent-loaded subsidence 4, Isostatic subsidence an isostatic response is required whenever the crust is thinned or loads Loadiag occurs, for example, during sedizentatica when water is replaced by he sediment loade the litaosphere and causes an amplification of the tectonic subsidence which would be expected, og. subsidence due: to stretching or thermal subsidence due to cooling of the lithosphere, The amount of subsidence generated by the sedizent loading can be calulated irom the following form density war, ps = density sediments; pa= density asthenospiere awed, compared to the subside tretching water would produce an aaplification e due to 187 [ano ero ponda 10ading soreay T6 Local and regions!Figure TS Lintts of subsidence (frm Serr x6) ei 2 Schematic agram atthe suppon of a toad, sien ae a volane ‘mountain mass a ice cao, by lol Ay \Gostasy ana by Nera eostasy, Bot agram shows sata faxure in espana toa tocene ose. Figure T7 Flexural response to crustal. loading. From Suppe, 1985 i Pet moron 1 Deformation of an elastic of vicoclatc lithosphere overlying an inwsid Mid auheaosphere ‘owing to an applied line load (modified after Besumont 1978). H isthe thickness of te lingers ned 1 isthe equilibrium vertical deplcement from the undeformed surface of the lthowphere (error dosed Line). Figure T8 Stausotdal deflection of the loaded Lithosphere. From Yuso 4 Sleep, 1984 189aw ts ics rus air aN is! 5. Crustal loading due to tectonics Grustai.loadiag due to tectonics produces a sinilar response to that cause Py Sediment loading, but tn this instance is caused by thrust-loading. if the lithosphere is relativaly weak, especially if it ie fractured, “as ic APRN Beneath a rift basin, any load is 1tkely to be compensated Locally with an Airy-type compensation (Fig. 76). However, if tke lithosphere ic relatively old and cool, it is likely to have significant mechanical soreng*h and the surface load will be Supported not only by the buoyant forces of local isostacy but also. by the flexural strength of the Athosphere (Fig. 16). Such loading causes the lithosphere to flee dewwards. The dowawarde flexure is observed in both continental and gceanic areas. In. oceanic areas it is most readily seen adjacent ra Yoleanic seavmounts standing on the ocean floor (Fig. 17). The weight o She ;Seajmouats causes the lithosphere to flex down and fora a surrounding uoat, Loading of continental crust causes downbending by flexure of tho pithogphere and the formation of the sedimentary basis, Mechanically the loadiag of the lithosphere and its flexure responds very such like that of the bending of a beam. If the model lithosphere is taken as a plastic plate, floating on a more dense fluid, two phenomena are observed. fe There is an exponential decrease in deflection away from the load For a strong lithosphere this causes a very broad, low deflection, while for a weak lithosphere the deflection is mch greater but alsa narrower: 2 tstsSitiseidel component to the deflection, caused by the buoyant Tecistance of the asthenosphers to the bending, which produces a peripheral uplift, Fey, Owned effect is to produce a decaying sinuisoidal deflection (Fig 36). Stockmal et al. (1986) discuss.and describe the effects of Loadi, at convergent continental margins. Beaunont (1981) describes a mode) co erustal loading for the development of foredeep basins APPLICATIONS OF CRUSTAL MODELS To show how these various processes can be used to understand basin evolution, 4 few examples have bean chosen to illustrate the inveraction of these processes. Ths four examples that aave been chosen ara a therant event, rift basin tectonic inversion and the development of a forelend basin due to thrusting. Not considered here are the subduction zones and loading associated with strize-slip zones, ats Therm event It thinaing of base of t 190deposition syn-vplift sediments erosi im <= Crust (C) Lithosphere (U2 191Ais tas Nin Nae ins Nas nnn tn’ sss the Rhein Graben and the African rift valleys may relate more to of extension rather than to that produced by true aechanical stre the crust. If erosion is relatively efficient, the uplift my never actually develop the topography indicated but would certa{aly produce or be the site of potential erosion, with syn-event sedinents deposited exteraally to the uplift. [If there is an extensional fault systea davelored along the axis of the domal uplift, this my ¢! a site of sedimentation. oth erosion and thermal expansion of the lithosphere, as the heat is conducted towards the surface, will in additional uplift. Depending on the degree of thinning of t lithosphere and other deep-seated processes, the event may or may not be accompanied by surface volcanics. Howaver, a surface heat anomly nay aot arise until several tens of millions of years after 0 ning event, dua to the tine taken for the heat to be conducted co surface: transfer my be speeded up if volcanic and magmatic activity is extensively Once the effect of the heating has beea removed, the area enters a phase of thermal subsidence. Cooling of the mantle lithosphere causes it to thicken, replacing less dense asthencspheric material with denser lithospheric mantle, resulting is thermal contraction and subsidence. The subsidence follows an exponential law with a tine constant of around 65 million years, The amount of subsidence in this case will not be greatly amplified by sediment loading, as the crustal material that has been eroded during the uplift stage is lizely to have been of a higher density than the infilling sediments and so, in fact, after the lithosphere has retained its former ¢] the crust still may act return to fully ite former thickness. is 4 possibility that, subsidence my cause reactivation of the normal faults, caused by the domal extension, cancelling out the original normal throw. This process could generate forced folds ia the overlying cover rock (Fig. 19) 2, Rifting Rifting involves thinning of the crust and lithosphere, As described above, thinning of the lithosphere produces uplift, while thinning of the erust would produce subsidence. [+ is the combined ezfect which produces the net result. The most commonly occurring combinations of crustal thickness produce subeidence on stretching. Jarvis (1984) in a discussion of the initial displacenent with stretching praducad-a grach showing the nature of the initial displacesents for a range of crust and lithosphere thicknesses (Fig. T10>, It should be notad, however, that ta practically all instances where the crust is sufficiently thin + Lift upea L already be below water ag. Juserous nodels of crustal stretchiag the simplest is shovn in Figure T1l, which consists of va! ching with the crust and lithosphere str parts of result for instance, wita greater Rowley &000 aaa i a— © ahead o (xm gg Dott sara plotingcrtl ikea, and Uboshere ene 2, Te nes abe vide the (6) domains into regions of inital wbsicence and 2 epee cases eeerrd to i the tx ial uplit. Labeled pointe (0, Cy. ete) ca Dowsin diagram for &, and Values of may ‘tustrating the range in uncertainty inthe potion of the ine saywher within the shaded zone, Figure T10 Response of the surface to extension, Froa Jarvis, 1984 o re | Figure TL Usifora extension of ‘the Lithosphere. Brom Chadwick, 1985 «> - ein Theater oftarontal excnion on honpheicecon: (a) indy balanced Gdbaphe tow euunons O) aet enon hevsg NnnedIsharpre aod faesontaes idence thera! equation sn eeloned sine ctr We thor prenensan depy sme user nal ance, 193 om eeeLe ee! eee ke in hich retative evension of enst and Wy given vertical tine is monuniform. "Ace 5 2 5 j it zone a | a zone ene © ImeBeo Phu Simone Ad pooper Figura 12 Crustal extensioa by unttors etmple stesr. Fras Yeraicke, 1968interactions between sudsidence and uplift within the basin i. and its margins, “An additional factor is the effect of sediment loading whica further amplifies subsidence within the basin. Barr (1986) proposes a sodel where uplift within the basin, which 1s a common feature of major blocks, is explained by the level of physical detachment within the crust being originally below that of the level that would be obtained if the lithosphere were totally thinned. Lateral heating or loss of heat during the rifting phase considerably depresses the thermal subsidence in the thermal subsidence phase, Cochran (1983), It has been found however, thac Af the rifting episode does act exceed around 20 million years, a simple sodel assuming instantaneous stretching followed by thermal subsidence adequately models many of the rift basins that have been studied around the world, 3. Tectonic inversion Basia inversion is a relatively common phenunena afvecting rifted and othe basins which have experienced a subsidence phase. Tectonic inversion can develop as an isostatic response to the process af lithospheric shortening, Waich could be an early stage of a continental collision fer example. Principles involved are analagous to those used for the model of lithospheric extension in crustal subsidence. Figure Ti3shows a lithospheric section that has beea subjected to compressive stress resulting in a shortening by Factor 8. Thickening of the crust and iithosphere causes an isostatic-driven thrust control initial uplizt. caused by the replacement at depth of dense material by lighter crust (Chadwick, 1965), The initial compressional upliit would be enhanced by thermal uplift, due to the rise of the dowavarped lithospheric isotherss. Figure T1é {ss graph showing the P for various snounts of lithospheric shortening iit curve of subareal crust 4. Crustal loading In areas where the compression {s more severe, extensive basin invercion say be followed by the developaest of thrusting and the lateral movement crustal bloczs over the adjaczat areas. If hesphe: compensas: gnificant mechanical strengz3, the later: load will cause