Marketing Policy (Kebijakan Pemasaran)

Outline
Konsep Marketing Tujuan Kebijakan Pemasaran Instrumen Kebijakan Pemasaran Analisis Kebijakan dari Sistem Pemasaran Peasants and Marketing

Konsep Marketing
Marketing output pertanian memainkan peranan ganda: 1. Transmisi harga antara konsumen dan produsen 2. Transmisi komoditas fisik dari titik produksi (petani) ke titik pembelian (konsumen) Dari segi perpindahan komoditas fisik dari produsen ke konsumen mencakup 3 dimensi: time (waktu), space (tempat) dan form (bentuk)

a. Time Konsumen dapat membeli komoditas pada saat/waktu yg berbeda dg saat petani memanen dan menjualnya. Mencakup segala aspek penyimpanan (storage) antar musim maupun lintas tahun. Penyimpanan memiliki biaya dan risiko. b. Space Konsumen dapat membeli pada tempat yang berbeda dg tempat penjualan oleh petani. Mencakup segala aspek transportasi komoditas dari lokasi penjualan ke lokasi pembelian oleh konsumen akhir. c. Form Konsumen dapat membeli komoditas dalam bentuk yang berbeda dengan yg dijual oleh petani. Mencakup segala perubahan fisik yang terjadi pada komoditas dari produsen ke konsumen. Tidak hanya processing/pengolahan, tapi juga cleaning, sorting, labeling, packaging dll.
Perbedaan harga yang dibayar konsumen dan yang diterima petani = marketing margin. Marketing margin mencakup: seasonal, spatial dan form margin.

Marketing systems: vertical commodity systems or marketing channels dimana komoditas disalurkan melalui tahap2 tertentu. Marketing system umumnya melalui tahap2: a. Primary procurement (assembly), komoditas dibeli dari petani dan dikumpulkan di tingkat desa atau wilayah. b. Processing c. Wholesale, komoditas dijual dalm jumlah besar di pasar induk (wholesale markets) d. Retail, komoditas dijual langsung ke konsumen e. Untuk komoditas ekspor, tahap fob ekspor menggantikan tahap wholesale Supaya marketing channels berjalan secara efisien, perlu memperhatikan: structure-conduct-performance a. Structure: jumlah, ukuran, keragaman partisipan b. Conduct: reliability, timeliness, quality control, standarisasi c. Performance: kecepatan dan keakuratan penyesuaian harga melalui sistem pemasaran, stabilitas harga dan margin, efisiensi teknis dan alokatif pd setiap tahapan, dan keakuratan dan kesetaraan aliran informasi pada sistem.

Tujuan Kebijakan Pemasaran

Pandangan bahwa pedagang swasta dapat mengeksploitasi petani dan konsumen adalah alasan dari intervensi pemasaran (marketing interventions). Tujuan umum kebijakan pemerintah: a. To protect farmers or consumers from parasitic traders. b. To stabilize or increase farm-gate price. c. To reduce marketing margin. d. To improve quality and minimum standards. e. To increase food securuty

Instrumen Kebijakan Pemasaran

Beberapa bentuk intervensi: a. Monopoly parastatals: all government-owned institutions that represent some form of monopoly control over one or other stage of marketing system. b. Non-monopoly parastatals: a wide range of different institutions that provide one particular channel, but not the exclusive channel, through which crop sales by peasants are transferred to consumers. Co: buffer-stock authority c. Farmer cooperatives d. Trader licensing. Pemerintah mencoba mengontrol perdagangan swasta melalui lisensi perdagangan. e. Instruments to improve market conduct and performance. 1. provision of improved information to marketing system participants. 2. regulatory function of setting and enforcing quality standards, weights and measures, and hygiene regulations. 3. provision of marketing facilities: floor spaces in towns and villages for retail and wholesale markets, auction rooms, etc. f. Instruments to improve market structure. To increase the amount of competition in the marketing system by encouraging new private entrants at each level of the system.

Secara umum instrumen dapat dibagi 2: 1. The substitution of private trade by state marketing agencies. Monopoly marketing boards: Negara2 Sub-sahara Afrika Buffer-stock authority: Asia dan Asia Tenggara 2. The support of improvements in the functioning of private trade with only minimal state interventions.

