Greece: Spartan society to the Battle of Leuctra 371 BC

1 THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING, NATURAL FEATURES AND RESOURCES OF ANCIENT SPARTA Geography and natural features Sparta was situated in the heart of Laconia (lacaedaemonia), in the Peloponnese. It was on one of the most fertile plains in Greece. Sparta consisted of five villages and a large area of rural land. East of Sparta lay the Parnon mountain range, North was the Arcadian mountain range. West of Eurotas River, between Mt. Parnon and Mt.Taygetus. The Spartans are referred to in historical texts by a number of names: Peloponnesians, Dorians, Lakonians, Lakedaemonians and Spartans. Sparta was situated in the fertile valley west of the Eurotas River on the Laconian plains between Mt Parnon and Mt Taygetus. To the west of Sparta was the Taygetus mountain range, to the east the Parnon mountain range and to the north the Arcadian mountain range. Mt. Taygetus provided fuel and seasonal game. These and other steep mountain ranges cut Sparta off from the rest of Greece and helped to make Sparta a more insular, closed, society. Rough mountains, also cut Sparta off from its eastern sea access, limiting sea trade. The Eurotas River was a main source of water and a channel of communication. The surrounding mountain ranges and Sparta control of the passes meant that she had a strong frontier and little need for an acropolis or city walls like other Poleis. Natural harbour at Gytheion. Mountainous landscape, therefore limited sea trade. Climate usually cold in winter, hot in summer. Rainfall light but adequate.

Resources Iron and lead. Barley and wheat, figs, olives, grapes for wine. Plains to graze sheep and goats which provided milk, cheese, wool, hair, skins, fat.

Pigs, hens, bees for honey, animals hunted for food and sport. Timber and stone from mountains. Shellfish and fish from Gytheion. According to Euripides, Laconia has much arable land but is not easy to cultivate, for it forms a hollow encircled by mountain, rugged and difficult for access by enemies.

Euripides said that Messenia is a land of fine fruit and watered by innumerable streams, abounding in pasturage for cattle and sheep, being neither wintry nor in turn made too hot by the chariots of the sun god.

Significant sites Dorian Sparta formed by amalgamation of four villages on Eurotas River. I8th century BC, king Teleclus absorbs fifth village (Amyclae) making Sparta a combined site with no walls (Pausanias). Spartas most impressive building, temple of Athena Chailkioikos, was built (Pausanius).

The Peloponnesian League: After the 2nd Messian war Sparta needed allies yet members had an obligation to Sparta but not the other way around as Sparta was the leading city state of Greece. The Peloponnesian league or the Lakedaemonians and their allies, as it was known in the ancient world, was a grouping of independent states formed in the 6th century BC. Each of the allied states had one vote, but Sparta was the leader of the league and held the command in war. Sparta had the right to summon the assembly of allies and to preside over it, and could refuse to call an assembly meeting if it disapproved of matters to be discussed. When war was agreed on, each state had to furnish soldiers. Decisions were made in the assembly by majority vote. The Peloponnesian league was an important stabilising factor in the ancient Greek world. It played a major part in defending Greece against Persia and finally dissolved in 366 BC. It was a foreign policy aimed to keep the Peloponnese quiet and peaceful. The Spartan borders kept helots isolated. Sparta protected Elis (Olympics) and Achaea (access)

2 SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND POLITICAL ORGANISATION

The issues of Lycurgus (The Great Rhetra) To the Spartans, LYCURGUS (meaning wolf-worker) was a god who gave them a way of life which was divinely inspired and divinely sanctioned. Spartan history was oral, not written, and the lawgiver was a god-like figure belonging to the long-ago. According to Plutarch and other ancient sources, the Spartan system was the work of a lawgiver named Lycurgus whom consulted the will of the gods. Little information about him some argue hes not real but combinations of actions of two people. It is also believed that he mightve been just a legend or a god. It seems unlikely that Lycurgus received the rhetra (the spoken directions on how Sparta was to be organised) from the Delphic oracle and imposed the rigid constitution on Spartan society. Rather, it appears the society evolved naturally. Changes were probably made to Spartan way of life after the conquest of Messenia when the rich farmland was redistributed. Lycurgus allegedly laid out the institutions that would provide eumonia an excellent order of thing (Xenaphon). The social transformation of Sparta during the seventh and sixth centuries BC highlight the paramount fear of the Spartans: their fear for survival, as growing isolation became a Spartan way of life and resulted in cultural decline. Lycurgus found that Spartans living at home was the cause of much sloth, so he established the public messes outside in the open. The amount of food he allowed them to eat was enough to prevent them from eating too much or too little. Another of his reforms was the abolition of compulsory drinking. He mingled the age groups in Sparta so the younger would learn from the experience of their elders. The transformed Spartan state was meant to produce a physically strong society with citizen-soldiers whom were constantly ready for war. Goal of Spartan life was to raise brave men in war. City-state changed from oligarchy to a new constitution, incorporating monarchy, democracy, and elements of oligarchy. This was called the Great Rhetra. The Great Rhetra (Assisted by the two kings) = messes, redistribution of land into kleros therefore all equals as homoioi, outlaw of coinage, education of women.

W.G. Forrest argues reform was really the definition of preexisting aspects, and set down rules for the first time in Spartas history.

The man who established the laws under which they (Spartans) flourished; I consider him a remarkably wise man. Xenophon

Lykourgos changed all the laws and made sure that these should not be transgressed. After this Lykourgos established military organization, the divisions, companies of thirty and messes as well as the Ephors and elders. By these changes they became a well ordered state. (Herodotus)

Plutarch details how Lycurgus got rid of coinage employed iron bars. According to the Lykourgan code, Spartan women were forbidden from adorning themselves in jewels and perfume, etc. consequently, it was impossible to buy any shoddy foreign goods, end no cargo of merchandise would enter the harbours, no teacher of rhetoric trod of Laconian soil, no begging seer, no pimp, no maker of gold and sliver ornaments because there was no coined money. Thus gradually cut off from the things that animate and feed it, luxury atrophied of its own accord.

I know not whether to declare you human or divine - Yet I incline to believe, Lycurgus, that you are a god, (Herodotus)

Of the lawgiver Lycurgusnothing can be said that is not controversial. (Plutarch) Modern historians.... the very existence of Lycurgus is open to doubtwe cannot definitely affirm his existence; but we equally cannot deny itthe balance of probability is on the side of Lycurgus having actually lived and done his work for the benefit of Sparta. (H. Michell)

-W G Forrest believes that many of the above features were already part of Spartan life before the apparent Lycurgus reforms Lycurgus took what he found and partly by accident, partly by design, made a system of it. The greatest thing he achieved was to define what already existed and lay down a set of rules for the first time in Spartas history

If there was a real Lycurgus, we know nothing of himhis name was one of the most successful frauds in history. (A. Andrews)

Roles and privileges of kings Roles: They were drawn from two royal families, the Agiads and the Eurypontids. If there was no surviving son, rule would be passed onto the next eligible male regent. Kings were kings for life unless they were exiled or deposed.

The kings were the supreme commanders of the army and possessed the right to declare Sparta at war at any time. The common practice was for one king to accompany the army to combat, with the other remaining in Sparta to maintain domestic control, law and order.

The kings also acted as the chief priests and were responsible for making offerings and sacrifices to the gods.

In addition they held judicial superiority within the constitution, such as presiding over the adoption of children, approving marriages and making decisions concerning public infrastructure such as roads and water supply.

Kings were kept under supervision of the ephors all rise from their seats for the king, but ephors do not have to rise. (Xenophon) monthly oath taken between kings and ephors where the kings office was guaranteed as long as he acted constitutionally

Kings could be deposed by the people 2 ephors accompanied/supervised the king during campaigns, but couldnt interfere with his actions king could be recalled and severely punished for bad leadership/failure or questioned on his battle actions by the ephorate.

Accompanied by a bodyguard of 100 men (great honour to be one. Made sacrifices before and during a campaign looked at gods omens for advice on whether to battle or not

Expected to frequently offer sacrifices for the success of their city, and the safeguard of their army

Accountable for the preservation of the gods happiness, and if disaster struck, the kings were held responsible.

Appointed two pithioi to consult the Oracle at Delphi responsible for the safe keeping of all oracles

Privileges: The kings were supported at the expense of the state. They were given the skins of all sacrificed animals. They received part of the spoils of war. At the Syssition they were served their meals first, and were given double portions. At religious festivals they were given seats of honour and when they entered the assembly all those present except the ephors rose to their feet.

On their death special ceremonies were observed. A man and woman from each household had to wear a sign of mourning. People from all over Laconia attended the funeral, declaring that the late king was the best they had ever had, and no public meeting or elections were held during the ten day official mourning period.

Could declare war on whomever they pleased. Some believe that there were two kings as a compromise between two powerful families or between the basileis of two or more villages when they united to form the city of Sparta.

Neither king could take a course of action without the consent of the other. The heir of the Spartan king was exempt from the agoge. Every 9 years, the ephors took the omens to see if the gods still favoured the king. They consulted the stars.

The kings decided on the marriages of orphaned heiresses, and had control of all matters concerning the adoption of children.

Had authority over roads and highways.

Evidence: On the first and seventh days they sacrificed a full grown animal in the temple of Apollo. (Aristotle, Athenian constitution). A hundred chosen men shall guard them in their campaigns. They may use as many sheep or goats as they want for their sacrifice at the beginning of their sacrifice (Herodotus 6.56 7). Succession eldest son born within confines of fathers reign is heir. Hdt. 7.1 Aristotle supreme commanders of the army. Herodotus gives us an account of the roles and privileges of the two kings: The power of declaring war on whom they please, no Spartan may attempt to oppose their decision under pain of outlawry. On service, the kings go first and return last; they have a bodyguard of a hundred men, and they are allowed for their own use as many cattle as they wish. To them personally are allotted the skins and chines of all animals offered for sacrifice. In peacetime their privileges are: at all public celebrations they are the first to sit down at dinner which follows the sacrifice; they e served first, each getting twice as much of every dish as everybody else. Theirs is the right to make the first ceremonial libation, and to them belong the hides of all animals offered in sacrifice. On

the first and seventh days of each month each king is given a full-grown animal to offer in sacrifice to the temple of Apollo, also a bushel of barley meal and a Lakonian quart of wine. At all public games seats of honour are reserved for them. It is their duty to select and appoint the officials who see to the entertainment of foreign visitors, and each of them nominates two Pythians officials, that is, whose duty it is to visit Delphi when occasion arises, and who take their meals with the kings at the public expense They are responsible for the safe keeping of all oracles and certain definite legal matters are left to their sole decision. These are as follows: first, if a girl inherits her fathers estate and has not been betrothed by him to anybody, the kings decide who has the right to marry her; secondly, all matters connected with the public roads are in their hands; and thirdly, anyone who wishes to adopt a child must do it in the kings presence. They sit with the twenty eight elders in the Council chamber, and in the event of their absence from a meeting, those of the elders who are nearest of kin to them take over their privilege and cast two votes, in addition to their own.