flexure of the lithosphere. Beaumont (1961) proposes a detailed aodel to explain the western Canadian Basin using a loading model gf the lithosptere. The components of the model, consisting of che load foredeep basin and peripheral bulge, are shawa in Figure Ti5. The ceeze the basin and the thickest sediments are found immediately a3 loaded part of the plate. The be: ith depends on basin and the shallower the lithospheric weak lithcspas tends to promote a narrow, deep bacis. Given the combination plus the sinuisoidal shape ci the deflection caused oy the uaderlyiag lithe simple zcdels progress: bulge and lex situations the lithosphere show a t was nodelled by Shea! aching a ee ae oe ex, ET f[ ebe Lene ene Lae ys ac easy Ly relaxation constant, preduced out of phase trancgressions and regressions on either side of the basin during periods of high relative sea-level ‘hey are out of phase because, with time, the lithosphere sags near the thrust load and the peripheral bulge moves towards the thrust belt (Fig. 718). Uplift of foreland basins tnvariably follows whea the adjacent mountain ranges are ercded. the erosion produces an isostatic response of uplif and the foreland basin, mechanically coupled to the mountains, is upl together with the sountains (Fig. T17)oo ee) mosg “Tepom Suruaxorgs tesa CL 930% aot ‘xormpeng sous “atts setsAiqfasion creep subsidene aad epi after leds are emplaced power-law creep Diagrams ilustratng flexure of the lithoaphere beneath the fld-ihrst belt shown a a sack of thrust Bea ipieep tatows before sediment fling. In) the pactered regio tac putt bore, BBxtazpean to undergo cate Rexue. lis thickness is ypiealy much ie tha the tloee sae ae lithaphere. [eis ako sturmed that the ehosphere » Le eral rigsity, D. The peripheral bulge, whichis sypiealiy sama pereomeg tniform and can be characered by i af thedownwearpin ample, Hgeassersed ie migrate othe right at Gaed distance ahead of the advancing haan eee Te ae Pasterned region i again laterally uniform but may be somewhat thicker than in @). Dib cee he he iidity and +i the viscous celaeaton tine cadstant fr the lthorphor ue Peripheral bulge tends 19 migrate tothe let and to grow with Gove aner oupled adciiona sitsidence and uplih asthe oredcep sarrows, fa fan ed 283 whole In this ce the ‘rusting event, Ths leads 0 5 attempt is made to ouiae she SECDE TG dilsion and powertaw creep would cccur were th taupe vo have a micorholeny REE Beppe ms dae deermined tom laboratory experiment on olivine: Phere il bears mene Be the basin ve develop a peripheral bulge that grows and migrates to tee Figure T15 Crustal loading ns forolazd basin. Froa Beavaont, 10981 Thrust loading subside, nce + transgression affects this side of basin at \ sitting ot f° later time clastics 7 > SO & wave of immediate subsidence 188eran points to note ae; the Iter 50k wide stripe that sea ise! the mountaize aa Ma tgey tad resent. The datum is preveatea level, ‘migration ofthe fl2-hrast belt, here averaged cose {Santen which widen the basin, have been included; the excuaie Poche ee ig aneatin of the basi strata during erosion bemecea Sa is soe os Figure TA7 UpLitt end erosion of foreland basins. Prom esuront,, 1981 199 (eo oo kSTRUCTURAL GEOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES The sain theme of this chapter will be the description of structura: geometry and how this can be used to constrain our interpretations, The objective of this chapter is to review briefly som sew structural geological techaiques and interesting observations that have been published Tecently in the literature but have not, as yet, appeared in structure) geology text books. In particular the chapter details some of the ‘portant developrents in the study of faults and fault-related structures GEE BTS (20, Frequently an important component of bydrocarson traps, Geometric techniques for constructing folds are only oriefly reviewed. as, in general, the treatment of folds ia structural geology text books is mos nore comprehensive than that for faults. Basic Data Tn all of the following discussions, which maialy concern cross-sections, it ts’ assumed that every attempt is nade to ensure that the cross-section is representative of the structure being studied, fe. usually a dip-section and that, where appropriate, corrections have been made for cospaction, This can be especially important in the section restoration tavolving compactable sedinents. Compaction can have a significant effect upon the orientation of an early fault plane. Figure ST1 shove the passive rotatios of an early fault due to compaction. Decompaction techniques are discussed in Chapter 6. Much structural information is baced on the interpretation of seismic sections. This presents a further problem as allowance has to be made for velocity, ray path distortions, and resolution, These topics are discussed in Chapter 2. The effects of increasing velocity on a large planar normal fault is show in Figure S12. The appareat listric (curved) fault geonetry is open ro wsinterpretation by the unwary. Velocity distortions affect large-scale features in seismic sections, Wut resolution linttations are ‘aqually fuportant for’ our ability to recognise small-scale structures, copecially faults. Figure S13 shovs a reflector affected by @ series of faults with Progressively increasing throws indicated in terns of the domaant seiemic Wavelength. As is the case for vertical seismic resolution, the quarter wavelength appears to be a critical limit. Faulte with throws a quarter wavelength or greater are probably not too difficult to pick with Teagonable seisaic dota, but favits with smaller throws could easily be Reged, especially with aolsy data or where significant trace aixing was used (So degrading horizonta} resolution). A consequence of the inevitable increase in seisaic vavelengca with depth would te the apparest dyiag out with depth of 2 fault with constant throw. Figure ST4 shows a faul. the very limits: of seismic resolutio The al terminations is usually a gra: small Problems often arise evan w WS greater than quar Bay fBrow As about one waveleagth (or equal to increneats of wavelength) and reflections hava a regular spacing, it can be extremely difzicul® to locate faults due to chance juxtaposition of fault 200ro O.727ms — 0.8 AT 5800 ft/s 22777 0,286 ms AT 10000 tA 2.4 B00C— UNDER 6300" OVERBURDEN = 1430' THICK 40,5? FAULT Effect of compaction and seisnic: velocity on fault pla (Atter Sheriff, 1978.) Figure ST1 Passive fault plane rotation with compaction. From Sheriff, 1962 o ®) ‘ ee Figure ST2 The fect of trereasing velocity with depth can re ult in a planar normal fault having a concaveup seismié See Dosan, (a) Geological expression. (b) Seismic expression ae dip. ree em mm oe L U L L LE BE l6a van Wa. we 4 1 t f ‘ == Ht | Wy LILLY 4 JU L UH faults with inereasing amounts off the faults is indica in terms ofthe Reprinted by permission ofthe AAPG hp ue) Figure S1 202) } t i iCaveat: Usually it is difiicult te sake a certain structural interpretation on the basis of only one seismic section. Grids of seismic data are required to determine the 3-D geometry. BASIC ROCK PROPERTIES The manner in which rocks deform is obviously fundamental to the development of structures. Our main ecncera and problen will be in determining the relstive importance of brittle failure versus ductile or Plastic deformation, If all structures developed only by brittle failure, with no internal deformation, structural geology would be a mich simpler discipline, In such a situation all deformtion would occur along lines (faults, bedding planes, etc.) enabling structures to be reconstructed lite a jigsaw. This unfortunately occurs only too rarely, and perhaps oniy when sndurated rocks are involved in deformation. For example, the Paleosoic Carbonates involved in the Canadian Rockies Mesozoic thrusting deformed zainly by brittle failure. More commonly, however, the structures in which we are interested for hydrocarbon exploration develop in ‘soft' compactable sediments. Brittle failure still occurs, especially in competent lithologies, but much more of the stress is accommodated within the weaker: (ductile or plastic) lithologies, resulting in volume change. The degree and types of strain (plane, transiational, rotational) can be difficuls to quantity or even qualitatively assess in the subsurface and complicates ~ greatly our efforts to interpret correctly structures and their developnent. FAULTS Figure ST6 summarises the terminology used to describe faults. The main euphasis of the following discussion is on normal (extensional) Zaults as they are the most commonly cccurring but neglected in terms of their coverage in structural geological texts ormal Faults Noraal faults comprise two important.end members, planar (straight) normal and listric curved normal faults. Often indiyjdual faults bave components of both. Both types have distinctive gedmetrtc relationships and i is important to correctly recognise the type of normal fault, Planar normal faults: Planar ncrmai faults (Fig. ST7) are the acst common Sype of fault in most sedimentary basins with throws ranging from a zew gentinetres to Kilometres. Planar normal faults are recognised by she following features on a cross-section orientated perpendicular e fault ors) from the footw: wall hanging-wail dlock against and a The syi-fault sedimentation ocourred over the interval d-c, depositing sore than 400m sadisentation. Tae corresponding interval on the foatwall dloce ls represented by aa unconformity extendiag Zim into the footwall Tae arosion indicated by the unconformity fs intergrated to hava otwal! uplift during syo-fauit sedinentacion over the GEOMETRIC TECHBIQUES Fold Construction 218Figure STI? Conjugate faulting. Fros Korsfield 1980 “gl TT meee(©) without compacti () 20% cor Figure ST19 Cospactice driven faulting above baseseat fault. TR emperor erae nner Kee CoN meme” tne Roark The ea See 1000 900 800 700 . . 