Young's modulus Young's modulus, also known as the tensile modulus or elastic modulus, is a measure of the stiffness of an elastic

material and is a quantity used to characterize materials. It is defined as the ratio of the stress along an axis over the strain along that axis in the range of stress in which Hooke's law holds.[1] In solid mechanics, the slope of the stress-strain curve at any point is called the tangent modulus. The tangent modulus of the initial, linear portion of a stress-strain curve is called Young's modulus. It can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stress-strain curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample of the material. In anisotropic materials, Young's modulus may have different values depending on the direction of the applied force with respect to the material's structure. Young's modulus is the most common elastic modulus, sometimes called the modulus of elasticity, but there are other elastic moduli measured, too, such as the bulk modulusand the shear modulus. It is named after Thomas Young, the 19th century British scientist. However, the concept was developed in 1727 by Leonhard Euler, and the first experiments that used the concept of Young's modulus in its current form were performed by the Italian scientist Giordano Riccati in 1782, predating Young's work by 25 years.[2] Young's modulus is the ratio of stress (which has units of pressure) to strain (which is dimensionless), and so Young's modulus has units of pressure. Its SI unit is therefore thepascal (Pa or N/m2 or m1kgs2). The practical units used are megapascals (MPa or N/mm2) or gigapascals (GPa or kN/mm2). In United States customary units, it is expressed as pounds (force) per square inch (psi). The abbreviation ksi refers to thousands of psi. Young's modulus is frequently denoted by E, and less commonly by Y. Usage The Young's modulus enables the calculation of the change in the dimension of a bar made of an isotropic elastic material under tensile or compressive loads. For instance, it predicts how much a material sample extends under tension or shortens under compression. Young's modulus is used in order to predict the deflection that will occur in a statically determinate beam when a load is applied at a point in between the beam's supports. Some calculations also require the use of other material properties, such as the shear modulus, density, or Poisson's ratio. Calculation[edit source | editbeta] Young's modulus, E, can be calculated by dividing the tensile stress by the tensile strain in the elastic (initial, linear) portion of the stress-strain curve:

where E is the Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity) F is the force exerted on an object under tension;

A0 is the original cross-sectional area through which the force is applied; L is the amount by which the length of the object changes; L0 is the original length of the object. Force exerted by stretched or compressed material[edit source | editbeta] The Young's modulus of a material can be used to calculate the force it exerts under specific strain.

where F is the force exerted by the material when compressed or stretched by L. Hooke's law can be derived from this formula, which describes the stiffness of an ideal spring:

where it comes in saturation and Shear modulus In materials science, shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, denoted by G, or sometimes S or , is defined as the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain:[1]

where = shear stress; is the force which acts is the area on which the force acts in engineering, is the transverse displacement is the initial length Shear modulus' derived SI unit is the pascal (Pa), although it is usually expressed in gigapascals (GPa) or in thousands of pounds per square inch (ksi). = shear strain. Elsewhere,

The shear modulus is always positive.

Explanation The shear modulus is one of several quantities for measuring the stiffness of materials. All of them arise in the generalized Hooke's law: Young's modulus describes the material's response to linear strain (like pulling on the ends of a wire or putting a weight on top of a column), the bulk modulus describes the material's response to uniform pressure (like the pressure at the bottom of the ocean or a deep swimming pool) the shear modulus describes the material's response to shear strain (like cutting it with dull scissors). The shear modulus is concerned with the deformation of a solid when it experiences a force parallel to one of its surfaces while its opposite face experiences an opposing force (such as friction). In the case of an object that's shaped like a rectangular prism, it will deform into aparallelepiped. Anisotropic materials such as wood, paper and also essentially all single crystals exhibit differing material response to stress or strain when tested in different directions. In this case one may need to use the full tensorexpression of the elastic constants, rather than a single scalar value. One possible definition of a fluid is material with zero shear modulus. The shear modulus of metals is usually observed to decrease with increasing temperature. At high pressures, the shear modulus also appears to increase with the applied pressure. Correlations between the melting temperature, vacancy formation energy, and the shear modulus have been observed in many metals.[9] Several models exist that attempt to predict the shear modulus of metals (and possibly that of alloys). Shear modulus models that have been used in plastic flow computations include: the MTS shear modulus model developed by[10] and used in conjunction with the Mechanical Threshold Stress (MTS) plastic flow stress model.[11][12] the Steinberg-Cochran-Guinan (SCG) shear modulus model developed by[13] and used in conjunction with the SteinbergCochran-Guinan-Lund (SCGL) flow stress model. the Nadal and LePoac (NP) shear modulus model[8] that uses Lindemann theory to determine the temperature dependence and the SCG model for pressure dependence of the shear modulus. Bulk modulus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Illustration of uniform compression The bulk modulus ( or ) of a substance measures the substance's resistance to uniform compression. It is defined as the ratio

of theinfinitesimal pressure increase to the resulting relative decrease of the volume. Its base unit is the pascal. Definition[edit source | editbeta] The bulk modulus can be formally defined by the equation

where

is pressure,

is volume, and

denotes the derivative of pressure with respect to volume. Equivalently

where is density and dP/d denotes the derivative of pressure with respect to density. The inverse of the bulk modulus gives a substance's compressibility. Other moduli describe the material's response (strain) to other kinds of stress: the shear modulus describes the response to shear, and Young's modulus describes the response to linear stress. For a fluid, only the bulk modulus is meaningful. For an anisotropic solid such as wood or paper, these three moduli do not contain enough information to describe its behaviour, and one must use the full generalized Hooke's law. Thermodynamic relation[edit source | editbeta] Strictly speaking, the bulk modulus is a thermodynamic quantity, and in order to specify a bulk modulus it is necessary to specify how the temperature varies during compression: constant-temperature (isothermal other variations are possible. Such distinctions are especially relevant for gases. For an ideal gas, the adiabatic bulk modulus is given by ), constant-entropy (adiabatic ), and

and the isothermal bulk modulus

is given by

where

 is the adiabatic index, sometimes called . P is the pressure. When the gas is not ideal, these equations give only an approximation of the bulk modulus. In a fluid, the bulk modulus K and the density determine the speed of sound c(pressure waves), according to the Newton-Laplace formula

In solids,

and

have very similar values. Solids can also sustain transverse waves: for these materials one additional elastic

modulus, for example the shear modulus, is needed to determine wave speeds. Measurement[edit source | editbeta] It is possible to measure the bulk modulus using powder diffraction under applied pressure. It is a property of a fluid which shows its ability to change its volume under its pressure.