Government: ephorate, gerousia, ekklesia: Ephors: The ephors were a board of five ephors, one from each oba or territorial region. As such they represented the people. One of them gave his name to the year (the eponymous ephor). Ephors could only hold office once in a lifetime, were elected by the assembly by acclamation. Did not become powerful until the 7th century, when their power increased until they became more powerful than the kings. Any Spartan peer over thirty could stand for the office of ephor. They were elected by the assembly annually, and each month they exchanged oaths with the kings. They took office at the full moon after the autumnal equinox. The Ephors:

1) Were the chief magistrates and administrative officials in Sparta. 2) Advised the kings and kept a check on royal powers. 3) Were responsible for deciding what units would be mobilised in times of war. 4) Called meetings of the Gerousia and Apella (Assembly). 5) Were responsible for receiving foreign ambassadors. According to Xenophon, before foreign representatives could enter Sparta they had to halt at the border and wait for permission from

the ephors. Once in Sparta, envoys made their proposals or demands to the ephors, who then decided if they should go before the assembly. 6) Had total control over the training and discipline of the young. 7) Controlled other Spartiates. 8) Were responsible for most civil and criminal cases. 9) Met daily and ate together. 10) Could arrest and imprison a king. 11) Could banish foreigners from the state. 12) They could be called to account for their actions. 13) Present proposed laws/policies to ecclesia, But mainly concerned with implementation of laws. 14) Can put to death as many Perioicoi as they wish( Isocrates ). 15) Could suppress the helots 16) 1 year terms with a space of 5-10 years before re-election is possible. 17) Greatest power lies in discretion to act beyond the law if deemed necessary. 18) In charge of the agoge and Krypteia-> maintained Spartan discipline. 19) Controlled other Spartan magistrates deterred corruption. 20) Were responsible for deciding which units would be mobilised in times of war. 21) Were responsible for examining babies if they were fit for warrior society, if not, exposed on slopes of Taygetus. 22) Ephors could be outvoted by their fellow ephors. 23) There are two famous ephors; Chilon and Sthenelaides 24) Criminal judgment

Evidence: Described by Plutarch as five annually elected magistrates in Sparta who carried out the important administrative and religious tasks of the state. Xenophon stated they had powers in the style of a tyrant. Modern historians say their power was both aristocratic and democratic. If ever they detect any irregular behaviours on anyones part, they at once punish it on the spot. Ephors served to reinforce the constitution rather than weaken it. (Plutarch) The Ephorate has supreme authority in the most important matters, the office is extremely powerful and equal to that of a tyrant, they also have supreme jurisdiction in cases of

importance. They have the decision of great causes, although they are quite ordinary men. (Aristotle) Aristotle the office is extremely powerful even the kings have to curry flavour with them. The Ephors, whose power made to resemble that of magistrates elected by lot: (Plato) Immediately upon taking office the Ephors would declare war on the helots so that they could be killed without pollution (Plutarch) According to xenaphon, On the beginning of their term in office, ephors decreed that all citizens must shave their top lips and obey the law. they alone sat in the presence of the king and on occasion could call them into account. (Kelley)

Gerousia: The council of elders, of Gerousia, consisted of 28 members + the two kings. Membership of the Gerousia was seen as the highest honour. Membership was restricted to Spartans over 60 who were therefore no longer liable for military service. Once chosen for the Gerousia, a man held his office for life. Selection was by acclamation (shouting and clapping).

The Gerousia:

1) Prepared and deliberated on bills to be presented to the assembly for voting. 2) The gerontes (members of the gerousia), kings and ephors acted as a court of justice for criminal cases. 3) Tried cases of murder and treason, and imposed penalties ranging from death to banishment and fines. 4) Exerted great political influence. 5) Exercise right to set aside crooked choices of the ecclesia if necessary P.L.6.

Evidence: Plutarch said that they had to be the best and most deserving men past 60 years old. Plutarch tells of how a new member was elected: whenever an elder died his place should be taken by the man over sixty years whose merits were regarded as most outstanding it

was by shouting that they decided between the competitors whoever was met with the most shouting, and the loudest, was the man declared elected. Aristotle a Greek writer believed the Gerousia to be corrupt Those who have had their share in this office have manifestly been guilty of taking bribes and have been corrupt enough to give away a lot of public property. The power of your twenty eight elders equal to that of the kings in the most important matters. (Plato) most important functionto prepare the agenda for the Apella. (Jeffery Lumb Sweeping authority in the state with control over death and loss of citizen rights, and the most important matters generally. P.L.26

Assembly (ecclesia, or paella): All Spartiates over thirty were eligible to sit in the assembly. Those who had lost their citizenship rights could not attend. The Apella was an important feature of Spartan life as it separated the Equals, the full Spartan citizens, from everyone else and involved them in government. Requirements: education on agoge, age (30) and subsequent required marriage and participation in army.

The Assembly: 1) Met once a month when there was a full moon, in the open air under the chairmanship of an Ephor. 2) The assembly could not discuss or amend proposals, but simply vote for or against them. 3) Questions of war and peace, the signing of treaties, the appointment of generals, the election of the Gerousia and Ephors, issues of disputed succession to the throne, and the freeing of helots were the main functions of the assembly. 4) If the ephors disapproved of a motion passed by the assembly they could refuse to proclaim it, thereby causing it to lapse. 5) Elected the ephors/Gerousia and other magistrates. 6) Voted by acclamation; only yes/no vote, could not propose laws. Passed or rejected Gerousia laws, although Gerousia could overrule Ekklesia if they spoke with a crooked tongue. 7) Not allowed to debate.

Evidence Lycurgus made the privileges of citizenship equally available to all who observed what was enjoyed by the laws. Xenophon those demoted are excluded.

Respect and balance: Spartan government worked within terms of respect and balance. The people showed respect for the kings, Gerousia and Ephors. The kings had to respect each other, the gods, the Ephors as representatives of the people and the Gerontes. The Gerontes had to respect the kings and the Ephors. Only when this respect broke down, by someone acting too much as an individual and refusing to keep within bounds of his place did the Spartan system crumble.

Social structure: Spartiates, Perioikoi, inferiors, helots:

Social structure: Spartans were not permitted to travel abroad and foreigners were not allowed into Sparta. This was to prevent citizens being corrupted by foreign ideas and morality. By the 5th century there were 3 distinct social classes in Sparta: 1) Spartiates (homoioi: equals, peers) 2) Perioikoi (dwellers around) 3) Helots (meaning people, captured. from the marshes) serfs owned by the Spartan state.

Spartiates: This group formed the elite in Spartan society. They were a privileged social class, holding all political power. All equal under the law and all subjected to the same training and discipline. There were rich and poor Spartiates, but there is some controversy over the existence of a nobility. Lived by a high code of honour that involved courage, loyalty, endurance and obedience.

The state supported them by giving them an allotment of public land (Kleros) and of helots. Each had had an equal vote in the assembly.

A Spartiate could gain an allotment either through a grant from the government or by receiving inheritance from his father.

Full-time soldiers owing total obedience to the state (Population unlikely to have surpassed 10 000).

Every stage of development was dictated by the state. Weak babies were left exposed, to die. At the age of seven, boys were taken from their mothers to live in barracks and were subjected to an extremely harsh regime.

Forbidden to engage in farming, trade and industry. These were done by helots and perioikoi.

Citizens had to be born of two Spartiate parents. Unless they were of the royal houses, all males had to pass all stages of the agoge and pay their contributions to the mess clubs or they would lose their status of full citizen.

After marriage the Spartiate was expected to live in barracks and until he was thirty years old, they could visit their wives only by stealth. Military service was required until the age of sixty.Did not live with their wives until the age of 30 (completion of agoge)

Preferred death in battle to defeat and were punished with loss of citizenship for cowardice Aristotle says that the Spartan government gave exemptions from military service and taxation for those who produced 3 or 4 sons.

They had to contribute food from their estate to the communal mess called sysstia. They were supposedly equal (Lykurgus), however, controversy because there did appear to be upper classes, and were rich and poor Spartiates.

The main criteria for belonging to the citizen class of the Spartiates were: 1) Ownership of a plot of public land (kleros) 2) Birth a full Spartan peer with all the rights of citizenship had to be able to show proof of descent from original Dorian conquerors. 3) Membership in a military mess and the sharing of common meals (Syssita). 4) Successful completion of education and military requirements (agoge). 5) Marriage (as required) at 30 years. ?????????

The individual did not matter in Sparta. What mattered was the group, the platoon, the city (Robin Barrow)

Spartan Men: A privileged social class of full time soldiers holding all political power. At age 30, as full citizens, could sit on the Apella and elect the gerousia and ephoroi. All equal under the law and subjected to the discipline and training of the state. Lived a life that stressed courage, loyalty, endurance and obedience. Appears there were great divisions between the rich and the poor due to the growth of privately owned estates. Were supported by the state, each having a Kleros (farm) with helots to work it.

Spartan Women: Did not spin or weave regarded these tasks as fit only for slaves. Trained to be fit companions, and mothers of warriors and heroes. Very wealthy as numbers of men declined in the 5th century two two-fifths of the land came into their hands. Grew up in physical freedom, but modest and careful of health. Known for their natural beauty, strength and grace forbidden to wear jewellery, cosmetics and perfume by Lykourgan law. Emancipated mingled freely with men and shared their sports, but were excluded from holding public office and did not have the right to vote. Women would often manage estates while men were away at war. Were regularly involved with the running of estates. Young Spartan girls remained at home, but still expected to be educated. Like boys, they were taught basics of reading/writing. Organised into bands, similar to the boys, for team games/choral singing. Expected to marry into own social class. Married in late teens. Marriage by capture thought to be practised in Sparta. When a young woman married, Spartan mothers made sacrifices to the goddess Aphrodite Hera. Archaeological toned muscularity of women and short tunic can be seen from the evidence of bronze statue of Spartan women created in 6th century BC.

