Arguments Robert Sutton 9/14/2006 I.

Introduction: In my Introduction to Logic course the first assignment requires that students locate the conclusion and the premises for arguments that contain a single conclusion and one or two premises. There are no other sentences in these passages. Despite the fact that there is a prerequisite of ENG 111, students struggle with this relatively simple assignment. I say relatively simple because students are often tasked to submit lengthy argumentative research papers that necessitate reading and evaluating large academic essays and books that contain much larger and complex arguments than those found in this initial logic assignment. When I ask students, How can you read and comprehend these larger essays that are, essentially, complex arguments and when you cannot identify the conclusion to an argument that contains at most three sentences? There overwhelming response is, We usually do not understand what we are reading. Since teaching logic I have drastically altered my assignments in most of my other courses to reflect the general lack of critical competencies that students possess when it comes to reading and writing argumentative essays, unless I am prepared to dedicate significance class time to assist students in the acquisition of those skills. What are some of the things I try to help students understand? II. Logic Logic is, "the science that evaluates arguments"(Hurley 1). The purpose of logic is to distinguish good arguments from bad when they are encountered in the speech or writings of others or when we create them to convince others to agree with us. An argument is a group of statements, or sentences, that are either true or false, one or more being premises. Premises "set forth the reasons or evidence" (2) to believe one of the others, the conclusion. The conclusion is the claim that the evidence is purported to prove or too support. There are good and bad arguments, ones where the premises support the conclusion and those that do not. Statements have a truth value, they are either true or false. Closely related to argument is the notion of inference. Inference is "the reasoning process expressed by an argument"(5). In logic analysis of the argument the first concern is with this reasoning process and it is after determining whether or not an arguer is using good reasoning is the truth or falsity of the premises and conclusion examined. In order to analyze arguments one must be able to distinguish between premises and conclusion, or one must understand the relationship that statements in an argument

have to each other. The presence of conclusion and premise indicator words is often helpful in this regard. Premise indicators are words such as since, for, because, seeing that, for the reason that, etc. (3). Conclusion indicators are, therefore, accordingly, thus, hence, for this reason, etc. (2) Most students, once they are asked to think about this, recognize that these words are the ones that they use in constructing their arguments. 1.2 If a passage purports to prove something, it is an argument (14). If it does not, it is not an argument. An argument must fulfill two conditions: (1) At least one statement is claimed to present evidence or reasons (premises) and (2) "a claim that the alleged evidence or reasons supports or implies something" (a conclusion) (14). The first is a factual claim that is either true or false. The later is an inferential claim that can be either implied or explicit. Some common non-arguments that might be mistaken by students for arguments: 1. Passage that lack an inferential claim; warnings, advice, statements of belief or opinion, loosely associated sentences, expository passages, and illustrations. 2. Explanations: Composed of an explanadum, which is the statement describing the event or phenomenon to be explained and the explanans, a statement that purports to explain. Explanations show why (shed light, not that something is the case (proving), as in the case of arguments. 3. Conditional statements: If (the antecedent) then (consequent). No claim of presenting evidence is being made. 1.3 Arguments are divided into two (2) groups, depending on the strength of the inferential claim or "how strongly the conclusion is claimed to follow from the premises" (31). A deductive argument is, "an argument in which the arguer claims that it is impossible for the conclusion to be false given that the premises are true (31). The conclusion is said to follow necessarily from the premises. An inductive argument is "an argument in which the arguer claims that is improbable that conclusion be false given that premises are true (31). Thus, the conclusion is claimed to probably be true. In deciding if an argument is inductive or deductive you must look at: (1) indicator words, (2) the actual strength of the inferential claim and (3) the form of the argument. I. Indicator Words (31-32) Inductive Arguments: Probably, plausible, likely, reasonably (and their opposites). Deductive Arguments: Necessarily, certainly, absolutely, or definitely.