Analisis Kebijakan dari Marketing Sistem

Analysis of price and margin data follows the space, time and form dimensions of marketing. Some typical types of analysis undertaken with price and margin data: a. Examination of seasonal price trends and margins, this corresponding to the time dimension of marketing. b. Examination of spatial price trends and margins, this corresponding to the space dimension of marketing. c. Examination of the overall marketing margin Many aspects of the functioning systems can be explored via the overall margin between the retail (or export) price and the farmgate price: 1. There is seasonal variation in this margin. 2. There is variation in the viability of different types of institution operating within the same marketing margin. 3. There is variation over time, and this can be very revailing.

5 topics in the policy analysis of crop marketing: a. Analyzing the impact on farm-gate and retail price level of changing the size of marketing margin. b. Examining the impact of an export tax on the retail price of an export commodity c. Measuring the degree of marketing integration, i.e. the efficiency of the marketing system in transmitting prices between consumers and producers in space and time d. Understanding what occurs to prices and margins when there are seasonal reversals of commodity flows between rural and urban areas e. Analyzing private versus public participation and costs of inter-seasonal storage when the state performs bufferstock authority.

a. Impact on prices of changing margin The gross marketing margin antara produsen dan konsumen dapat diubah oleh pemerintah dengan beberapa cara yang berbeda, diantaranya: 1. To impose, eliminate or vary the level of sales tax. 2. To reduce transport costs Marketing margin in terms of supply and demand 1. If the elasticity of demand is lower than the elasticity of supply, customers gain more than producers from a change in marketing margin. 2. If both elasticity are approximately the same they share the margin equally. 3. If the elasticity of demand is higher than the elasticity of supply, producers gain more than consumers from a change in marketing margin.

b. Impact on the retail price of an export tax Margin can be fixed, can vary with throughout due to economies of scale, can take the form of a percentage mark-up
Banana export tax in Central America 1974-77
Prices/Margins Before Tax After Tax
Intended result Fob price (US c/kg) Share of retail price (%) Retail price (US c/kg) 10.0 28.5 35.0 15.5 38.3 40.5 Actual result 15.5 28.5 54.0

c. Measuring market integration Market integration: transmission of price signals across geographical space and over time. Efficiency and competition: accurate, timely and available price information. Spatial arbitrage: the process by which prices tend to be equalized across space, allowing for transport cost differences. Integrated market: spatial arbitrage works well. Fragmented or segmented market: barriers to commodity movement or failure or information result in price differences being greater than transport costs, or in prices moving in different directions at the same moment in time. Conventional method of measuring market integration: to see whether or not prices in two or more locations move closely in line with each other or not correlation between price time series in pairs of markets. Kelemahan korelasi: pola sama, dipengaruhi oleh faktor ketiga, trend umum ekonomi. Metode lain: regresi analisis

d. Commodity flow reversals Seasonal rural and urban prices Impact of an urban ceiling price e. State versus market in interseasonal storage Storage margin and private marketing Impact of state policy on state costs

Peasants and Marketing

Production: peasants or farmers. Marketing: traders or middlemen Pandangan umum: traders mengekploitasi petani. Kenyataan: lebih beragam dan kompleks. Petani tidak sama dalam aktivitas dan skala usahanya. Ada petani miskin yg berdagang untuk menambah penghasilan RT. Ada petani kaya yg berdagang untuk menambah kekayaannya. Ada tradisi pria bekerja di sawah/ladang, wanita berjualan/dagang. Petani terikat dengan pedagang. Beberapa poin yg perlu diperhatikan mengenai peasants, markets dan marketing policy: 1. Peasants interact with marketing agents in multiplicity of ways 2. Whether peasants are exploited by middlemen is an empirical issue that cannot be determined by abstract deductive logic, and which is in practice very complicated to research. 3. If exploitation is proven to exist then it is not all clear that total replacement of private by state is the best long-run method. 4. The real key to whether peasants are disadvantaged by the way marketing system work is whether the individual produce has any range of effective choice concerning the buyer, timing, and location of commodity sale.

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