4 1 i ° 2wies Figure S120 erampt offoorwall uplft on a compas fault sone, Courter Norsk Hytro. 220 TWO-WAY TIME IN SECONDSFigure:S121. simic section showing avo nonvial fails A ‘and By that have beer reactivated a reese fils. Refee~ tons P=" andl QQ slow normal fault srt across Faults. © ond. Recetivation ofthe fois weurred after the deposition of the beds producing refectios N=" a The feverse mmement has been insufficient to ence the orig- inal norinal downthrose afeeting BP" and QQ Fault Imovenient haul ceased by the line of deposition of the beds causing reflection M=M4' 1b el thet near thrste are cede nog former normal faults. Curtens Merlin Profilers Lad eo uit of fot welt ek is abut 10% of cowninvow angi al lek + Component of downon af Sete af movement Fagure st22 roonvall uplift. 22 ae eee4 Segaeats, the beds undergo an abrupt inflection along an intlestion line yhich contains the centre of curvature of the twa abutting segmen 3 St29). |The Busk method is based on the fact that bedding meacurasente ra concentric folds are tangeats to the circular arcsand so lines drawn perpendicular to the bedidag locate the ceatres of curvature. Once the Seesres, of Survature are located stratigraphic contacts ara easily cxtrspolated and interpolated using a compass. The Busk method gives very good results in structures or garts of structures that closely agproxinate concentric fold geomtry. However, most folds are not concentric aad the ethod nakes erroneaus predictions in such cases. Pig ket method assuses that folds are parallel but that they have straight nbs and sharp angular binges, kinks or chevron folds also(Suspe, 1985) iz Bed thickness is constant, te. a parailel fold, the axial’ suriaes bisects the angle betwoen the fold limbs - ie. yl = "¥2,. fig, S524. Tae GESEe t, between the limo aad the axial surace is called thy axial angle If there is enough data to define clearly the lind dips, it 2 pasaible co eatation of the axial surface with good precision, and the face my then be easily located with a protractor and all the layers extrapolated. Where two axial surfaces intersect, a new axial surface is torned also satisfying the equal angle rule. y1 22. The’s method is relatively easy to apply as it can use both for seismic and dine zeter information. It even works reasonably well when the folds are Gomposed of snootl curves rather than straight eegments, because ‘ny sucors curve can be approximated by a series of straight lines. Tha Kink osthod, gb fact, Simulates the Busk nethod, as the fold surface my be reproduced by shorter straight lines, The Kink method has the advantage because it te sey ively easy to restore or balance a structure consisting of straight bed segsents. Suppe (1985) and Suppe (1963) describes in detei] application of the Kink method to folds and thrusts. Section restoration, section balancing or retrodeformation fa surresely taportant aspect of structural geology is saction balancing o retrodezormtioa. This is the process whereby we atteapt to undo tse Geformation to check our interpretation. If it is possible to undo the interpretation and restore the beds ta their predefornation situation, the interpretation is possibly correct. If it is not possible to de so’ t: fhe Likelihood is that the {nterpretation is an iscossible solution. Roc’ chat have undergone little or ao internal deformation are ost suitable fan balancing restoration studies, as the deformation has occurrad by b: fatlure. = following twa assumptions are generally made 1, Conservation of mes or volume, Usually the assumtion of is sade, vaich is a fairly mjor assumption ag ness! whica are involved eforsation undergo some fors of to decompact pter ex. Usually, heweve: two Gimeasions osly and ‘the assuzy laced by conservation of area defermatioa is bi asured nornal to bedding) Tis concept is inportane unaffected by 222ng ho Butk mated of Froa Supa, 1985 construction. Extapolaon and interpolation of folded eset ut Figure $129 Busk method of fold pethod of foldme meee mmbeen no exentsion of contraction, Figure ST25 shows an i of bed length conservation in a thrust duplex. jealised example Suppe (1985) shows how the assusptions of area and bed length conservation Gan be applied. together. Figure ST26 shows a contractional structure where deformtion tas occurred above a basal detachaeut (eecollenent) Conserving bed length, the shortening is the difference berwees she straight line distance betwoen the pinpoints (1) and the curved distance Beasurad along the bed (lc). The curvinetric shortening (Sc = lo-l) is the same for every bed above the bassl detachnent in Figure S126, Alea every pone tlong_o deforsed bed is located at or above tho original sed Slevation. Tae area between the criginal and preseat elevation if the area of structural both area and bed length are Seok sere QD whera h is the undeformed de. the basal detachzent below the ted. gon be salculated Lf Aa and Ge can be estimted. Alternatively. if b and seraoeh mow: Shortening can be estinated. 1! this shortening, terse Padceessce, Shortening by Suppe (1995), and the curvimetric shortening ace Independently. known, they can be compared as a test of section valance epee 1208) Sives an example from the Jura zountains where parallel Zousing is developed (Fig. S127). area of structural relief is Poo wat and the depth to decollenent is 0.éim. The planinetric shortening Aan = 1.55 4.8 = 2.6k3 seggget® S127, the curvinetric storteniag from bed length measurement is Soeekm indicating that the section does uot balance. An alterantive interpretation is shown which talances, ie. satisfies the geological giigraation, and has concordant and planinetric sucrteniag of arcond @ ce Howaver, just because the section balances does not mean that tt coceect OF a simple solution ta the probles. Aethods of section balancing The above examples of section balancing were structures - balanciag < Siottem XP] [deste YA] Jaiastem 2 +] 200005 |= |. Time Intervals (i a Dunes present Je =400 000 ye —>} nes cbeent I f | eit these ot stoked creed by preserved sends eatin 1 reer Level of eediment Joie intertece dunes begin te clin + Lavet of groundwater tabie ‘ewe agra eating sequence of thin sandstone boda wile Cedar Mesa eta, Pubes f sand delivery aro gered by euraieonstance, Lana-tem seein {em fucusicnt of waar abe are not shown, Where dunes te presen eel o esse on taret, 17 Pig 8) stone (et fo tining of verteal accretion and cumulation 2 equal to basin subsidence, Sheet "nteace is rocrinterdune areas (Diagram boved Figure LC5 Sedimontation and gaps. From Loope 1965 239 OT eee oe oeftartlingly incomplete. Ye are extranely lucky if more thaa 10% of the lapsed tim ts represented by rock, Phere is a major difference between the preservation potential of deep and shallow vater sedizents using, as an approximation, the stora-wave Dace ne the subdiv sion between deep and shallow water (Fig. LC2). In a deep water gavironneat there is a reasonable chance that, once the sédinsazs have bees deposited, significant reworking may not reoccur in post- depositional modification is by compaction. Of the va: processes which transport sediment into the deep water environm 0 dominate; Sperzeneation from suspension and gravity flows ranging irom turbidity Gurrents through to catastrophic slides. The rock racord will be aoe, Seaeedig Gof Sedinents deposited from suspension than those deposited by episodic and the catastrophic events cccurring withia the becia ig ihaliow water sequences, or thace deposited in a subserial environnent, Zeworking is the name of the game, eg. tidal deposits. fleciat Savigpameats, etc, Ia such settings it is either the extraordinary event nt ney ereservation of the last of a series of events that ie fied Gomizating the rock record. | Leopa (1985) described episodic deposition ant Exeservation of eolian Upper Peansylvanniaa and Lower Persian sands in the ranyonlands Batioual Park, Utak. Figure LCS shove the relationship betwee Epeeenuet Sedtaent (the rack record) and bedding planes. Loope's analysis ey raeestratification revealed that the sands accumlate via migrarion aad climb of relatively small dunes. Dune growth ceased when venton rettan Sad Mere depleted. The growth was folleved by serine deflation to the level of the groundwater table. Only the basa part of eeralmes are preserved (the preservation of the bases of sequesecs ie SEEEEperY Gompoa ia the rock racord and is a major complicating factor in Stratigraphical analysis) and tha upper surfaces of each dune ociueace ise gap watch represents much more geologic time than the rocks themselsos Ths {ePesition of coarse-grained poiat bar sands in a fluvial environsent Seonger belt is a further example waich illustrates the puactuated setors ratte TOK record. Figure Lc6, a schematic diagram ‘of as idecticne neander belt, shows how the relationship between the rate of meandering versus the rate of subsidence controls the preservation of a os Sequence. Bridges and Leeder (1976) describe a devai that simlates sedinentation ia + pe of environment eeeere, “C2 shows another example of the dependence of preservation on serene eoesses. A complex system of coastal bars and lagoose ie developed ia a eyslical syste, causing repeated nigratio @ has a sozinal lowering 9 accumulated 280subsidence —— meanderas ea a the Tee sl we é itosion srosion of cossiat system <—————" follows migration ot sitchore’ bar a ee | i migrates s. \ ningie Rees fycle switenes | ick once bar | Teaches channel dit Gycle of deposition and erosion and deposition ina coastal environment = duration 1000 years. | Bteservation of the complete Seauence after movement on faults, o L 99.999% of time lost on this boundary, potential in a cyclical