Main garment worn by women was a short, revealing Peplos, fastened on the shoulders. Tunic was not sewn down the side, allowing women to move freely and exercise. As the women moved the garment revealed their thighs; called thigh-displayers (Thucydides)

At the Hykinthia women took park in riding on richly decorated carriages while others rode them for procession racing.

At festivals, Spartan women performed special religious dances, sometimes with men and sometimes separately.

Often criticised for unruly conduct and self indulgence. Women could inherit part of her familys estate however she did not own it and it was passed on to her offspring.

Evidence

Plutarch such intercourse was not only and exercise in self-control and moderation, but also meant that partners were fertile physically, always fresh for love, and ready for intercourse rather and being sated and pale for unrestricted sexual activity.

Xenophon might select some woman, the wife of some man, well born herself and blest with fair offspring, and the sanction and consent of her husband first obtained, raise up children for himself through her.

Euripides no Spartan girl could grow up modest, even if she wanted to they go out, with bare thighs and loose clothes, to wrestle and run races along with the young me.

They had no political power. Some believe that since Spartan men could borrow another mans wife that the woman would therefore control more than one household.

From Plutarchs Lycurgus, Lycurgus ordered the maidens to exercise themselves with wrestling, running, throwing the quoit, and casting the dart, to the end that the fruit they conceived might, in strong and healthy bodies, take firmer root and find better growth, andthat theymight be the more able to undergo the pains of child-bearing. And totake away theirtendernesshe ordered that the young women should go naked in the processions, as well as the young men, and dance, too, in that condition

Another woman handed her son his shield, and exhorted him: Son, either with this or on this.

As a woman was burying her son, a shabby old woman came up to her and said, You poor woman, what a misfortune! No, by the two goddesses, what a good fortune, she replied, because I bore him so that he might die for Sparta and that is what happened for me.

were sometimes lent to their husbands friends to conceive a child for them (helped maintain numbers of citizens) one might select some woman, the wife of some manand the sanction and consent of her husband first obtained, raise up children for himself through her. (Xenophon)

Trained to be fit companions and mothers of warriors and heroes. The purpose of girls education in Sparta was to produce healthy bodies so that they can undergo more childbearing (Lykurgus) (bibasis)

All of these exercises were thought to increase their chances of producing fit, healthy males who would become prime warriors in Sparta (Plutarch)

For Spartan woman child bearing was the most important function (Xenophon) Aristotle believed women contributed to the downfall of Sparta.

Perioikoi (dwellers around): They were members of the many (approx. 100) communities which were spread around Laconia and also Messene. Dorian in origin. Refers to the inhabitants of the communities scattered through Laconia/Messenia. Were autonomous, but answerable to Sparta. The perioikoi controlled their own communities but they had no voice in the government or foreign policy of Sparta. Villages were a buffer zone to prevent helots escaping. Owed allegiance to Sparta but were not permitted to marry Spartans. Chief contribution was economic they were the traders and craftsmen (traders, ship-building, weapon crafting, iron miners, fishing, craftsmen, artisans etc.) of Laconia because many Spartans thought such duties beneath them. Perioeci were also expected to manufacture weapons. They also engaged in fishing and shipbuilding the best sailors were in the navy. The Spartan kings revenue came from their estates in the lands of the perioikoi. All male perioikoi were expected to serve alongside Spartans during time of war. They did not undergo the same training system as the Spartiates, yet they were expected to provide hoplites for the army. In addition to their military service, the perioikoi were expected to procure metals and manufacture weapons. Perioikoi took part in some religious festivals, such as the Promacheia. They had their own community cults as well.

Spartan officials were responsible for supervising perioeci, and could put them to death without a trial.

The Perioikoi had considerable freedom and were important to the system Could participate in Olympic Games. Villages served as a buffer against escaping helots. Took part in religious festivals and expected to pay respects to a deceased king.

Inferiors: Partheniai: illegitimate offspring of helot mothers and Spartiate fathers. Neodamodes: Helots, who for some courage or service to the state were given freedom. Tresantes: Spartan peers cowards who lost citizenship not necessarily permanently. Mothoces: Sons of helots often adopted as playmates of Spartan boys shared training. Referred to people who had lost their citizenship for a variety of reasons; e.g. cowardice (cowards tresantes) in battle, committing criminal offences, not fulfilling obligations, or being kicked out of the agoge. Could not vote; had to sit alone at festivals; could not marry; had to wear special headdress; had to go unshaven. Were avoided by those of Spartan society. Parenthai were children of unmarried Spartan mothers/fathers, or child of one helot and one Spartiate. No one knows for sure who they were Wore special clothing and were unshaven Exercised alone, avoided by everyone Could not vote or attend the assembly -Found i hard to marry their sons or daughters

Inferiors were either Spartan citizens who had disgraced themselves and lost citizenship rights or courageous helots The different types of inferiors were; Illegitimate children of Spartiate fathers and helot mothers (Parthenai) Helots who had been freed for a courageous act or service to the state Helots who were playmates to Spartan children Spartiates who had disgraced themselves through acts of cowardice or not being able to provide their monthly sum to the Sysstion (Hypomeiones) The Inferiors had to sit alone at festivals, were unable to marry and had to go unshaven and wear special clothes in order to be easily recognised. He must give way to others in the street and rise even for younger men when seated (Plutarch)

HYPOMEIONES: - Hypomeiones the inferiors subclass of individuals resting between the spartiatae and periocio in the Lacedaemonian social pyramid. Tresantes those who tremble a spartiatae who had been deprived of citizen rights b/c of cowardice or misconduct on campaign. Excluded from teams, obliged to give seat to younger men, colleagues ashamed to be in same mess or wrestling partner, required to give way in streets, no wife, must not look cheerful otherwise beaten by his betters. When disgrace of this kind is imposedI am not surprised that death is preferred there to a life of such dishonor and ignominy. Xen.Lac.Pol.9 Excluded from holding office. Visually distinguished dirty, cloaks with coloured patches, shave mustaches (manhood). Plut. Agis.30. Example: Aristodemos messenger at Therm. (480) so is not killed with others tries to prove self at B.O.P with a desire to be killed before his comrades eyes. Hdt.9.71 Only Tresantes known by name committed suicide. So fixated with the concept of honour are the Spartans that harsh treatment of their own class is used to maintain a sense of superiority.

Minyae and Parthenae. Minyae exiles from Lemnos sought refuge in Sparta by claiming descent from Argonauts (Dioscuri accompany Jason in legend). Spartans attempt to integrate them given land and intermarriage rights. Herodotus writes they became complacent, claiming share in royal power incarceration with the intention of execution wives visit and swap clothes escape to Taygetus. Theras (Oikestes) negotiates to take them to Thera/Callista to prevent bloodshed some go to S.Elis. Parthenae children of the virgins colonized Taras under Oikestes Philanthus. During Messenian war, Messenian men coupled with maidens to produce more manpower generation of the Parthenae. Were not given civic rights b/c out of wedlock so virtually Helotized planned revolt Laconians find out and offer colony instead. Trophimos foreigners who had undergone training in the agoge, probably specifically sent to Sparta for this education. Mothakes foster brothers of the Lacedaemonians Phylarkos FGH 81. Freemen educated in the agoge but denied citizenship rights but Lysander was made a citizen fir courage in defeating Athenian navy. Xenophon mentions bastard sons (HG 5), possible that the Mothakes are children of spartiatae and women of lower classes. Claudius Aelianus (in Varia Historia) implies that Mothakes were adopted by homoioi youth as training companions, hence their inclusion in the agoge.

NEODAMOEDES: Neodamodeis the new men helots given freeman status and land after service to the state. Myron FGH 106 details four types: Aphetai released ones. Adespotoi ones without masters. Erycteres controllers could be helote overseers. Desposionautai master sailors serve in navy.

Note that nothing is known of the identity of such classes but for their names. Thucydides notes that helotes under Brasidas at B.O.M were freed. This suggests that service in a military capacity could eventuate in freedom.

Helots: Helots were the enslaved populations of Messenia and Laconia who were owned by the state of Sparta. They had their own communities and own religious rituals. Politically or legally Helots had no rights. The state could free or dispose of them. They could not however be bought or sold. Helots provided Spartans with the means to spend their days training form military life and hunting. The tasks of the helots were mainly agricultural and they were required to hand over half of their produce to their Spartiate masters. The remaining half was theirs to use. They were Bonded to kleros.

Helots were a constant threat to Spartan security. They were discontent and rebellious, and outnumbered the citizens 20:1.

A few helots were freed for service or bravery to the state, but had no civil rights. Lived on land owned by Spartan citizens. They could not move without government permission.

It was the helots duty to supply a fixed amount of produce to the masters. The helots often acted as servants to the Spartan soldiers, they also served as light armed infantry.

Messenian helots made to swear oath never to rebel. Often harshly treated and at time killed by the Cryptia (secret police), to keep them under control. State-sanctioned killing of helots to control vastly larger population and instil a mind-set of fear. (Aristotle) Probably carried out by the crypteia targeting the strong and potential revolt leaders. (Aristotle)

Plutarchs account on Sparta details the power of the Krypteia to murder and helot whom they court killing helots as part of their training for warfare.

Forced to drink unmixed wine as examples of drunkenness, made to perform vulgar and ludicrous dances, hence provided an example to Spartan children to not intoxicate themselves. (Aristotle)

Without the helots their way of life would have been impossible. (Barrow) Ancient sources state the Spartiates feared the helots, who had a huge numerical advantage. Modern estimate of helots: between 170,000-224,000. The houses of the helots were scattered to discourage revolt. According to sources, helots always carried a spear due to fear of a helot attack.

Plato: states the most vexed problem in Greece was the helot system. The helots were required in times of war to serve as soldiers and were usually sent in first, as they were expendable It is important to stress that these Helots were recruited and fought as helots. (Cartledge)

Accompanied Spartiates to war as aides or servants. On rare occasions helots could be rewarded with citizenship for deeds performed during military service.

Spartans declared war on the helots each year to justify keeping them in subjection, many were killed.

Had their own religious rites and own communities They were given an annual beating as a reminder of their status and were required to wear humiliating clothing.

Helots had the right of sanctuary, most notably at the Sanctuary of Poseidon on Cape Taenaron.

Restricted property/marriage rights. Houses-scattered-so they did not meet together and revolt. Some were freed for bravery in battle but had no rights politically (became inferiors), dangerous to show too much bravery (might overtake Spartans).

Owned by the state, therefore not owned by individuals thus could not be bought or sold.