II. Forms of Arguments (32) A. Deductive Argument based on mathematics, but not statistics (32). Argument from definition (33) Categorical syllogism (all, no, some)(33) Hypothetical syllogism (if...then)(33) Disjunctive syllogism (either...or)(33) B. Inductive Prediction (33) Argument from Analogy (34) Inductive Generalization (34) Argument from Authority (34) Causal Inference (35) 1.4 Arguments make two basic claims. The first is that evidence existence (factual claim). Statements are either true or false but not arguments. And the second claim is that the alleged evidence supports something. Again, from a logical point of view, the most important claim is the 2nd and will be tested before the first. It might seem counter-intuitive, but there is only an indirect relationship between "validity" and "truth." A deductive argument having true premises and a false conclusion is invalid and an inductive argument having the same is a weak inductive argument. Deductive Arguments are either valid or invalid, and sound or unsound. In a deductive argument the conclusion is said to follow necessarily from the premises if they are assumed true. When this is actually the case, the argument is valid and when it is not the case the argument is invalid. A sound deductive argument is a valid deductive argument with true premises. If either condition is not met, the argument is unsound. Inductive Arguments are either strong or weak, and cogent or uncogent. In an inductive argument the conclusion is said to probably follow from the premises if they are assumed true. When this is actually the case, the argument is strong and when it is not the case the argument is weak. A cogent inductive argument is a strong inductive argument with true premises. If either condition is not met, the argument is uncogent. When should students agree to the claim (conclusion) of an argument? Only when a deductive argument is valid and sound and only when an inductive argument is strong and cogent. If students want to disagree with the claim made by an arguer they must

show that the claim does not follow from the premises (that is an invalid deductive argument or a weak inductive one) or that the factual claims (premises) are false. If an argument cannot be defeated by disputing the strength of the inferential claim nor its factual claims, to disagree with it would be do so on irrational grounds (i.e. something other than appeals to reason). III. The Argumentative Essay i (Instructions for Students) I. What is an argument? (A summary of the above discussion for the purposes of writing an argumentative essay.) Where agreement or disagreement with a text is possible, it is possible to offer evidence or reasons in support of that agreement or disagreement. The presentation of such evidence or reasons constitutes an argument. An argumentative essay seeks to articulate grounds for agreement or disagreement with a text. The aim is not merely to make explicit an argument offered by the author of the text, but rather to discover a new argument either for or against the author's claim. In order to discover a new argument, you must have a clear sense of the nature of the controversy surrounding the claim. This means that (1) you must be able to imagine the claim as controversial; i.e., you must be able at least to imagine someone rationally disagreeing with it, and (2) you must understand clearly the question to which the claim is addressed and the issue that is at stake in any answer to that question. Accordingly, this clarification of the controversial nature of the claim constitutes the first step in the ideal structure and organization of an argumentative essay. This first step requires the definition of the question and issue at stake in the author's claim. The second step is the statement of the claim that is to be supported with evidence or reasons. If you are offering a new argument in support of the author's claim, then only a statement of that claim is required. If you are offering an argument that is contrary or contradictory to the author's claim, then you must state both the author's claim and the counter-claim that you are going to support. The third step of an argumentative essay is the presentation of the case in support of the claim or counter-claim asserted. This case consists of a reference to at least one (but preferably more than one) factual or logical consideration whose truth makes the claim more worthy of belief or acceptance. Note that the case you offer in support of any claim has as its goal the persuasion of an audience. This means that the statements you offer in support of the claim should not be themselves a matter of controversy for your intended audience; i.e., should be at least more like to be accepted by your audience than the claim you are supporting. Note further that the audience for specifically philosophical argumentation is usually defined for rhetorical purposes as the most universal and rational audience possible; i.e., as an audience prepared to be persuaded by reason alone, as opposed to an audience willing only to accept claims that serve their ethnic, economic, religious or personal interests.

The fourth and final step in the ideal organization of an argumentative essay is the summary. The summary of an argumentative essay should (1) state clearly the claim that has been established, (2) offer an estimate of the strength of the case that you have made for the claim (identifying any reservations or possible counter-examples that weaken that case), and (3) make explicit the consequences of the claim for the issue which is at stake in the question. ii. The Argumentative Essay Outline

Divide your argumentative essay into four parts: (1) the introduction, (2) the claim and counter-claim to be supported, (3) the case supporting the claim or counter-claim and (4) the summary. Obviously, the third part should be the longest section of your essay. Be sure to identify each part clearly and to include in each part the content specified below. Part I (Introduction): Identify the question to which the claim is addressed and state the issue at stake in any answer to that question. Part II (Claim and Counter-Claim): State the claim that you intend to support. If you are arguing against a claim made by the author, then state both the author's claim and the counter-claim that you intend to defend. Part III (The Case): Present your grounds; i.e., the factual or logical considerations you have discovered that support the claim you are advancing. Part IV (Summary): Restate the claim you have defended, indicating any reservations that might weaken your case and make explicit the consequences of your claim for the issue at stake in the question.

. Edited and used by permission of the author, Tom Bridges, http://www.civsoc.com/courses/tomwrit1.html#analytical, Writing Guidelines -1,000 Word Essays. Hurley, Patrick. A Concise Introduction to Logic, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 9th ed. 2006.

i. Edited and used by permission of the author, Tom Bridges, http://www.civsoc.com/courses/tomwrit1.html#analytical, Writing Guidelines -- 1,000 Word Essays.