environaest «ith low eubétcene 242ab eae Kony Meas ddd ae ee a new sequence deposited, the base of that sequence would gradually accumulate a tine gap as it shifted back and forth. The original sequence would then have 2 top and base representing significant tice gaps. The tize Gignifieance of the gaps would probably be very difficult to determine using standard sedinentological criteria Ve can conclude that in shallow water and subaerial environmen: wences are sot only thin, especially in seismic terms but that sequeace boundaries cecur on to scales (Fig. LCS). Firstly on a very small scale the subsequences are extrenely complex, formed. by the ccalescing and Joxtaposition of sediments deposited during discrete episodes in different environments and with differeat lithologies. The detailed structure is unlikely to be resolvable either at the seismic scale or that avail from typical well spacing. Secondly, on a larger scale, per resolvable on a seismic level, are the sequences containing subsaquencas, which develop in response to other factors, @g. the overall aggradation, najor incremeat of progradation, a major ep: of tectonic subsidence and/or sea-level change, which preserves an entire sequence atc s individual Approaches to stratigraphy and correlation The assumption that time and lithology are independest and that gradualistic processes dominate stratigraphic record has been the approach of stratigraphers and the basis of correlation of stratigraphy in the oil industry. Here lithostratigraphy (the mapping and the recognition of rock sequences of sinilar lithology) dominates. Lithostratigrapay makes no assuaptions regarding the time relationships and, only at a relativ coarse level, accepts input from palaeontology, ia. a classification caying this is an Albian sandstone versus one which is, say, Kimmeridgian. As a fora of classification for rocks, ie. identifying similar lithologies deposited in similar environments but at different tines, lithcstratigraphy has its uses and, in outcrop mapping, is perhaps the only realistic ‘cack. owever, in the subsurface environment where there is entially ingut from seismic data and it is often possible to establich ha reasonable degree of certainty the real tine relationships between the cequences, lithostratigraphy is probably not the best approach to correlations. |The weakness of lithostratigraphy is illustrated in Figure LC, which shows three wells penetrating three cand units, 3, F and J. Zach sand consists of a coalesced unit that bas prograded right. Qn a lithostratigraphic basis, these uni Format, F Band J, with intervening stale and D, 2 an The individual log response fram the The only peraissible correlations in these circums| witbia the stale and Limestone sequences, are the top and base ble to correlate ponses appear s 244to identity, it my even be difficult to locate with certainty the top and base of the min sequence. Lithostratigraphically, however, it is likely that, the coarser-grained unite would be recognised as a ‘Formation P’ and correlated in the manner shown, although it ie clear that the formation differs quite markedly from the formtioual status given to the Fms. D, F and J, where the three wells indicate that there is indeed likely to oe lateral continuity within the formations, ie. they are real physical entities. The lithostratigraphic Formation P is a geologically hoped for configuration, with all its implications of lateral continuity, rather than one that is necessarily realised in nature, Correlation would not be Permissible between the wells. Although, of course, such correlations are frequently made Conclusion: One of the major goals of log correlation should be to determine whether or not, when correlating at a potential reservoir unit, or for that matter any sequence, the relatiouships are of the type saown in Figure LC9, for formations B, F and J or of the type shown by Fa. P.. Much more of our effort should go into attempting to establish continuity and the true nature of the lateral relationship than rather simply attempting the often fatuous exercise of correlating individual sand beds within a thick saad sequence between wells spaced say 15km apart. Figure LCi0 shows “the probability that the lateral extent of beds deposited tn a variety of environments exceed the values shows in the graph. Correlation rules i. If not already established, attempt to locate the sequence boundaries within the area. Usually these will correspond to lithological change. A full log suite should be utilised initially to determine those logs which best depict the lithological change. Concentrate oa the fine-grained sediments as, within these sequences, time Line should parallel the bed boundaries, Tavestigate any thickness changes within the fine-grained Sequences to attempt to determine their cause. Possible causes of thickness changes are A) differential subsidence at a rate > bed boundaries will be paral quivalent to the accumulation rate to the Sequence boundaries; 3) differential compa sedizents; oa which can be evaluated by decommacting the ©) an onlap ri top, or tationship at DB) onlap at the bas These relati 245 E bEkD J chronostratigraphy are not confused. The technique also dighlights areas of uncertataty especially regarding continuity So speatgbiishing continuity: Perhaps one of the best sethods of establishing coatinuity is the use of pressure data. pressure data is becoming sore common, especially w: he repeat ta this context, the pressure information is used to 2 the level of communicability within the reservoir, This could be attempted of plotting the oressure trends in the various units If pressure data irom apparently the saze unit fall on different pressure trends for the type of fluid present int reservoir, then the units camat be correlated. If they fall on the sane fread they may be correlated but there is a chance that they may not be. The collection o: the intreduetion offees dl a i | | : Sy NT i NIK 3 a iee baw 8). Ditlerential subsidence for fing grained sediments 1 D). Imolied ontap celationship A ©). Imolied truncation or teplap Figure [C11 Causas of thickness change 248 Pead LX CEES PERCENTAGE LoMeER g * =a rr) 3 3 x we Bh. oa LENGTH oF SHALE weteRCAUON — CContnity of shale (it intercelations 2s a function of depostional envitcoment Figure LO1O Lateral continuity. From Veber 1962 Five wells and corresponding pressure~depth gradient graph show- ing inferted water systems, oil and gas legs. Lot? Continuity and formation pressures 249 ‘k om coo em ae oem oom omBOY TO DECOMPACT SEDIMENTS Sediments compact on burial, mainly through the loss of pore volume. There are several exploration applications whea we need to know the loss of pore voluze and consequent change in interval thickness and sedinent densit Some potential applicatious are listed below. Log correlation: correcting thickness of Intervals wien adjusted to a new datum - shallower or deeper than present burial depth - so that thickness of the same formation occurring in several wells at different depths can te coapared Porosity predictions: a ‘al point, eg. extrapolating porosity changes either above ar below or reserve estimates in 2 dae} ucture without Palaeohistory reconstructions: corrcting thickness af overlying sediments - backstripping. Basia aodelling studie; backstripping the overl: comparison of observed basement sutsidenc: ing sediment layers, with thecretical aod: Sedizent loading: calculating the effect cf variations in sedisent density, on sediment loading, to determine possible relationships between eedisantation and subsidence. Soures rock maturation: constructing nore accurate burial history diagrams and estimating the variation in thermal conductivity with compaction, Yarious approaches, both qualitative and quantitative, have been used to nodel compaction. Two related quantitative methods by Sclater & Cristie (1980) and Baldwin & Butler (1985) are described below. SCLATER AND CHRISTIE'S METHOD Selater and Christie (1980) adopted the exponential (1930), watch models the reduction in porosity of norsai fo es t porasity at depth z Griginal porosity om wireline logs. gus depth to establish d the following relationships 250The sbaly sand function ts the average of the shale and sand relatiouships. The relationships can be used to determine the change in layer thickness with burial, (or after removal of overburden to calculate the thickness at an earlier tine) Figure D1 shows how a layer deconpacts as a leyer of sedizent is removed. In reality the section would not expand as shown in the diagram if the overlying layer were removed. There is ample evidence from velocity studies (velocity is very dependent on porosity) that rocks inherit or retain the porceity obtained at their greatest burial depth, even whea subsequently uplifted. However, we are not simlating uplift of the sedinents but rather their thickness prior ta the deposition of the overlying interval (s) ~ a palaeohistorical reconstruction. Any interval can be considered to comprise two parts: solid volume, waich is invariant, and pore volume which is assumed to be water-filled. Figure D2 shows the expansion of the ‘nterval 2; - Zz as it is moved to depths Zs" - Ze. We know that the relation between porosity f and depth Z is f= fo ee? se @D assuming that the pore space is water filled, it is possible to show that the new depths Z,’ and Z=' are related to the previous depths Z1 and Z through the relationship (see Sclater & Christie, 1980): Za! = fo ee" - (ZarZs) + fo Cee -e“FA] - Zh! - fo eve" = 0 Gg S © As Z; and Zs are the present depth of, the sedimentary section and fo and ¢ are constant, ‘and Z;' can be evaluated, since Z' is at the surface (and zero) or the bottom of the previcus layer. Having calculated 21" by working down the sedimentary colum, Za' can be evaluated using the