Evidence: MYRON, FGRHIST 106 F1 2, IN CARTLEDGE; They assign to the helots every shameful task leading to disgrace. For they ordained that each one of them should wear a dog-skin capso that they would never forget they were slaves. They assign the helots every shameful task leading to disgrace. They receive a stipulated number of beatings every year regardless of any wrongdoing so that they would never forget they were slaves. (Myron)

Role of the Spartan army:

In 669 BC, at the battle of Hysiai, the Spartans were decisively defeated by their old enemies, the Argives. Perhaps in response to this humiliation the Spartans developed their militaristic state, thus changing their whole way of life.

The whole of Spartan society was aimed at producing a strong fighting force of great warriors who were willing to die for Sparta.

A hoplite was a heavily armed infantryman, named after the shield he carried the Hoplon. The hoplite also carried a long spear (dori) for thrusting (not throwing) and an iron sword (xiphos).

The success of the Spartan army depended on the classical hoplite phalanx (battle formation) a massed formation made up of ranks or lines (usually 8 to 12 deep) of heavily armed infantry soldiers. Advantage open spaces with lots of maneuverability Disadvantage cramped spaces where ranks become crowded, wears hoplites down, lack of mobility, useless against fortifications.

The formation advanced with shields interlocked and pushed together against a similarly armed opponent. Whoever could push hardest and most cohesively would break the opponents line. The Spartans were remarkably successful in this type of warfare.

Another tactic that exemplifies the Spartans exceptional discipline is the Feint tactic used at Thermopylae. The Spartans pretended to flee from the Persian shields only to turn at the right moment and inflict serious losses on the Persian army.

Most hoplites dropped their shields (due to its weight) if they fled from the battlefield. This was considered as a loss of honour and were under strict instructions from their mothers to Return with your shield or on it.

Army gave Spartiates a lifelong occupation; men ate together as part of syssition, trained together and acted with total obedience together. Resulted in a disciplined force loyal to each other/Sparta

Hoplites wore: a cloth tunic covered by a bronze breastplate, a helmet made of thin bronze, often decorated with a crest of horsehair it had no ear holes making the hoplite virtually deaf on the battlefield, bronze greaves for the protection of the lower leg (thus hand signals were used most of time).

Hdt So it is with the Spartansfighting together they are the best soldiers in the world. Later invite Perioicoi and hypomeiones in response to population decline.

-The Spartan armys role was the Protection of the state. They were Strong enough to crush any revolts from the helots thus maintain homoioi as ruling elite. -Never modified methods of fighting or tactics eventual defeat by Thebes at Leuctra. Attitude to warfare: Kalos Thanatos (the beautiful death) to die in battle cowardice is punished by lowering of social status to Tresantes (those who tremble).

Spartans refuse to build city walls b/c soldiers are its walls and protectors Only those who have legitimate sons can fight replaceable. Sacrifices offered and omens read before battle at Platea Pausanias with holds orders b/c omens unfavorable.

Exiled Spartan king Dematrus commented on strength of the Spartan army: never to retreat in battle, however great the odds, but always to stand firm, and conquer or die.

So it is with the Spartans; fighting singly, they are as good as any but fighting together they are the best soldiers in the world (Herodotus)

Whatever the master commands they do: and his command never varies: it is never to retreat in battle, however great the odds, but always stand firm, and to conquer or die (Herodotus)

long hair was common on Spartan men as it makes the handsome better looking and the ugly more frightening (Plutarch)

Training: From entry into agoge taught discipline, self-sufficiency, endurance Spear forward until arm is straight and spear parallel to ground at waist position for underarm thrust Advance with over-arm stance (reverse grip and spear above head) also defensive position when crouching behind shield Training to practice what to do if the Phalanx was broken Leuktra: conflict lost by the Spartans and was the beginning of their downfall. Thebans used a new technique of the slanting phalanx to overcome Spartan numbers, Theban cavalry disorientated Spartans ended up caught between retreating cavalry and Theban phalanx. Battles Hysiai 669BC, Thermopylae 480BC, Plataea 479BC, Leuktra 371BC (Spartans failed against the innovation of the Theban leader. Spartans never modified their way of fighting.)

Control of the helots: the military, Syssita, Cryptia:

The Spartans lived in constant fear of slave uprisings, and knowing that, they could not safely leave their homeland to fight a foreign war. Their campaign against the helots was constant and was considered necessary for survival.

Perhaps the fact that the helots status was somewhere between free and slave contributed to the confusion and brutality which characterised Spartan treatment of them.

Helots were often miserably treated. They could be terrorized into submission by the Cryptia, who were bands of young warriors who terrorized helots as part of their training for warfare.

Strong athletic helots, or those who showed qualities of leadership or arrogance, were the victims.

The Cryptia kept order, toughened its members, taught them to be effective and ruthless fighters.

It was the ephors who controlled the Cryptia and sent orders to attack the helots. According to Aristotle, the ephors, upon entering office used to declare war on the helots so they would be massacred without offending the gods, declaring them public enemies allowed them to be killed with impunity.

It is highly probable that the perioikoi contributed to keeping the helot population in subjection, especially in remote parts of Messene.
Made to swear an oath not to rebel.

Military full capacity never deployed on campaign safety measure against potential revolt. Fact that Homoioi are professional soldiers devoted to war discourages revolt b/c will be against best soldiers in Greece. Helots even served military as light infantry unlikely to take it on.

The Syssition (close network of men, sharing common experiences): An important part of being an equal was that each Spartiate had to make monthly contribution, from the produce of his Kleros, to the military mess. Failure to do this would result in loss of citizenship. According to ancient sources, each Syssitia usually consisted of about 15 Spartiates

These groups were mixed in ages so that the younger men might learn from their elders. Young Spartiates were not distributed equally throughout the Syssitia, and this meant that there were some messes that were more exclusive than others.

At the messes the men shared not only meals, but also political discussions and stories of citizens good deeds. In this way, the messes became another important avenue for training and developing the young men.

In order to gain membership to a Syssition there was a ballot. In the ballot each member of the mess dropped a pellet of bread into a pot, and if a single man squeezed his pellet flat, the candidate was rejected. Members of the mess ate all their meals communally, and each man had to provide, monthly, a fixed quota of barley, wine, cheese and figs.

The sysstia Encouraged helots to work hard on the land, which also discouraged dissent/rebellion.

The contributions of the two kings came from public revenue. The sysstia was compulsory until they reached the age of 60. They only excuse for non-attendance were sickness, absence on hunting expeditions and attendance at public sacrifices.

Crypteia a form of secret police state-sanctioned terrorization and brutalization of helots Target of strong potential revolt leaders. Possibly a rite of passage practice in killing. No.1 power fear random, secret, often at night constructs collective psychology rooted in terror, inferiority, and a resounding command to conformity. Plutarch young men sent to deal with helotes as part of agoge

Members of the Krypteia served for two years At night they murdered any helot whom they caught (Plutarch) Made their way through the fields, killing the helots who stood out for their physique and strength. (Plutarch)

Education system: Agoge:

At birth each child was inspected and if considered weak, it was left exposed to die. Mt Taygetus was the testing ground for the newborn where babies were left to die of exposure.

The agoge was designed to make the Spartans fierce warriors and instil in them patriotism, loyalty, obedience and comradeship.

Each stage of Spartan education took at least 6 years. If a Spartan youth did not progress through each stage of the training he was unable to claim full citizenship.

Advantage of the agoge: 1) produced obedient citizens; 2) produced good soldiers; 3) produced pride and patriotism; 4) renounced individuality.

Disadvantage of the agoge: 1) no freedom; 2) no free-thinkers; 3) no cultural diversity; 4) no imaginative solutions to problems.

Birth

10 days after birth, male children were examined by a council of elders to determine whether they would die of exposure on the slopes of Mt Taygetus.

06

The first 6 years of a boys life were spent at home, where discipline was imposed by the mother with the help of a nurse.

Age 7

At age 7 they left home to live in barracks with others of the same age from this time until they completed their education, they were under the control of a public guardian called a paidonomos. At no time were the boys without supervision, as any citizen had the right to discipline them if the guardian was absent.

From 6 12
Young Paides to ile/boua (herd)/agele:

They were gradually introduced to physical skills and hardships. By the age of 10 they were taking part in public competitions. spurred on to fight each other (with no shoes, shaven heads, light tunics) reveals character, boldness, and how far he was likely to stand his ground in combat. The aim was to develop physical strength/ teach them obedience/ Teach them to get along with each other.

From 12 18

They were ready to face intensive training as a type of cadet

Paidiskoi

soldier, and could be tried out in the army for non-combatant service. Both Plutarch and Xenophon described the discipline imposed on the boys. They were trained to go barefoot at all times in order to run faster, scale heights more easily and clamber down cliffs. The one garment issued to them served all year through, no matter what the weather. They exercised naked, did their own housekeeping in the barracks and plucked reeds by hand to make a bed. Small amounts of food were served, as this was intended to make them more able, if necessary, to go without it on a campaign. Stealing food to supplement their diet was acceptable at times, as long as they were not caught. If caught = lashes for proving a clumsy, unskilled thief.

age 19

In their nineteenth year, the Spartans entered the class of eirens. They were now combatants, but not yet front-line soldiers.

From 18 - 20

They were drilled in a huge school were captained by other youths who had passed their twentieth year but had not yet reached full manhood: this would be attained at thirty. Were able to marry at 20 but still lived full time in barracks.
(19-24)Participate (possibly) in crypteia ->Eirens and Melleirens:

From 24 30
Hebontes

Full time soldier.

Age 30
Homoioi

At the end of their 30th year, the Spartans became full citizens and had the right to participate in the assembly. Now lived with wives and families, but expected to dine every night in a public mess. Member of the Apella and could be an Ephor. Given helots and kleros. Possibly group from which hippies (knights for the king) are chosen.

From 30 60

Spartan citizen continued to be liable for military service. Still ate

Homoioi

at the sysstia.

60 years and over

gerontes (elders)

At the age of 60, they ate at home. Considered equals. Could be selected for gerousia

Lovers the mentor/student relationships of the agoge: Everyone regarded himself as a father, tutor, and commander of each boy. Responsible for reprimand and punishment boys reputation is responsibility of both. Story boy lets out a despicable cry in a fight magistrates fine lover. Primarily training purpose homosexual relations could develop.

Evidence: According to Plutarch; the aim of the Spartan education system was to produce obedience to authority, the ability to endure pain and hardship, and courage and victory in battle. According to Tyrtaeus; the only quality in a man worth admiring was courage. Xenophon tells us the paidonomos (government official) administered severe whippings to the disobedient. Spartans were educated not by Persuasion but by violence (Plato) Spartans were taught physical and military exercises as well as the basics of reading and writing. The boys learnt to read and write no more than was necessary (Plutarch). The Spartans did not engage in music, dancing or athletic competition until they were 10 years old. The Spartan was a professional soldier and nothing else, and his education was directed entirely to two ends- physical fitness and obedience to authority (Plutarch). A child does not belong to his parents but rather the property of the state (Lykurgus).

Education Girls: Lived as home. Exercised with the boys and participated in most sports; running, wrestling, javelin, discuss and ball games. Took part in choral (singing) and dancing competitions along with the boys. Bold attitudes, strength, and character of Spartan women was legendary.

Once married most of time spent separate from men, managing households and kleros. Can inherit land and some built large estates and were wealthy in their own right. Such freedoms only enjoyed by a small selection of Spartans (homoioi) and Perioicoi and helotes enables this with their own enslavement.

Girls aim of educating girls was so they could be fit and strong so they could produce healthy babies and undergo the pains of childbirth. They remained at home with their mothers and were taught the basics of reading and writing. Organized into bands for team games and choral singing and dancing.

Evidence: According to Plutarch; They aimed at producing healthy babies so that they could cope with child bearing better. Plutarch 14 Talk and think like Leonidas wife Gorgo a foreigners said you Laconian women are the only ones who can rule men, she replied, that is because we are the only ones who give birth to men .

Role and Status of Women: land ownership, inheritance, education Spartiate women played important roles in their society as the bearers of children, the mother of warriors, as heiresses and managers of estates. Spartan women were much more independent then their Athenian counterparts, for they exercised and mingled freely with their menfolk; they had more control over their financial situation and, because the men were frequently absent, they were involved in the running of estates. To the Spartiate or free women, child bearing was the most important function. The Spartan women were educated to be the proper mothers of warriors in a warrior state. Children in Sparta did not belong to their families, but were possessions of the state. The women of Sparta were expressly forbidden by the Lykourgan law code from wearing any make-up, jewellery, perfume or dyeing their clothes. Clothing (peplos) allowed the women to move freely and exercise. Spartan girls married when they were ripe that is, when they were physically mature (probably in their late teens). Spartans were expected to marry within their own social class.

Spartan women were expected to uphold Spartan ideals of sacrifice to the state and encourage bravery in their men. (Cowardice could result in loss of citizenship).

The women had babies extra-maritally, if required. Having been trained not to be weak, emotionally or physically, they were expected to gratefully deliver their sons, brothers, fathers and husbands to the state, and to death in battle.

The most famous cult in Sparta is that of goddess Artemis Orthia. This goddess was associated with childbirth, and large quantities of votive offerings have been found at the sanctuary.

When a young Spartan woman married, Spartan mothers made sacrifices to the goddess Aphrodite Hera.

At festivals, Spartan women performed special religious dances, sometimes with the men and sometimes separately.

Little is known of womens participation in burial customs and how women themselves were buried.

Inheritance
One idea is that sons of the family received most of the inheritance, but a daughter received a portion as well. This passed into her husbands family and eventually to her children. Thus, while a woman did not have complete control of her inheritance, there was the recognition that it was hers and that she contributed in no small way to the prosperity and status of her husband and sons Aristotle: many things were managed by their women and nearly two-fifths of the country is held by women. this is owing to the number of heiresses and to the large dowries which are customary End of classical period, women did not manage estates without male guardians.

Education
Young Spartan girls remained at home with their mothers, but they were expected to be educated. They were probably taught to read and write (from the age of 12), as there is some evidence that Spartan women were literate. They needed to be literate, if only to keep the household accounts. They underwent similar training to their male counterparts. Girls training was to ensure that they were; loyal to the state and able to produce healthy babies. Xenophon for free women, child bearing was the most important function.

Spartan girls were also educated in age groups by the state. Up to a certain age, the girls would train with the boys. Performed naked in front of men to boost bravery and force them to stay strong and thin.

From 7 they were assigned to sisterhood barracks where they were drilled in discus, running, wrestling, javelin and other ball games sometimes exercised with men to produce a rivalry which encouraged each sex to train harder.

They were probably taught poetry about customs and legends as well as dancing and singing.

They also learned domestic skills and weaving only to supervise this work not to carry it out. Xenophon Lycurgus prescribed physical training for the female sex, no less for the male; next, just as for men, he arranged competitions of racing and strength for women also, thinking that if both parents were strong their children would be more robust.

The first woman to win victory in the Olympic Games was Cynisca, a Spartan princess. She was born c. 440 BC, the daughter of the Sparta King Archidamus II. Women were not allowed to compete in the Olympic Games or even to attend them. They could, however, win victory as the owners of teams in the chariot races and that is what Cynisca did

at 18 women underwent skills and fitness test. If she passed she completed her education and would be assigned a husband and returned to her parents house for ten years (could only live with her husband after ten years of marriage). If she failed she would lose her rights as a citizen and would become a Periokioi ???????????????

Land ownership
Women could own land. When a Spartiate was killed at war, it is often suggested that his wife would inherit the land. Much of the management of an estate and the everyday household economy rested with Spartan women.

3 The economy: Land ownership, agriculture, kleroi, helots:

Land Ownership: The Spartiates owned most of the land in the Eurotas Valley and Messenia.

All land controlled by the Spartans was divided into allotments; each Spartiate held a portion of the land (kleros) and each had equal votes in the assembly all Spartans could be equal.

Spartan citizens were obliged to devote their whole life to the state and were not allowed by law to engage in public activities such as trade. Such activities were considered beneath the dignity of a Spartan.

A Spartan could gain an estate by being granted an allotment from the state or by receiving an inheritance from his father. An important consequence of this arrangement was that Spartiates had economic freedom.

Plutarch gives us the view that land in Sparta was shared out in equal portions to all male citizens and was controlled by the state for the good of the state. This does not reflect the situation suggested by earlier sources of a widening gap between the rich and the poor. Aristotle while some of the Spartan citizens have quite small properties, others have very large ones.

Ultimately, the Spartan economy was designed to ensure the hoplite classes of both Spartiates and Perioikoi were rich enough to maintain a high level of professional training and equipment.

Widening gap rich/poor caused social problems in 5th and 6th centuries. Number of Spartiates decreased quickly. Spartiates who lost their Kleros or were unable to contribute to the mess lost right as equals inferiors.

Land had a number of important purposes support the citizen and his family, provide contributions for the syssitia and support the helots who worked the land Each persons lot was sufficient to provide barley for a man andhis wife, along with proportionate amounts of fresh produce. (Plutarch).

Land usually changed ownership in four ways: gift, sale, inheritance or dowry. Hodkinson believes there must have been some form of money or equivalent as there was evidence of corruption.

According to Hodkinson there are two interpretations on how land was owned and maintained: - allotment could not be divided and was sent back to the Spartan state on the persons death a landowner was prohibited from selling the ancient portion and sale of other land was shameful. - The indivisible allotment could be passed on to the mans eldest son.

Agriculture: The Spartans had access to iron and leather, the two basic necessities for hoplite armour. Laconian wool and flax produced excellent material for clothing and textiles were highly prized in other Greek states, as were Laconian pottery and bronze work. Another natural resource which was highly prized in antiquity was the reddish-purple dye derived from the mollusc found in great numbers around Laconia. Laconia and especially Messene could produce large amounts of food. Sparta did not trade a huge amount, and only notable export was their elaborate pottery. Farming was the main form of work in their society.

Technology: Spartan hoplite uniforms were made from leather, assisting with weight and ease of movement. Iron was used for the construction of armour and weapons. Chariots were imported for leisure and entertainment. By the 7th century pottery became an important and valuable commodity for the Spartans. It was the basis of Spartas export products. Little evidence of Spartan technology. According to Fitzhardinge Sparta lacked gold, silver, copper and tin but had reserves of iron, lead and clay. Shellfish were used in making purple dye for military uniforms.

Kleroi Land controlled by Spartiates was divided into allotments; every Spartiate was given a kleros with helots to work on it. This ensured a degree of economic equality among the citizens of Sparta A Spartiate received his kleros at birth and when he died it reverted back to state (would have a public kleros). This state-owned land could not be divided/ sold; however, Spartiates could own additional land, which would be inherited by next of kin. Some believe that when a citizen died without leaving a male heir, his property was awarded to his closest male relative, who was then obliged to marry the daughter of the deceased. Another idea is that in Sparta, sons of the family received most of the inheritance, but a daughter received a portion as well. This passed into her husbands family and eventually to

her children. Thus, while a woman did not have complete control of her inheritance, there was the recognition that it was hers and that she contributed in no small way to the prosperity and status of her husband and sons. Since Spartan citizens were full time soldiers the state was obliged to provide economic support allowed military training and maintenance to be their main occupations. Not certain as to when the kleros was given to a Spartiate According to Plutarch, tribal leaders assigned the land after the child was proved to be well-built and sturdy. According to Cartledge it could only have been effected at a later stage, when a man had passed throughthe agoge and been elected to a common mess.

Helots Helots were important to the Spartan economy because they produced food (worked the land), providing wheat, wine and fruit. Were assigned to a Spartiate with the Kleros to undertake all the manual work e.g. maintenance of the land, growing and providing sufficient contribution for the syssitia.

Economic Exchange: use of iron bars, trade: The medium of exchange, useful only within Sparta, was iron bars. The absence of coinage excluded Sparta from wider Greek trade. Only because trade was considered beneath them. It was said that if anyone was caught with gold, that person would be punished as it was an act of dishonesty. Rather than worry about money making, a Spartans main concern should be to strengthen himself for war. Plutarch and Xenophon both state that Lycurgus banned the production of gold and silver coinage. Lycurgus supposedly introduced use of iron bars to replace coinage. The aim of this was to rid the acts of stealing, bribery, etc., due to the bulkiness of the iron bars. Today is generally agreed among scholars that the abolishment of coinage was a myth, as the Spartans had to pay mercenaries/embassies. Hodkinson believes there must have been some form of money or equivalent as there was evidence of corruption. Most of the profits from trade probably went to the Perioikoi towns. The helots did not suffer quite as miserably as they did when the Spartan economy had fallen into disarray.