iterative Newton's method from, Zi Zag) | Zac ey (i-L) = the Ze! calevlated at the first attempt. Although this locks a quite formidable equation, it is aot diffioult programme, either using a scientific calculator or computer, to calcula 22" In practice,’ the original depths unit aad the appropriate lithology, together with a guess are used to calculate a first substituted rapidly (usva change by a net (ia ¥m), the new depth to the top of the s af the constants for the vals ©: new depth to the base of the unit, stimate of This value is then (5) to recaiculate Zs'. The results converge er 4 or 5 iterations) to value of Z=' that does not 2 from the next it ater and normally pressur’ North Sea versus depth can be constructed and dep!Lee Rane ene nisi cerca Exagple: Shale Fm A occurs in Vell 1 between 1000-1500m, The same shal2 Fa A occurs in Well 2, 30km to the north, between 3200-3600m (Fig. D3). Yaat was the thickness relationship of Fa A betneen wells 1 and 2 when at a datum of 1000 and what was the thickness of Fm A at the end of irs deposition? Step 1 Find the thickness of Fm A in Well 2 at a datum of 100m, the top of Fm A in Yell 2 to the same datum as the Fm in well 000m) Ustag fo = 0.63; e = 0.51; 2 = 3.2km Zs = 3.dem Z)'= 1.0m and a guess of 1.dem for ‘the first iterations of equation (5) gives Zs' = 15333. Substituting this as the estimate of Za’, for the: next and subsequent itineratioas, produced an estisate of 1532m, Tais shows that Fa A in Yell ads to @ thickness of 532m when its top is at a datum of 1000m, ie Fa. A was originally thicker in Yell 2 than in Ve Step 2 Find the original *! Using equation (S) the top a! at both wall locations. sekness of Fn. A at well locations 1 and 2 Pm A is brought to the surface (ie. Z,' = 0) lowing the same procedure as Step 1 gives original thicknesses of 707m and 747m at ‘well locations 1 and 2 respectively. Overpressuring causes porosity reduction to be less than 80) show that for overprescuring: powl-ar2 f= fo ee Pow Pw 8) pow'= mean water saturated bulk density of the overlying sediments ow = density water X= ratio fluid pressure to overburden pressure. it (owtt-a»> oD 200n) at = (Eg 128 = 24028 g get taegiet ies ‘ao The sandstone relationship is identical to Sclater and Chr and Fequires the solution of equation (5) (see above). Sediment density The variation in sedimeat density can be an important consideration if we are interested in the loading effects of sediments and their potential to nduce subsidence. if we know fo and c and have calculated Zs" the porosity of a unit at w desth is given hy the relation: etch ape, sue dacsity | 253Ke Rae ll Rs j where 44 is the mean porosity of the i-th layer, osgi the sediment grain seasity of the same layer, Z. the individual layer thickness, and Sr tae total thicksess of the column corrected for compaction. The loading effect of the sediment can te calculated from ¢ relation, if we assume local isestatic compensation e following ¥ = Sr (x - ps) Das pw where y is the actual depth of the basenent, Sr is the observed thickness of sediment, po the mean sedisent density, pm the density of mantle and pw the density of waver. (3.33g/em* is often used es a typical value of pa)TExACo 181% (a) Sedinent backstripped at Texaco 15/16 vitnous correcting for compaction. (b) Sedinent deckstripped correcting for compaction. (e) Bete Gepth after the Load of Hinent haa been Penoved. | ~ Figure Di Decompaction and backstrippiag. From Sclater & Christie, 1980. fe... ern. nen a, b ¢ af 2 2, saan [ Figure 02 decoupactior of « layer. Froa Schlater § Christie, 1980 iae ame es ys cs? a i HOV TO CONSTRUCT BURIAL HISTORY AND GEORISTORY DIAGRAYS Burial Bistory diagrazs chart the history of the burial of a particular horizon(s) versus geological time, from the tine of deposition to th. preset day (Fig. BLD. Geobistory plots show the same aformation but use depth below sea-level as a datua (Fig. B42). The horizontal axis is a linear ecale of tine io millions of years before the present and the vertical axis is depth. Burial history diagrams have a variety of uses They are useful in depicting the subsidence history of an area, and itlustratiag aspects of the tectonic history. They are used as part of the procedure for calcvlatiag thermal maturation of potential source rocks. ete. To construct a basic burial history diagram for the stratigraphic sequence found iz 2 well we need to know, as precisaly as possible, the thicmess of the units and their ages. A burial history diagram is constructed by lingarly interpolating between the current depth ef the unit and the time when it was at the surface (le. the numerical age of the top of the underlying unit). If compactional effects are ignored, ali underlying layers move up at the saze rate. This process is repeated until all layers hava bean brought to the surface. For anual construction it is usually simpler to reverse the process and star? with burial of the oldest unit to {ts present depth, successively constructing curves for younger units which should be parallel to it (Fig. BES), If palae-water depth can be estimated from palaecenvironsental indication, eg. palynofacies, lithology, ete., thie can be taken into account in the construction (es Van Hinte, 1978). Tf compactional effects are not taker into account. curves for succeeding units will parallel those of the oldest unit, formag a series of curves which define the burial history of each unit. The shape of the curve gives aa indication of the relative accumlation, and/or Subsidence rate, over the different intervals or for different lithologies = steep curves imply high accumulation rates. The plausibility of the accumlation rate implied by the burial curve can te checked against the lithology. Anomalously low accumulation rates probably indicate the Presance of unconformities within the sequence. Saddler (1981) discusses sedizent acovmlation rates and the completeness of stratigraphic sections and provides cone. data on sccumlation rates in different depositional environments. Unconforaities caa be modelled ina variety of ways, Figure BEC, after Guidish et al. (1985), shows three possibilities: 1. the unconformity treated as a depositional hiatus; 2. the ting of ap of deposition followed eros: the onset gf erosion can be deterained from a knowledge of local data. Van deternining the age and duration of uncAll sedimentary sequences undergo compaction, different hologies coupacting at different rates. The effect of compaction is to reduce unit thickness as burial load increases. The effect on burial history diagrams ' to cause the apparent burial rates, during the initial stages of burial. so be too low (Fig, BES). To correctly depict the burial history, therefore, we need to decompact the sedinente and restore them back to their original thickness through time, so that we can reconstruct the burial history diagram, fully taking into account cozpectional effects. 2stBRT BB gee me meme mmNotes co corrections nave been nade for compaction. SOT RP ST TM meht a a i‘8724 vomiM a9" 04’ = Ou seer Doo z 5"-0u 7 a2 a Bae 5 ePs Bs PER a BE ; — Fe INENLE cieneain z — > x31 Fo 3 uusowoa ‘LMS woua3s TK g freon snoeoeierg : nev © ain asv 2 ANaSaud SU3AV1 O309V14 TIV YOd 107d T3A31 VaS HLM AUIS IRENE 287| 1009] ana} 00] 500) 400 300 INITIAL THICKNESS (m} 8 8338 8 2 30 #5060 60 100 200 “300 00" 700 to00 PRESENT THICKNESS (m) FE tm mm mm re mee i (ne ees, Pen. ae ee)ee! toe Ge EPIN METERS Porosity poms 22 3 4000- 32 190 % ° so00- eyaten (alter SCMMt4E and Curiatie, 2990)¢ yparunevars of the Exponent ia ~lRenation Setueen Porosity end Dept sue) Pressured Yorth e Libolegies an the Density [fesuned for she Seainent Grains io the sane Litholeey 7a ae Bay gare: a Sand 0.9 oat Chale 0.70 om 2 0.56. 0.3 Staley sand Porosity F = fo wiloneters and £88 TEE There ote depts So fa percent divided by 200+ Fable BH“THE BACKSTRIPPING METHOD : RESULTS umiowser BoE” ASSOLUTE OEPTHS RECONSTAUCTION = ee lee tones CH tI SEOIMENTS. LOADING = tecet aStigny (AIRY (ruexune) WOOEL Oh RESPONGE TO Figuce aE #Prdncigtes of che tmceatcippiAe eatnét! nace dn'the cevconatruction of the Ristory of eedimancatigd only funds conbietion © = cous at does sot evan ‘ant gcynants precentad Gateas ne Igesee et AL, 3984)Raa Re Nosed! REFERENCES b.v, 1983, The nature of the stratigraphic record, faceiltan sitsadn, HAN. 1980, Seisaic Exploration, Soston, Birkhauser Gosion eee TLL 1980, Septn incicators of clastic seavencas, Marine Geo). 6 123-448, allen, jcc, 1574, studies in fluriatile sediaentation: Teter’ wvlacice some fi cerards cyelotheras fron tne Re¢ tarts, Pesbrakeshire, Jeusral of Geology 9, 1-208. Saaee aeeciges, Principles of physical sedinentology. George Mien ¢ Nowe aiituuatager, 2.82, Sharp, J.V,, Yor Tish, O., Setpa, U., Brown, U-. Kaulaat 8, A oliver, J A aereeraerlie and Mesozoic structure of the eastern, Gasin and Range provanis, tan, from faras? seisnicrraflaction data, Geology 11, 532°508. sree ed,, Goodvin, Pol, b Sobieski, TH 1984, Eplsadic acovaalation the origin of Anderton Mandates in he Helderberg Group of Nev York State, Seol9gy 17, 20-123. seer yd Kirktand, 0.¥, 1980, Dissolution of salt deposits by brine censity flow. Geology 8, 66-69. Geology Sheet, €.2,, Cxburgh, E.R. & Cooper, B.A, 1994, Tenperature and 6 thedependent heal lov in vestern North Sea. AAPG 68, 1764-1781 fnguvine, C.u.y Turcotte, Ob, 158. Thersal_subandence and cenpectien $9 sedinentary basins: fApalication to Baltinore Canyon Trough, AAS 67, 735-241 seach, a77, Seisnic interpretation; tte physical aspects, THRGE, Boston, Anetey, NA, 1980, Sinple seisaics.. THROC, Gaston, reeteh Nia, 1389, Seisnic sxploration for sandstone resenveirs. Re Boston, pont Y Tanano, 1. & Kato, S. 1982) Detailed structure of ie Mania Trough trea aigrated seismic sections, In Vatkins and Orake (Eds) fequith, 0.0, 1970, Dapositional tapograshy in. major losing, AAPS $4, 1184-1226, ‘ teauith, 6, 1982, asic veli Log analysis for geologists. AAPG Rethecs in Exploration series. Sealey, ME, 1969, Practical Seisuic Iotergretation, THROC, Boston. Bate, Tes A Anstey, 8,6, 1986, Vices Library for exploration ar production specialists, sestethtiten geophysics. Geophys, Prospect S01 Gasic Interpretation, estan, THRO, piuley, HiE., Egeverg,T. & Nipwn, 0, 1964, Oevelopnent of the 740% basins illustrated by the Badley, ev latien of ihe Qsenerg feature, lock 20/5 offshore Norway, J Geel, See, London 141, 639-649, ” Saleh Akay (egy Mav, ery Sud, # Ryder, 8.7, 1862, The use of vertical seisnic profiles in seijnie dovastigations of the earth, Geophysics 47, 306318 Ruane 'h. Tarts ays of ecishering compacted sedinents. J, Sed, Pet, &. 253-201, wr G. h Butler, C.0,, 1984, Consent anc reply. on “ting tnictness, Ott diagrans: setae hears display, of Lithostratigraphic thickness and chronostratigraphic ranget, Geology 12, 488-447, pejenin, bk autler, ¢.0, 1985, Compaction curves, AAPG, £9, $22-626, BrthSaasea, exploration application af tenperatures recorded on tee Nessirss = an upethee sary aqihod af nydrocarborecharged porosity preciction, ARPS &6, 1109 1}22- SEEM, gos, Seisnis expression of structural ‘styles ~ 2 piciurs and Wore atlas, th yale, 4#?4 Studies in Geology series 1S, Faris, Ua., Stroudd, O.L., Harris, 7.8. 4 Crevelio, 7.9. 1892. Upper suras! seucegver formation, United States Gulf Coast, AAPE 86, 1449-1482, suites cob Horafield, 8, 1982. ‘ezhanical versus theraal cause of abnersaily igh pore Dresavres in shales: Discussion, AAPE 65, 39-1! Bars, 0. 1985, 3-0. palinspastic restoration of i faults in the Inner foray F faplications {or extensional basi farth Planet Set, Lett, 76, 131-203, Barr, D, (in press), Lithessherie str noraai faulting and footwal Sec, London, TL, SIT, yshas an 'e sine environments, Late Crolaceus, treats of shagart, T, 1373. Seismie hysracarben inBateoan, 8.n, § Konen, C.£, i978, The log analyst and the prograumapie pecces caicuiator, Fart IIL, dipneter computation, The Log Analyst $, 3-3 Geard, 0.C. 4 Veyl, PAK, 1873, Influence of texture and sorosity and perveability of unconsolidated sand, AAP, Gulletin §7, 349-369, deaunont, C, 1878, The evolution of sedisentary basing on 2 visco and exagples, Seoohys. J, R. asteon, Soc, $5, 471-497, Berunant, ¢ Forelané basins. Gecshys, J, 8, Astron, 2c Geaunont, C, Keen, C,E. & outilier, %, 1982, On the evolution cf riftes continental aargins coaparison of aodels and observations for tne Nove Scotian wargin, Secghys. J, f. Astron. Soc 10, S87=718, engison, C.A, 1991, Statistical curvature analysis techniques for structural intergretation of dipneter data, aaPS 68, 312-992 erg, O,R. 1978. Capillary pressures in stratigraphic traps. AAPG S5, 935 Bigelow, E.L, 1982. Aoolication of dip-relaied aessurenents lo a conpler carbonate-clastic depositional environaent, The Log Analyst 13, $31, Higelow, EL, 1985, Making nore intelligent use of log cerived cic information, Part 1: suggested guidelines, The Log Analyst 16, I-51, Bishop, 8.8. 1978, Nechanisa for enplacenent of piarcenent diapirs, AsP6 62, 1$61-1583 Bishop, #8. 1979, Calculated compaction states of thick abnersaliy oressured shales. AAPE 62, 318-899, Bond, 6.C, & Koning, M.A, 1994, Construction of tectonic dubsicence curves for the early Paleozoic siogeocline, southern Canadian Rocky Mountains; Laplicalions for subsidence sechanisns, age of break-up, and crustal thinning, Geol, Soc, Am. Gull, 95; 155-179, fone, HRs, Giles, BF, & Tegland, £.R, 1983, Analysis of seisaic data using horizontal cross sections, Geophysics 48, 1172-1178, Bosworth, ¥, 1985, Discussion on the structural evolution of extensional basin aa by 8,0, Gibbs, J, Geol, See, Lendon 142, 929-942, Goyer, $.£, & Elliot, 0. 1982. Thrust systens, AAPG 65, 1196-1220, Srasier, M10, 1560, Microtossils, George Allen & Unein, London, Srever, J, 198, Thermal effects of thrust faulting, Earth Planet Sci, Lett, $6, 230-244, Sridge, 4.8, ¥ Leader, H.R, 1979, A sinulation aodel of alluvial stratigraphy, Sedisentology 2, 81-644 Sroughten, F.L, 1877, Origin of cael basins by salt solubign, Nature 270% «202423, Broun, A.R, 1969, Structural interpretation troe horizontal seisaig sections, Sebshysiex 42, VW7S-1194, aoe Brown, Rs, Wight, Rin, Gurkart, 0. Sbeiel, VL, 1984, Interactive ‘sggnig Wippiig of net producable gas sand in the Gulf of Mexico, Geophysicd 49, 363-363, Brown, LiF, # Fisher, WL, S60. Selsnic stratigrapnic interpretation asd pllfgteun exploration, A898 Continuing Course Hote Series 16 Bruce, C.A. 1984, Soeclite denydration ~ its relation te structural developnent and hydidtarbon accuaulations in Northern Gulf of Mexico besin, AAPG 68, 673-663, Srunbaugh, 0,8, 1984. Compressive strains generated by nornal faulting, “Siolégy 12, 48i-dd4, fu, TaN, bE atlelid, W.8, 1877, Seisnic recognition of carbonate bulld Gos, in, Paytoh (Es) 185-204 Butler, R.¥.H, 1982, The terminology of structures in thrust, belts. Four sii drat Seelagy 4, 233-248, Carstens, H. £ Finstad, K.8. 1981, Geotheraal gradients in the ibid gph “Sea,$9-62 degrees north, 5 {1ling & Hobson (Eds), 181-161, Cassell, 8, 1564, Vertical Setseic Profites ~ an intéocuction; First" Break’S=” ice, Roa, 1985, Canoneie sedinentation, supsidence and” tectonic"itarbion, iq’ vnlbtaker Ea), 61°83, Ghasberlin, RT, 1910, The Aopaiachian folds of Central Pennsylvania,” 225-281 Chapoan, R.E, 1982, Effects of {1 and gas accumulation on water aovenent, mS 66, 248-278 Ghagaan, T.J. & Willtans, 4.0, 1984, Displacesent-distance aeinees in the anelysis of fole= thrust structures and lisked=/ault systems, J. Geol. Soc. Il, 121-128 Chilingarian, &.¥, % Wolf, KH, (Eas), 1975, Cospaction of coer Jevelcosents in Secinentotegy 168, astic Lithosphere: theory reply urhal’ of geokéhy 18, grain secinents 287Choquette, P., & Pray, L.C. 1970, Geological nonenclature and tlassification ef porosity an inentary carbonates. RAPS Bulletin 54, 207-250, istensen, C.F, 1983, An exanple of a maior syndepositional Listeic fault, tn Bally (€¢) Vol TE Christie, P.AF, & Sclater, J.6, 1880, fin extensional otigin for the Buchan and Vitenground Graben in the North Sea, Nature 263, 723-732, Gacnran, JR 1963, Effects of finite rifting tines on the aeveiopaent of secinentary oasins, th Planet Sei, Lett, $5, 289-202 ® Conan, C8, 1581. Tine and tenperature in petroleus feraation; Application of Lopatin’s netned to petroleua exploration: Discussion, AAPG 6§, 1647-1643 Cohen, 0.2, 1982, Model for a passive to active margin transition; iaplications for hydrocarbon explorabion, 8aP§ 68, 703-712 q Golaan, HH. 1373, Seisate reco Conyoeire, 0.6.8, 1987, Geol, 18, 331-948, Cooper, HA, 1983, The calculation of bulk strain in oblique and inclined balanced sections, J. Struct, Geol, §, isi-186. Gormtord, C. 1986, Source rocks and hydrocarbons of the North Sea. In Glennie, K.¥, (Ed), I7I= 204, Govard, HP, 1984, Structural interpretation vith emphasis on extensional tectonics, Part 1 Principles of structural interpretation, Geol, Soc, Londen, JAPEX Ceurse Notes Crutcher, 1.0, 1903, Baltiaore Canyon trough, In Bally (Ed) Vol. 11, Ganiberg, £.C, 1862, Applied hydrodynanics in petroleus exploration, Springer-Verlag, Gahistren, C.0.A, 1968, Balanced cross-sections, Can, J, Earth Sci, 6, 743-787, Gaha, C.8. & Grabrer, RJ, 1982, Field development vith three-diuensional seisaic nethods in the Gulf of Thailand ~ a case history, Geophysics 47, 149-176. ake, L.P. 1878, Fundanentals of reservoir engineering, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company. avis, J.C, 1973, Statistical ané data analysis in geology. viley, Gaviton, 1, 1966, Listric noraal fault profiles: calculation using bed-length balance and fault displacenent, J, Struct, Geel, @, 203-210, Gay, 8.8. § Rewards, U.F, 1983, Reflected retracted events on seisnic sections, First areat, ot UCIT. rath, NG, 8 Schuyleoan, $.F, 1981, The geology of the Magnus Field, In filing, Lv, & jfabsen, §.0.,{Ed5), Petroleua geology of the continental shelf of north-vest Eutope,, 542+ Denaison, G14. & Murris, A.J. (E08), 1984, Petroleus geocheaisiry and basin evalution, APS < heir 3. “Dewey, VF, 138d, Plate tectonics andthe evolution of the & i c i) Cot, 1353, Seisaic velocities trom surface aeasureaents, Geophysics 20, 68-26 Qisae, 0.8.» Marbonne, 5.4. 4 Jones, B, 1961, Event correlation in Upper Silurian Rocks of ” Sgaerset Island, Cenadian Arctic, aaP& 65, 309-311, Dosenico, $.N. 1979, Effect of water saturation on seisnic reflectivity of sand reservcirs efNaSE4 in, shale, Geophysics 33, 753, ‘Donato, “RW, #6, 1982, & proposed granite dathelith along the -rNorth Sen. Viking Graben, Geoohys. J. 8, Astr, Soc, 59, 187-195, Dots, RH.J, 1989, 1862 SEPM Presidential Address: Episodic average, noe rate is.rare, does is matter? J, Sed, Pet, 53, $23 Oov, V8, &..O'Comer, D.t. 1362. Kerogen maturity and type of abplied to petroleum exploration, In Staplin, FL. et al (Ed) 1982. Gpysie, Vite b.Cobb,,V.M, 1375, Static foraation tesperature from well logs, J. fet, Teen, 27, 1326-1330, Gevney, H.¥, 1984, Evaluating seals tor hydrocarbon accuaul: Gresser Atlas, 1982, Vell logging and interpretation techni Oresser Atlas, Sutton, S.P. 1962, Penasylveanian fan ition of salt diapirs, ARPS 63, 2097-2102, © of cospaction of stratigraphic analysis, éu » Can, Pat, tw tesa ish Isles. I, Geol, Soc, 139, ee ee ee tern flank of the idisentation - how noraal te ted ght aicroscopy ns, ARPS 62, 1782-1759 eS, The course for hone stuey. a and carbonate depes: oss ea MN idEnsley, R.A. 1966, Evaluation of direct hydrocarbon incicators through conparison of coapressional- and shear-vave seismic data: 2 case stucy of the nyrnae:gas field, Alberta Gephysics $0, 37-48, Evans, T.R, 1877, Thergal properties of North Sea recks, The Leg Analyst &, 3-12 Farrell, 8.8, 1984, A dislocation aodel applied to slup structures, Ainsa Basin, south central Purenaes. J. Struct, Seoi.8. 