Use of iron bars

Spartans were banned from using gold and silver. Nobody would steal it or accept it as a bribe the bars had been quenched when red-hot by pouring vinegar on it which left it brittle and unworkable so they couldnt even cut it up and use it for something else. Only the Spartans continued to use iron currency until the end of the 5th Century BC Sparta did not use silver coins until the 3rd Century BC. Spartiates used iron bars as a medium of exchange (as money) according to Legend who would set out to steal, or accept as a bribe, or rob, or plunder something which could not be hidden, excited no envy when possessed and could not be profitably chopped up. (Lycurgus) Examples have been found at Laconian sanctuaries. Square iron spits were excavated at Spartan sanctuaries Historians think that the banning of gold and silver coins is a myth. According to Cawkwell the Spartans used other Hellenic coinage. Spartans did not begin minting coinage until the C3BC.

Trade
Under the reforms associated with Lycurgus, trade gradually decreased and by the 5th Century BC luxury goods were rare. Trade declined by the 5th Century BC. Many believe this occurred because of the introduction of the agoge system. During the 6th and 7th Century BC the Spartan citizen probably traded and worked in industries. By the 5th Century BC, industry and trade was confined to non-Spartans since Lycurgus banned trade. During the 6th and 7th Century BC, Sparta imported ivory and copper. Sparta had trade links in the 6th and 7th Century BC with North Africa. Trading occurred at the Port of Gytheion 47km from and under Spartan military control. main industries of Sparta pottery, ivory carvings and bronze making. No evidence at present that suggests Spartans were interested in trade Gytheion would have seen trading of local and foreign goods, however not as an essential part of the overall economy e.g. wool, wine, oil, pottery and bronzes.

Handled abundant supplies of shellfish which provided the reddish-purple dye to stain military cloaks.

Port provided Sparta with some contact with North Africa and Crete. May have been a stop off point for trade ships and fisherman. Spartan economy was missing coinage As might be expected, legal disputes disappeared along with coinage. (Plutarch) did not develop commercial infrastructure which would have encouraged merchants and travellers to stay.

Low key approach to trade suited the purposes of the Spartans who aimed to minimise outside influences from entering their society.

Sources on trade Archaeology tells us that between the 8th Century BC and the 6th Century BC, there was production of fine goods aristocratic elite and export trade, colonisation and lively culture contact.

4 Religion, death and burial

Gods and Goddesses: Artemis Orthia, Poseidon, Apollo: Religion in Sparta brought the community together and linked the gods with everyday social and political life. Strict adherence to religious ritual caused them to be mocked by other Greek states e.g. Battle of Marathon The Spartans, though moved by the appeal, and willing to send help to Athens were unable to sent it promptly because they did not wish to break their lawthey said they could not take the field until the moon was full. (Herodotus) Religion was a way of bringing the community together and uniting the gods with everyday social and political life the fact that kings served as chief priests reinforces this amalgamation of religion and government. Historical evidence indicates that religion may have been more important to the Spartans than showing their military power (e.g. Thermopylae). Spartan religious practises included shrines, cults, sacrifices and hero-worship the purpose of such sacrifice was not merely to placate the gods wrath, but to invoke their assistance in the carious operations of mens daily life. (Robinson)

Gods and Goddesses:

The Spartans followed Hellenic religious traditions by worshipping the Olympian gods and goddesses. They believed that the gods were responsible for every aspect of their lives.

All gods and goddesses were revered by the Spartans. It was common practice for Spartans to make religious offerings to their deities as a symbol of their honour and respect.

Artemis Orthia: The virgin goddess of the wilderness, the hunting of wild animals, vegetation, moon, chastisity, fertility and childbirth, the protector of children and womens health. Famous sanctuary named Artemis Orthia, dating from 900 BC, was outside the city on the banks of the Eurotas River. here there were temples, altars and an area for spectators. Twin sister of Apollo. Shown in art holding animals Evidence of a limestone temple and altar built on the flood-sand show how important this location was to the Spartans they persisted with the site as a place of worship even after a natural disaster.

Poseidon: Brother of Zeus. Was patron of Sparta: was strong, powerful. Often depicted as a violent sea god who conjured destructive seas and is also believed to be responsible for earthquakes and the god of horses. Poseidon was relied upon by sailors for a safe voyage on the sea. There were several sanctuaries of Poseidon in Laconia. Helots were entitled to asylum at the sanctuary of Poseidon at Tainaron. They believed Poseidon sent the devastating earthquake of 464 BC to punish them for violating this sanctuary by dragging helots from Poseidons altar and murdering them.

Apollo: Son of Zeus. The god of music, prophecy, colonisation, medicine, archery, poetry, dance, intellectual inquiry and the carer of herds and flocks. He was also the god of light, known as Phoebus. Worshipped at sanctuary of Apollo at Amaclae.

All gods worshipped by Spartans appear to be war gods: all statues were armed with weapons of some kind; e.g. statue of Apollo uncovered in Spartan ruins was armed with a spear. Was not like this in the other city-states (e.g. Athens).

Myths and Legends: Lycurgus and the Dioscuri: The Dioscuri, otherwise known as the heavenly twins (twins of Zeus) Castor and Polydeuces, were the brothers of Helen of Troy from the Trojan legend. One was the son of Zeus and the other of Tyndareus. This therefore meant that only one of them could claim immortality. To save them both, they agreed to living a day about in turn. The Spartans believed that they took their place among the stars as the Gemini symbol. The Spartans believed that they would come to the aid of Sparta in times of threat and danger to the city-state. The Spartans believed that the Dioscuri were Spartas patrons and protectors. The Dioscuri were associated with all things important to Spartans e.g. horsemanship, althletics and warfare. Sons of Zeus- one was mortal the other was immortal and they had many adventures together. Finally Zeus agreed to let the boys share the immortality. So they spent alternate days at Mt. Olympus as gods

Sparta had hero shrines to figures such as Cadmus, the founder of Thebes. They honoured Heracles for being the ancestor of both the royal houses of Sparta.

Sanctuary of the Dioscuri. Statues of both brothers.

.. Lycurgus the lawgiver and chilon, an ephor of the middle of the 6th century, also received ritualistic worship. Modern scholars reject the idea of single lawgiver. D.H. Kelly: Lycurgan initiative represents a series of revolutionary changes to Spartan way of life. Spartas political and social institutions made Sparta and the Spartans what they were made fundamental changes to the lawa temple was built in his honour (Herodotus) no good evidence for Lycurgus as a real person.he was probably a primitive local god. (L F Fitzhardinge)

-Herodotus also suggests two ways how he came up with the Great Rhetra 1. The oracle at Delphi revealed it to him 2. Became regent to the King and implemented the new laws. (N.B writes 200 years after Lycurgus supposedly existed) -uncertain whether Lycurgus was one or two people, a god or a man Spartans worshipped his as a god I know not whether to declare you human or divine - Yet I incline to believe, Lycurgus, that you are a god, (Herodotus)

Legends also grew about how mothers treated their sons if they became cowards. Sparta dealt out terrible social shame to cowards who had disgraced the Spartan system. The death of 300 Spartans at Thermopylae in a suicidal stand against the Persians in 480 B.C contributed to the growth of the legend of Spartan toughness. Sparta was itself a land of legend with a Bronze Age past. It had to compete with states such as Argos and Thebes both in physical terms and also in gathering more heroes than either of those other states.

Festivals: Hyakinthia, Gymnopaedia, Karneia

The Spartan calendar had nine religious festivals to the gods. These festivals were extremely important to the citizens of Sparta and this is evident in the fact that celebration of religious festivals would take precedence over all other activities, even war.

The Hyakinthia

The Hyakinthos was the most important festival and was held in the ancient shrine of Amyclae about 5km from Sparta. The Hyakinthia was a three day festival celebrated in the summer months. The festival honoured the god Hyakinthos (son of Spartan king Amyclas) who died when he was accidentally struck by Apollos discus. The basic features include mourning for Hyakinthos and praise of Apollo. Choirs of boys, accompanied by lyres and flutes, sang the praises of the god. There were processions, dancers and chariot races;

sacrifices were held and feasts of meat, barley-cake, raw vegetables, broth, figs and nuts were consumed. An unusual feature of the Hyakinthia was that the elite Spartans entertained the helots. During the first stage of the festival there was a ban on the wearing of wreaths and the singing of the joyful hymn to Apollo. The people placed offerings to Hyakinthia at his tomb. There was a ban on eating bread and cakes. A special funeral meal was eaten. There was a day of ritual defilement and grief The second stage of the festival was marked by rites of rejoicing in honour of Apollo. Spartans were allowed to wear wreaths, sing the joyful hymn to Apollo, there was a sacrifice to Apollo, they ate a festive meal, there was a procession at Amyklai and there was a choral song and dance It was customary for Amyklaian Spartans to return to celebrate it when they were on military campaigns with other Spartans
Length over 10 days, with 3 days devoted to main rites. st 1 day mourning for Hycacinthus fast on plain food, abstain from singing and wearing garlands. nd 2 day procession led by paides playing lyre/pipes, youths riding gaily bedecked horses, girls in decorated wicker carts, chariots. rd 3 day sacrifices honored and woven tunic presented to Apollo.

The Gymnopaedia

The Gymnopaedia was celebrated in the month of July. Introduced in 668 BC to honour Apollo and Artemis and to commemorate Spartas defeat by Argos at Hysiai in 669 BC The festival consisted of a series of athletic competitions and musical events among boys and men. Dancing and running in tough conditions proved the strength of the Spartan citizens to the onlookers. The festival was part of the warrior code to initiate a young soldier to a life of physical excellence. It honoured the god Apollo as an expression of thanks and gratitude for military success. The Gymnopaedia was also a festival for demonstrations of prestige and seating of the festival was of great importance. Was associated with offering of thanks to Apollo for military success. Grand parade was held at end of festival. Thucydides tells us that Spartans could not go to war during the

Gymnopaedia. Men over thirty who were not married or without children were not allowed to attend further enforcing the idea of a warrior state. The Karneia The Karneia was a nine-day festival celebrated in the holy month of Karneios (August/September) and took its name from Apollo Karneios, the god of the herd or the ram god.
Length1 month

It was a harvest festival which celebrated the migration and colonisation of the Doric peoples. Features of the festival included processions, athletic games, sacrifices and offerings. A unique feature of the festival was when one young man would be chased by unmarried men through the city. If he was caught it was considered a good omen for the city. Ram sacrificed to Apollo. Warfare prohibited until the first full moon 490 BC Athens is under threat from Persia so calls on Spartans initially refuse b/c Carneia evidence against uber-militaristic image. Proceedings run by talthybiadae.