727-736, Fertl, WH. & Vicheann, P.8, 1977, How to deternine static EMT fron vell log aata, vorid 0:1 184, fosetee, Fielding, €.R. 1984, coal depositional model for the Ourhas coal seasures of Geol, Sec, London 141, 913-93 focht, 6.U. & Baker, F.E, 1985. Geophysical case history of the Tvo Hills Colony gas fiele of Alberta, Geoohysics $0, 1081-1076, Furlong, K.P. b Edman, J.0, 1984. Graphic aooroach to det, in overthrust terrains, @APS 68, 1818-1824 Galbraith, RM. 4 Brown, AR. 1962. Field appraisal vith three-dinentional setsnic surveys offshore Trinidad. Geophysics 47, 177-195, sllovay, WE, & Hobday, £.K, 1383, Terrigenous clastic depositional systens: applications to petroleut, coal, and uraniun exploration, Springer Verlag, Satlitf, RW., Hitchin, X,, Ritchie, J.0, & Saythe, 0.K, 1984, Internal structure of the Eriand {ettiary volcanic conptex, north of Shetland, revealed by seisnic reflection, J. Geo!. cee London 141, §85-562, Gibbs, 4.0. 1988, falanced cross-section construction fron seisnic sections in areas of extensional tectonics, J, Struct, Geol, §, 153-160. Gibbs, 8.0. 1984, Structural evolutiorn of extensional basin margins, J, Geol, Soc, Lendon 147 503-520, Girty, 6H, 2 Parrett, 2,5, Volt Slennie, K.¥. (e.), 1988, Intreduction to the petroleua geology of the North Sea, Glackvell Setentitic Publications, Gortr, J-F., Pring, Wd, ¥ Logar, J.F, 1877, Reservoir delineation by vireline techniques, 6th Annual Con, ‘of Indonesian Petrol. Assoc, Gott, J.C. 1983 oF 1986, hydrocarbon generation and aigration froa Jurassic source rocks in the fast Shetland asin and Viking Graben of the northern Worth Sea (1981), Geol, Soc, Londen 140, 445-474 oF (1984) RAPE Mencir 38, Gelg, T, 4 Sutter, $. 1982, @biogenic aethane and the origin of petroleus, Energy Exploration and Exploitation 1, #9-108, Gretener, P.£, & Curtis, C.0. 1962, Role of teaperature and tine on organic netanorphisn, a8P6 66, N2eT149, Sratener, PE, & Lapute, 8.5, 1963, Conpaction = A discussion, Gull, Can, Pet, Geol, 17, 295 303, Guidish, T.M,, Kendall, €.6,8t,¢,, Lerche, I,, Toth, 0,J, & Yarzab, 8.F, 1965, Basin evaluation using butial history calculations: an overview. AAPG 63, $2-105, Halley, R.B, & Schmoker, JW, 1883, Migh porosity cenezoic cardonate rocks of Scuth Florice: aragressive loss of porosity with depth, ARPS 67, 191-200, ‘anolin, U.K, 1968, Direction of absolute novenent along the boundary faults of the besin and Tange = Colorado piateau aargin, Geology 12, 116-119, fanaond, R.D. & Gaither, J.8, 1982, Rnonelous seis 48, §50°605 Hancock, J.N. 1978, Clay aineral diagenes: Foraation, J. Geol. Soc. Loncon 138, 69-72 Hareing, T.P. & Lovell, $.0, 1979 Structural styles, their plate tectonic habits ane Englana, f ination of hydrocarton saturation 1989, Vsper Cenozoic unconformity, Gulf of Mexico, In Bally (Ed) ering Sea Shelf, Geophysics ang of sigration in the Middle Jurassic Grent Sane hysrecarten traps in petroleus provinces, AAPE 2, 1016-1088 arlard, W.2., Cox, Aiv., Llewellyn, P.8,, Pickton, €,4.8,, Saith, AG, & ¥eliers, &. 1987, 8 geologic tine scale, Casbricge Canoricge University Press Fazeldine, B.S a Quartz diagenesis and convective fluid 7 gm ew em oe ee aJ j J J J J ] : ( Hein, J.R., Scholl, 0.4, Barton, J.A., Jones, W.6. § muller, J, 1978, Oragenesis of late Cenozoic diatosaceous deposits and fornation of the bettce siaulating reflector in the Southern Bering Sea, Sedinentology 25, 185-181, Heroux, ¥., Chagnon, @. & Bertrand, R, 1979, Compilation and correlation of aaior theraal aaturation indicators, AAPE 62, 2128-2144 Hilehie, 0.U, 1984, Reservoir description using well logs, J. Pet. Tech. 26, 10871073, Horstiela, ¥,1, 1977, Aa experimental approacn to basanent contralies faulting, Geol, Miynocuw 58, 263-370, hotsfield, UT, 1980, Contenporanaous novenen Struct, Geol, 2, 305-310, Hossack, J. 1979. The use of balanced cross-sections in the calculation of orogenic contraction; @ review. J, Geol. Soc, London 135, 705-711, Hostersan, J.u, & Wnitlov, 5,1, 1981, Munsell color value as related to organic tarbon in Gevonian shale of focaiachian basin, AAPG $3,: 293-334, Howard, M.S, 4 Danbea, J.0, 1982, Randos noise exaaple. In Bally (E¢) Volt, Hau, KJ, 1982, Actualistic catastrophise: address of the reticing president of the International Association of Sedinentologists. Sedinentology 39, 3-3, fubral, P. & Krey, T, 1985, Interval velocities fron seisnic reflection tise seasurenents Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Jackson, J, & McKenzie, 0, 1983, The geoseteical evolution of nortal fault systens. J, Struct, Geol, 5, &7i-492, Jackson, J,8, 1980, Reactivation of dasesent faults and crustal shortening in oroy Nature 283, 343-348, Jackson, H.P,A, 8 Gallovay, YE, 1984, Structural and depositional styles of fulf Coast Tertiary continental aargins: agplication to hyérocarbon exploration, agPS, Continuing Education Course Note series 25, Jarvis, 6,1, 1884, a extensional node! of Graben subsidence - the first stage of basin evolution, Sed, Geol, 40, 13-31, Jaunich, S, 1989, The south-vestern African continental sargin, velocity anomalies, In Bally (Ed) Vol. tT, Janyon, M.X, $88, Seismic response to collapse structures in the southern North Sea, Marine and Pel. Geol, 1, 27-36, Jones, KE, & Addis, M.A, 1934, Volune change during sedinent diagenesis and the davelopnent of grovth faults, Marine and Pat, Geol, 1, 118-122, Jordan, T.£, 1961, Thrust leads and foreland basin evolution, Cretaceous, vestern United States, AAPS.SS, 2506-2520, Katz, 9.4, Uiro, LM, Lacey, J.£, & White, H.V, 1982, Tine and temperature in petroleus forsabion: application of Lopatin's method te petroteun exaloration; Discussion, AieS $8, 1180- 1182, Kennett, P., Ireson, RL, & Conn, P.J, 1980, Vertical seisni¢ profiles: their applications in exploration geophysics. Seophys, Prospect, 28, 876-599, Kent, Sir P.,.0tt, W.H,P., MeKenzia, 0,?, & Villiane, C,4, (2ds), 1862, The evolution of sediaentary basing, The Royal Society, ‘London, King, § .Srever. J. 1989, Fault related folding sear the vind River thrust, Nature 906, 147-150, Kleane, 4.2, 1980, 187-201, crossing conjugate normal faults, 5 nie belts, jyoning, USA, troleus basins - classifications and characteristics. J, Pat, éeo Kleyn, AH, 1877, Gr the migration, reflection, tine conteur aaos, Geoshys. Pros: 149, -H, 1983, Seisaic reflection tation, dgplied Science Puslishers Lid, . KA A Zarnard, L.A, 1882, Hyerates of natural gas in continental bargins Watkins and Orake (Ees) 521-642, Gasbert-Aiknionoare, 0.0, § Shaw, 4, 15 the Niger Delta, Clay Minerals 17, 31-109) Larner, k,, Sisson, 2. § Chasbers, &, 15 Signific ys in the petroleun gealogy of . Inaging beneath conolex struc: ) In BattyLe Pichon, {., fingeliar, J, & Sibuet, J-€, 1881, Flate veuncaries and extensional tectonics, Tectonophysics 92, 229-256 Ls Pichon, 1.) Angelier, J, & Sibuet J-C, 1992, Subsidence afd stretching, In Vatkins, J.S. & Drake, C.L, 731-741, Le Pichon, 1, 8 Sibuet, J 3102-3720, Leader, 1.2, 1982, Sedinentology, process and preduct, George Allen and Unwin Leader, W.5. 1989. Lithospheric ‘stretching and North Sea Jurassic clastic sourcelands, Nature 308, Si0-$13, Leeder, MR, & Gunthorp, graben basin Leggett, $.4. (Ed), 1982, Trench-Forare Geology: sedizentation and tectonics on odern and ancient active olate eargins, Geol, Soc, London, Spec. Pub. I Lerche, 1, Yarzab, RF, & Rendall, C,6,St=C, 188%, Deterai vitrinite reflectance data, aaPé €8, 1706-1717, Lonmann, HH, 1872, Seisnic recognition of salt diapirs, AAPG 62, 2087-2101 Leooe, 10.8, 1885. Episodic deposition and preservation of ealian sanct: a late Paleozoic exanple fron southeastern Utah, Geology 13, 73-76, Macleod, ¥,K, 1992, Gas hydrates in ocean Botton Sediments, AAPG 66, 2649-2662 tagara, K. 1880. Comparison of porosity - depth relationships of shale and sandstone. J, Pet Geol. 3, 178-185, Handi, 4 Crans, W, 1961, Gravational liding in deltas, In Legget, J.K, (Ed), London, Blackwell, 41-84, . Hareschal, J-C, 1989, Mechanisas of uplift preceding rifting. Tectonashysics $4, 51-66 fay, 8.1. & Covey, 3.0, 1983, Structural inversion of salt done flanks. Gecchysics 48, 1039 1050 Mayer, L. & Dickinson, WR, 1964, Tise-thicknese bar éiagrane: simultaneous display of Lithosteatigraghic thickness and chronostratigraphic range, Geology 12, T. NcClelian, 2.0. & Storrusten, J,8, 1963, Utah-Wyoning overihrust line, In Gally (Ed) Vel, {IE Hefardy, V,J., Wilson, KJ, # Tait, JM, 1982, Electron microscope and x-ray diffraction studies of filanantous illitie clay fron sandstones of the Magnus Field, Clay einerals 17, 23 33, Nelenzie, 0, 1878, Sone renarks on the developtent of sedinentaty basins, Earth Planet Sci, Lett, 40, 28-92 NeQuillin, R., Bacon, M, & darclay, U, 1979, fin introduction to seisaic interpretation, London, Grahan ang Teatean Lid Heckel, .0. & Nath, A.K, 1977, Geological considerations {or stratigrashic modelling and interptetation. in Payton (Ed), 417-498 heissner, 7,7, 1980, Fatroieun geology of the dakken Forsation Villiston Sesin, North Dakota and Montana, ARPS Menois 30, 189-173, Neyer, B.L. & Nederiof, KH, 1984, Identification of source rocks on viveline logs by density/reststivity anc sonic transit Line/resistivity crossplots, AaPS 68, 121-123, Miall, .0, 1980, Cyelicity and the facies model concept in fluvial deposits, Gull, Can, Pet, Geol. 28, 55-20, Mall, 6.0, 1866, Principles of sedinentary basin analysis, Springer-Verlag, Aicdleton, 4.7, 1984, Seisnic geonistory analysis ~ a case histery free the Canning Basin, western Australia, Geephysics 48, 300-343, Mitchus, #.N., Vail, P&H Theupson, §, 1977, The depositional sequence as = dasic unit for stratigraphic analysis, In Payton (E¢), 53°82. itchun, Rut, Vall, P.R, & Sangree, J.B, 