Religious role of the kings:

The most important priests in Sparta were the kings. They were both regarded as descendants of Heracles and therefore both of divine ancestry.

The kings were regarded as intermediaries between the gods and men, and held their office as long as the gods were pleased, and were responsible for making offerings and sacrifices regularly to communicate the wishes of the gods

If things went wrong, the king was to blame. Performed all public sacrifices. Appointed two pithioi to consult the Oracle at Delphi responsible for the safe keeping of all oracles.

Every ninth year the ephors looked in the skies for a sign of the gods approval or disapproval.

Sparta had an interest and awareness of oracles and omens. Official officers dealt with oracles from Delphi and state ministers kept records of signs from the gods.

If a Spartan king had a reasonable religious excuse, he could be forgiven for not winning a battle or even for not fighting one in the first place.

Before leaving on a campaign the king sacrificed to Zeus, and if the omens were favourable the army could proceed to the frontier, where more sacrifices were performed to Zeus and Athena.

Fire from these sacrifices was carried with them throughout the entire campaign. The gods were to be obeyed unquestioningly. They stood at the very top of the chain of command which all Spartans were taught to respect completely.

Spartans believed that the gods were on their side and would assist them in their ventures.

Funerary customs and rituals: Our understanding of funerary customs and rituals for the Spartiates is very limited due to no evidence surviving. Evidence only exists for the funerary services of the king. One major difference with all other Greek cities is that the dead were buried within the city area rather than outside it. Buried in graves; either pit graves or tile graves, but a warrior could be buried on the battlefield. Celebration and recognition in death was determined according to achievement. Marked graves were awarded to men who died on the battlefield and for women who died giving birth. A strict period of eleven days was set for mourning. The twelfth day was marked by sacrifice to Demeter and the end of grieving. If a king died in combat for Sparta, a statue would be constructed and form part of the funerary procession through the city streets, which was attended by all sections of Spartan society.Spartans and people from Laconia forced to attend funeral; crowd of Spartiates, perioeci and helots would strike their heads and wail, displaying a public outpouring of emotion for the deceased leader. Women would stroll through the city beating their cauldrons. All would declare that the king was the best they ever had. One man and one woman from each household dressed for mourning (under penalty of heavy fine if they dont). News of death was carried all over the country by riders. All political activity would cease for a period of 10 days.

Sources on burial According to Plutarch, Lycurgus made some laws to do with burial. He allowed the dead to be buried within the city and around the temples. He commanded them to put nothing into the ground with them except a few olive leaves and the scarlet cloth that they were wrapped in. Only men who died in war and women who died in child birth were allowed to have their names on the tomb stone Spartans held their kings as demi-gods, worthy of a heros funeral. (H.W Parker)

5 Cultural life

Art: sculpture, painted vases, bone and ivory carving: Art: Commerce brought Egyptian and Eastern influences and luxuries to Sparta. Sparta had its period of artistic achievement, including crafted luxuries, poetry, and vase painting of high standard. During the 7th and 6th centuries BC, Sparta also attracted singers, poets and artists from Greece to its festivals. The Laconian pottery which was popular in Sparta underwent a change in style in the late 7th century BC and was no longer made in the early 6th century BC. Artists also worked in bronze, ivory, wood and stone. In the 6th century BC, Spartan art declined. The decoration on many of the pots reflects Spartiate interests: hunting, horse riding, religious rituals, banqueting, as well natural images of birds and plants. Some pots reflect the preoccupation with military life. Famous pottery: period known as Laconian III. Depicted figures painted in black on yellow slip; was primarily interested in human subjects and in telling a story. Proved to be very popular; best-known example is the Arcesilas Cup. Laconian pottery (until 6th century) was exported to other centres in the Mediterranean, including southern Italy. Laconian bronze work has been found in southern France. Imported ivory and scarabs from Egypt, amber from northern Greece and gold from Lydia. Perioikoi were known by their skills in carving ivory and bone.

Ivory and Bone Carving:

subject small statues of crouching animals on a rectangular base may have had religious purposes Ivory of Artemis of the Beasts geese carried by neck and bird around shoulders, elaborate fringed garment.

Ivory of noblemen with komao. Ivory plaque from A.O depicts pentekonter galley woman and warriors aboard are greeted as they pull into port could be Helen first greeting Paris when he arrives in Laconia or Spartan return from Samos 525.

Ornamental hair combs Statuettes Broaches E.g. Judgement of Paris comb, ivory warship plaque from the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia Carvings Provides evidence of technical achievement in carving, importation of ivory from Syria and interest in seafaring

Bone pieces depicting Artemis as a woman and lion bloodthirsty mythology including whippings noted by Pausanias which took place in her temple.

Bone carving of 2 horses Mostly cattle bone Pins, seals, beads, hinges, handles, inlays At Artemis Orthia over 200 carvings possibly by immigrants from northern Syria

Pottery: Late 6th and early 5th centre for art and manufacture later pieces are more pedestrian Why? possibly b/c Athens was able to capitalize on extensive overseas trade and develop new techniques, costly wars (of P.League) Hunt Painter most prolific in Laconia Bear Hunt Cup interest in nature and daily life (birds, plants, fish) youth and adult (Hebontes and paides) Also Harvest Dancers Kylix shorter hair and caps = Perioicoi or Helotes Contradict claims of Xenophon and Plutarch who label Spartans as a people who rejected all forms of luxury and art in pursuit of military distinction.

Rider Painter Hercules and the Centaurs Psykter (pot used for cooling wine) Names of Perioicoi artisans are not recorded usually identified on stylistic grounds never certain Arcesilas Kylix by the Arcesilas Painter archaic style depicting King Arcesilas of Cyrene weighting his wool for export.

Assisting servants bearing bales of wool, a weaver, monitor lizard, wildlife (stork, baboons, birds).

Sculptures/statues Sculpture in stone and marble was mostly associated with religion. Lustral basins, dedications at shrines and temples of heroes and gods and goddesses. Little remains of sculpture in stone because for centuries the site of Sparta was used as a quarry. Marble Eilenthyia goddess of childbirth in labour attended by pipe-playing helpers many similar votives found at Artemis Orthia. Leonidas Marble marble imported from Paros many historians say it is Leonidas b/c cheekpiece shaped as rams head (iconography denting leadership over people) Corinthian style aulopis w. crest, tragic gaze. Reliefs Dokana Relief cross piece with floral design, posts with serpents carried before Basileusi, post 507 only one is carried on campaign b/c only one king. Worship Relief stele depicting serpent and two unclear deities enthroned near a crater possible Dioscuri or Helen/Menelaus. Dioscuri Stele Castor and Polydeuces hold spears on ether side of 3 funeral urns, egg of Leda above in entwined with serpents probably near important shrine for fraternal virtue.

Metalwork
The Serpent Column archaic 3 coils part of Delphic tripod after victory at Platea in 379 Vix Cratar bronze discovered in tomb of Celtic princess, France holds around 1200 liters requiring sophisticated metallurgical technology and skill. Running Girl of Dodona bronze step forward whilst lifting hem of dress thigh flashing probably in chorus Lead votive offerings from Artemis Orthia winged goddess and hoplite warriors with alopis probably offered by young men and women about to undergo rites of passage. Fifth Century Spartiatae Officer or King bronze transverse crest suggests rank (polemarchos, lochagos or Basileus) komao and tribonm

Lady of the Menelaion bronze votive offering possibly depicts wooden idol of Helen heavy features, fixed smile, simple/featureless hands, hidden feet, lack of clothing detail, stiff pose Daedalic style c. 700-800 BC Bull inscribed with Athanaias from Athena Chalkioikos votive offering Tin traded for to make bronze b/c Lacedaemon is metal poor Trade routes Phoenician and Hellenic shipping lanes travel up from Spain or overland via Messilia to central and northern Europe (Brittany and Cornwall) Earthquake and revolt of 464 wipes family skills out decline from this point onward th th Late 8 to 5 Perioicoi workshops to manufacture large and increasingly intricate bronze works development of sophisticated technology and metallurgy.

Kylix a decorated terracotta cup used for drinking wine in the syssitia. Kratar a large vase used to mix wine and water. Amphora a type of ceramic vase with two handles, a long neck most often used to transport and store various oils, foodstuffs, and grain.

Lead Figurines Archaeological evidence 100000 lead votive reliefs found at Orthia. Manufacture cast in lead moulds, possibly mass-produced by factory workshop near the temple due to the large numbers and rough workmanship. Subjects varied but included sphinxes, winged goddess Orthia, lions, horses and soldiers.

Bronze Making Famous for bronze figurines made by hammering thin bronze sheets over a mould detail engraved after initial shaping. Widely exported. Also manufactured were bronze water jars with 3 handles e.g. Vix bowl Others included commission items e.g. bronze vessel with lion attachment inscribed with name of the Spartiate, Eumanastus and dedicated to Hera.

Architecture: Amyklaion, Menelaion, the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia: The 6th century was a period of innovation and experiment in Greek architecture. Amyklaion: Very old centre of worship pre-poleis. Was a shrine dedicated to Apollo and Hyakinthos, located near Amyclae, on a slope of turf supported by wall of encircling limestone blocks.

Excavations of Spartan temples give an insight into architectural styles. The Amyklaion hosted the Hyakinthia each year and was the Spartan centre of religion.

It possessed a colossal statue of Apollo and both Doric and Ionic columns throughout. Reveals Spartas interest in the newly developing Ionic style and its willingness to innovate. Not a temple but throne to Apollo excavations reveal base of a throne and retaining wall Sparta spent many resources/expense on building the throne indicates piety which they held for Apollo.

Site of many votive offerings. Initially was probably just stone altar and idol of Apollo later has circular altar and pillar described by Pausanias decoration continued so structure resembled throne. Throne contained supposed tomb of Hyacinthos behind bronze door or mythological scenes, antique statue of armed Apollo.