1977, Seieaic raphy and gloval changes of sea level, part 6: Stratigraohic interpretation of seisnic reflection patterns in cepesitional sequences, In Payton (Ee), 117-193, Morgan, P, 1869, Constraints on rift thernal processes fren neat flow and upli Tectongshysics 94, 277-228, Negerlof, MH, & Kehler, HP, 1981, Quantitative investigation of trapping effect of unfaulted + I8@1, Passive Margins: A model of formation, J, Geochys, Res, @6, A.L, Cin press), Sedinentary aodels for extensional Lilt block/half tion of paleoneas flux from fatiation vith offset, The Lead: an fees perl peer eae eater rece rere oe& ue wok a evéeli, N.S. & Pogguagtiolss, 1577, Stratigraphic aodelting and interpretation = Geopnysieal principles ang techniques, In Payton (Ed), 209-416, See eecas cin Conniasien on Stratigraghic Nonenclature, 1983, North American sbratigrapntc code, AP 67, 841-875, Muar, JuAl, Sleep, Mid 4 Meote, VE, 1984, Theroal subsidence and generation of hysrocarsons in Hichigan Basin, AAPE 68, 236-315. Fe en Tel A\G,Psd,,& Tiesans, 5. Sone Fotliegend gas tielgs of the, « and & slacks, Natngrisnds atfshore (1968-1978) ~ a case history. Illing b Hebson (Eés), 269-208 Sey ey Lerche, [, 1984, The influence of sal! doaes on paleotenperature cistributions Geophysics 43, 2032-2089, Bee Vib, tged, Planeceave reflecticrn’ coefficients for gas sands a8 son-aormal angles of incidence, Geophysics 43, 1637-1648, Ghhurgh, E.R. Andrevs-Speed, £,P, 1981, Teaperature, theraal grasients and hent flew in the south North Sea, In Liling & Hobson (Eds), 141-151. Pian, ti, 1382, Patroleun in tasenent rocks, AAPS 66, 158771643 sane Bf Selater, 1.8, 1977, fn analysis of the variation of ocean {Toor bathyneiry and heat {lov with age. J. Geschys, Res, 82, 809-827 Payton, C.£, ved), S77, fetenie stratigraoty ~ applications to hydrecarben exploration, RAPS, Heaoir 25. : : Fervies, &,, uiblier, J. 1974, Thickoess changes in sedisentary layers during cospaction history; Methods for quantitative evaluation, ARP $8, 507-520, Peitiighn, FJ,, Potter, P,€, 4 Stievar, a. 1973, Sand and sandstone, Springer, Nev York, Pitiaan £.D, 1981, Effect of faull-related granulation on porosity and pernexbility of quartz andstones, Sinpson Sroup (Ordovician), Oklahoaa. AAPg 68, 2981-2087, Fiteley, via, 1500, Abnoraally high fluid pressure: Survey of sone baste principles. MPS 64, 4180, Povali, Tots, Creangy, $, & Snowdon, L.R, 1982, Linitations of use of organic petrographic techniques for identification of petroleua source rocks, APE 66, 420-425, Sree see. seotogical tine as a paranetar in organic netasorphise and vitrinite Faflectance as an absolute paleogeotherscneter, J, Pet, Geol. 6, $98. Ritscivich (Rev,) F.0, # Dav, 1.8, 1964. Use of seisaic stratigraphy for Minneluse taploration, northeastern Wyoning, Geophysics 43, 715-721 Beit A, 197d, Langfristigie reduktion der Machtigktit von Sedinentgesteinen une ihre fusvitkung - eine Ubersicht, Neues Jahrbuch Ald, 1-76, Fonte O78, & Sahagian, , 1986, Depthedependent stretching: A different approach. Geology 14, 32-38, Sadler, P.M; 1982, Is the present long enough to aeasure the past? Nature 302, 7-52, Sugiee, PH, 1381, Sediment accuaulation rates and Lhe conpleteness of the stratigraphic section, Geolocy 29, 569-584, SE NE ocd, 8.2. 1364, Use of aicroreststivity from dipneter to inprove evaluation of thin sands, Né Kalinantan, Indonesia J. Pat, Tech, 36, 1895-1544, Sugrer J.8, 4 Vidaier, JK, 1577, Seisnic interpretation of clastic depositional facies, 19 Payton (Ed), 165-124, Sete, A, k illschko, O.V, 1864, Sedinentological effects of 2 woving terrain. J. of Ge} 92, 773-287, Schincel, 9.2. 1982, The gaps in the fossil record, Nature 297, 2820284 Senlea, J.8. 8 Fritsch, J, 1962, Seisaic stratigraphy of glfshore New England, In Vatkins and Drate (Es). Sthatat, VA Aedonald, 0.8, 1982, Secondary reservoir porosity in the course of sandstone diagenesis, AAPG, Continuing Education Course Note series 12 Sinister, J.¥, 1973, Geteraination or organic content. of Appalachian Devonian, shales free foraaiien density logs, AAS 63, 1604-1537 Schecter, JW, 1901, Deteraination of organi fron gaanarray logs. AAPS 58, 1285-1238 Senter, J.¥. 1984, Eapirical relation tonal zorasity pred 2, 18 % Gasin complex Beorges 2 fatter content of Aepalachian Devonian shales and thertal aaturity: an 72,Scholle, “£.8, 1978, colour illustrated quice to constituents, textures, ceneats and porosities of sandstones and associated rocks, AAPG, Menoir 26. ppeghters 1-1, 1878, Mechanics of secondary hydrocarbon nigration aod entrapnent, A296 €3, 723-760, Sehovaiter, 1. 1902-1327 Sehunverger, 1581, AFT Essentiais of pressure vest invergreiation, Scnuneerger, Sclater,. 4.8. & Christie, P:A.F, 1980°Continental Stretching:-a4 explanation of the po Gretaccous subsidence of the central Nortn Sea Basin, J. Geochys, Res. #8 87, 3711 Sengbush, R.L. 1983, Seismic Exploration Methods, IHAOC, Easton: Sets Sid. & Jackson, M.P.8, 1983, Evolution of salt structures, East Texas eiapir province, Part I: sedisentary record of halotinesis, AAPG 67, 1218-1244 sitie Sod. & Jackson, 147.8, 1982. Evolution of salt structures, East Texas dizpir province, Part 2: patterns and rates of halokinesis, aAPS 67, i245-izve, erT4, 0. 1864, Funganentals of veltclog interpretation, 1, The acguidllion of legging dete Elsevi wens ‘i Serta, 0. 4 fobett, HT, 1980, The contribution of Legging dala’ to sedinentology and stratigraphy, SPE 9270. cae Sheriff, RE, 1973, Encyclopedic dictionary of exploration geophysics, Tulsa, Society of Expl Geophys, ons Hf ShTHtt, RE. 1878, Factors affecting seisnic anp!itddes: Geophysical Préspect 2; 125-198 Gheritt, R.E, 1377. Livitations on redolution of seisaic ‘reflections’ and geoiegie detail derivable free thes, In Payton, 3-14, Sheriff, RE, 1980, Seismic Stratignaphy.~oston, 1HR0C, 7 Sherift, R.E, 1960, Nonogras for Fresnel-zone calculations, Geophysics’ 46, 960-992, Sheriff, Ru€. 1382, Structural interpretation of seiseic cals, AAPE Contituing Educ, Series 29, Sherif, RoE, & Geldart, L.P, 1982. Exploration seisaciogy, Volune 1: History,” theory, # cate acquisilion, Canbridge University Press, Sheriff, RE. Geldart, LP, 1969, Exploration seisnology, Volume 2: Data-processing and interpretation, Casoriage University Press, Shinn, EA, 1977, Lisestone conpaction: an enigna, Geology §, 21-24, Seany Uh: 1889. Sealing and nonsealing fauits in Louisiana Gulf" Coast salt basin, MP6 0, 363-376, Staplin, FL. et al Course Ho, 7, 193187 flocknal, G.5., Beaunoot, ¢ 4 Boutilier, K, 1985, Geodynante acceis of convergent nargin fectonics: transition iro rifted sargin to overthrust belt and consequences for foceland-bacin developaent, AAPG 70, 181-190, Stone, 0,8, 1989, Seisnic profile: South Elk Basin, tn Baily (G4) Vol {It Syphte 1. 1963. Seonstry and ineeaties of fauli-bend folding. finer, J, of Science 269, 649 721 SusPe, J. 1988, Principies of structural geology, Prentice Hell, New Jersey. Sutuki, U, 1983, Igneous structures: volcanic sounc, In ally (Ed), Vol. 1 Tamer, ¥.T. & Sherift, R.£, 1977, fpplication of aaplituce, trequency, and other attributes to stratigraphic hydrocarton detersination, In Payton (E4) 301-326. Taylor, I-A, 1980, Pore space reduction in sandstones. ARPS, Bulletin 34, 701-716, EgPts IAG, 1883, Rater of sedinentation and stratigrachical cenpleleress, Mature 202, 685 4 hess, F.0, 1862, Interpretation of subsurface hycrocarbon shows, AAG dé, ), 1262, How to assess maturation and paleotesperature, S€PH Short Rssol 6.2. 1984. Recent advances in petroieve geochenisiry, asslied to hydrocarton exploration, AAPG 68, §4S-363, Ti SP & Welle, O.H, 1984, Petroleus formation and occurrence, Springer-Verlag, F. 1960. Mechanise of salt aigration in Northern Gereany, ARPS £4, 1819-1840, Grgeter, P.. Sessis, Fa, Cheney, P.¥., Qurand, 8, Nogaret, E., Chiarelli, A., Cudin, J.L, Feiriny (Jf. 1984, Geological and aochenical sodels in oil exploration; princigles and practical exansles, GPS Menoir 38, 53-77 PR, Rut, § Thompson 1 6 1977, Changes of sea level ¢fase fae sho Wari, PR., Todd, R.6, & Sangree, J,8,. 1577, Chronostratgrapnie: significance of seisnic reflections, In Payton (24), 93-116, : ‘an inte, JE. 1878. Geopistory analysis - application of ‘sicrovaleantology in exploration geology, RAPE 62, 201 Vaples, 0.U, 1980, Tixe.and teaperature in to petroleut exploration. AAPs 64, 916-926, wapses, Ge, 1822, Organic chenistey for exploration. geologists.. ZFROC, Vanles, 0.¥, 1962, Tine and teaperature in petroleun formation: acplication af Lepati te patroieun exploration; feply. AAPG 56. 182, Watkins, J.8. & OFake; C.t, Gis), 1982, Studies in continental. nar u Yatkins, 1.8,, Hontadert, L. & Weed Dickerson, P, (Eds) investigations of continental eargins, AAPE Resoit 29, aber, KJ, 1862. Influence of common sediaentary structures on fluid {low J. Pet, Teth, 6669872, - eke, 8, 1985, Unifora-sense noraal Earth Sci, 22, 108125, t i Watnicke, B, & Burchfiel, ,C, 1982, nodes of extensional tectonics, J, Si 15, - Unittaker, &. (Ed), “1995, “Atlas ‘of onshore sedinentary basins in England and ales: ‘Post Carboniferous tectonics, and stratigraphy, Blackie, élasgov, = : ittaker, Aus HolLiday, O,¥.. 8 Penn, T.£, 1985, Geophysical: logs in Srisish stratigraphy, Stal. Sect“ Loidon, “Special Report No, 18, : : Willlans, @ & Chapuan, T, 1983, Strains developed in-the hanging walls of thrusts due to theis slip/oropegetion rate: a dislocation aodel. J, Struct: Geol, §, $63°871, Wilkinson, 3.H.., Sudai, J.M, 8 Given, K, 1984, Coonent and reply on “episodic origin of foFaation boundaries in the Helderberg Group of Nev York Stat 4 Petroleus formation; Application of Lopatin's nethod "s asthod geology, “RAPS, Memoir 1973, Geolegitel and geophysical servoir aodels Siaple shear of the Continental Lithosphere. Can, J uct, S201» 4, 105= cumulation and egy 6, 72° 274