The Menelaion or shrine to Helen and Menelaus: The Menelaion features a long monumental ramp and altar. South of Sparta, a small 20m high mound. We have fewer remains of this shrine but enough still exists to see that the Spartans chose this type of structure to suit their cult beliefs. Occupied pre-occupation of town near shrine are remains of pre-Dorian palace. Archaeological finds indicate dedicated to both H+M votive offering (jug to welenai and menelawo, small bronze Lady of the Menelaion possibly represents Helen (daedalic style). D. style heavy features, lack of clothing detail, hidden feet, featureless hands, fixed smile, stiff pose, simple casting tech From 700-800 BC. 2 layers bottom w. big blocks, top w. smaller ones. Building dates from 600-500, but hill used as shrine from 900, and site occupied since Achaeans. How the connection with H+M dev. is unclear some historians suggest Helen was an Achaean fertility goddess. Pausanias Lac. 3 couple is buried there. Hdt. 6.61 ugly child brought to Helens statue; woman appears and touches baby beautiful. Old Menelaion refers to scattered remains separate from existing one. Archaeological phases leading to its construction; Geometric period: Foundation of the sacred peribolus and altar. It was probably founded on an

area where worship was taken place during the mycenaean period. Archaic period (500 B. C.): Construction of the first monumental building, consisting of a small cella made of rectangular porous stones. Classical period: Construction of large crepidoma on which a cella was built. Peculiar structure in the shape of a pyramid.

The Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia The sanctuary of Artemis Orthia featured a massive altar and adjoining amphitheatre. The shrine was placed close to the Eurotas River, with a pace of about 14m between the temple and altar, where Spartan boys ran the gauntlet of whips to snatch cheeses and prove their physical toughness, women perform marriage and childbirth rites.
Shrine underwent four major developments. st 1 stage 1000 BC marked by burnt offerings and pottery. nd 2 stage 700 BC when small shrine and altar built. rd 3 stage destroyed by flooding Eurotas replaced by larger altar and temple ca.580 BC. th 4 stage rebuilt to accommodate theatre in Roman times. Probably dedicated to Artemis and Apollo

Archaeological evidence: Remains of successive altars found, dating to 9th century BC Significant artworks have been found at the temple of Artemis Orthia including pottery, bronzes, ivory carvings, inscriptions and thousands of lead female figures. Lead figures of hoplites and women as well as other votive offerings made of clay, bronze, gold, silver and ivory have been found at the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia In this sanctuary we find the temple arranged near an altar.

Athena Chalkioikos: Athena of the brazen house. Principal temple of the state ruins are sparse and foundations only detectable b/c of numerous votive offerings inscribed damoisios athanas from the people to Athena. Remains suggest games and trophies were dedicated to temple. No suggestions of splendor, however bronze plaques covering walls depicting mythological scenes (by poet Gitiades). Inside is Athena Poliouchos, bronze statue beside Zeus the Highest (so early it was made of sheets of bronze riveted together). Recent Chalkioikos proceeds from Poliouchos protector of the city this is shrines most important capacity. Athena goddess of wisdom (promotes eunomia, wise order) perhaps acted as an apt symbol for synoecism of obia into poleis.

Writing and literature: Alcman and Tyrtaeus:

During the 7th and 6th centuries BC, Sparta attracted singers, poets and artists from Greece to its festivals.

The poetry of Alcman and Tyrtaeus, however, describes a social revolution from leisured life to a suppressed one based on collective military discipline. About the time of the Second Messenian War, Spartan literature declined, cultural pursuits ended, and Spartas economy stagnated.

Tyrtaeus Mid 7th century. Writes propagandist martial (war-related) poetry advocating war and courage above all else (wrote elegies which are the main evidence for 7th century BC Spartan history). Spartan warriors sang his poems as battle marches. During Messenian wars 640 helot revolt before Alcman and Terpander. Supposedly inspired Spartans to victory in 2nd Messenian War. Valuable source for hoplite warfare b/c writes when hoplite warfare is becoming standard fighting method. Promotes Kalos Thanatos the beautiful death in battle defending fellows and state Each man shouldmake his heart a thing full of hate, and hold the black flying spirits of death as dear as he holds the flash of the sun. For no man ever proves himself a good man in war unless he can endure to face the blood and the slaughter, go close against the enemy and fight with his hands. His shining glory is never forgotten, his name is remembered, and he becomes an immortal [men who die in battle].

Tyrtaeus inspired Spartans to regain their lost ideals and military efficiency. He proposed the following: 1) Eunomia, or good order; 2) Citizen loyalty; 3) Training soldiers to fight without fear; 4) All Spartans to serve the state and demos (people of Sparta).

Alcman 7th century choral lyric poet. Keen observer/lover of nature. Wrote of legends/stories from Homer.

Works exist in fragments and are generally only known as extracts from other writers. Contradicts descriptions of Sparta as culturally austere and w. little use for beauty/arts. Works convey a love of nature, company, food, using striking imagery beauty-loving society. Attention to detail, light tone women, beauty, gods. Maiden songs (partheneia) choruses sung and danced by girls at festivals. Sosibius (Spartan historian) says his poems were also performed at the Gymnopaedia festivals. I wish I could be a seabird who with halcyons skims the surf flowers of the sea water with careless heart

Terpander: - Early 7 century Greek poet from Lesbos who settled in Sparta c. 2 Messenian War - Won prize in musical contests of Carneia - Some say summoned by Delphic Oracle to record diff. btwn. class and state - None of poetry survives complete - Increased number of strings on lyre from 4 to 7 - Introduced several new rhythms including dactylic (traditionally used for drinking songs) Plutarch: they learned to read and write for purely practical reasonsAll their education was directed towardsobedienceenduranceand victory.
th nd

Greek Writers views of Sparta: Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Aristotle, Pausanias, Plutarch: Aristotle (384-322 BC) was critical of Sparta. His main objections were: 1) Commented on Spartan society in politics, often being critical. 2) Spartans should not have kept helots while they had hostile neighbours. 3) Women had too much freedom, and dominated their men. 4) Womens land-ownership reduced the number of full (male) citizens. 5) Spartans did not prepare for anything other than warfare, and so had nothing to achieve after their victories. 6) Critical of: rule via inheritance, election of Gerousia via acclamation, election of poor (hence, dishonest) men to office of Ephor, female ownership of land (reduces number of male citizens), courage and military discipline as highest virtue, maintenance of kleros. 7) Approves of division of power and blend of oligarchy, monarchy, and democracy. 8) Theorizing often makes Sparta a case study to prove his points.

Thucydides on Sparta (460-403 BC):

1) concentrates on foreign policy rather than describing Spartan society 2) Admired the Spartan way of life, but was happy not to be part of it. 3) Held admiration for Spartas internal strength and self-sufficiency, and was impressed by eunomia. 4) Saw Sparta was an outdated society, unchanged for more than 400 years. 5) The helot problem revealed Spartas weakness. 6) Accused Spartans for their lack of imagination. 7) He found the Spartans suspicious, hostile and secretive and untrustworthy.

If Lacedaemon were ever laid waste and there remained only the foundations of the temples and the public buildings, those born into a world of the far future would find it difficult to believe that the power of Sparta had deserved its reputation.

Xenophon on Sparta (430-354 BC): 1) Was an Athenian who re-settled in Sparta after being exiled from Athens. As a result, was biased in favour of the Spartans, and admired what he believed to be their great traditions 2) Admired the Spartan system and praised its order/stability. 3) Gave information about Spartas military system and some insight into their social customs and laws. 4) Praised the modesty and obedience of Spartan youth. 5) Acknowledged the rationale of Spartan education: to produce good soldiers. 6) Enjoyed the fact that youth had much respect for their elders and rulers. 7) He believed that Spartas success was the product of an unchanging system imposed by Lycurgus.

Herodotus of Halicarnassus: 1) Herodotus was an Ionian Greek who wrote from a pro-Athenian perspective. He comments on Spartan foreign policy and its extremely critical of Spartas mixed constitution. 2) 5th century travelled extensively throughout Mediterranean and surrounding regions. 3) Greek but does not associate self with any state. 4) The Histories account of Greco-Persian wars 5) Scientific methodology (cause and effect), admits skepticism, episodic and tangential. 6) Focuses on foreign policy (not domestic).

7) Critical of constitution Lycurgus transformed Sparta into the worst governed people in Greece 1.65 8) Lived in Athens for period probably a Hellenic bias Pausanias (2nd century AD): 1) Greek traveller/writer who wrote Description of Greece. 2) Gives more detail of Sparta during Roman times than ancient authors, and describes archaeological sites which no longer exist. Also made some references to the operation of Spartan constitution. 3) Wrote travelogue (Description of Greece) for roman tourists when Sparta had declined dramatically in power. 4) 10 books diff. parts of Greece temples, histories, monuments, myths, anecdotes. 5) Very well read. 6) Perhaps pro-Athens 7) Pausanias was a Spartan king and provides a pro-Spartan view on the function and operation of the Spartan mixed constitution. 8) Gives detailed description of Roman Sparta. 9) The accuracy of his observations is confirmed by modern geographical studies and by archaeology 10) Often fails to distinguish between Roman remains and earlier Spartan remains. 11) Wrote well after the events.

Plutarch (46-120 AD) 1) 1st century AD wrote 5 Spartan biographies, and Moralia (collection of essays and speeches). 2) Priest at Delphi 3) Critical and well-balanced, cross-referenced extensively and well-read but not always the most reliable. 4) Biography of Lycurgus contains oldest complete account of constitution. 5) Was educated in Athens and widely travelled. Wrote 2 books concerning Sparta: Moralia and Life of Lycurgus. However, did admit to doubting Lycurgus role in setting up Spartan system of government.

6) Uncritical of Sparta. Very useful/ valuable source as he bases his writings on information from lost works, although he did live 1000 years after the events he described. 7) Plutarch was responsible for the work the Life of Lyrcurgus and gives a complete commentary on the Spartan mixed constitution (oldest complete account) .and functions of government. 8) Lived a thousand years after the earliest event he describes. 9) Wrote well after the events. 10) Believes Lycurgus and his activities are open to doubt. 11) Concludes that little can be said with certainty different to other sources in this respect. Plato 1) Victory b/c of discipline and austerity. 2) Fascinated by Spartan system. 3) Builds on work of Thucydides. 4) Pro-Spartan bias may have been the result of pre-conceived ideas. 5) Admired Spartas system, stability and order. Apollodorus 1) 2nd century BCE mythographer Bibliotheca 2) Greek myths from earlier, high quality sources without personal embellishment.

Archaeological Sources Review of archaeological sources has called into question some of the main conclusions made by ancient writers about Spartan society: Finds of pottery, terracotta, carvings and sculptures indicate there was no revolutionary movement to a militaristic society. The myth of equality. Major problem lack of excavated remains Important contribution to our understanding of Sparta comes from the excavation of the temple of Artemis Orthia evidence points to rich and varied cultural life, directly contradicting ancient writers who claim austerity existed earlier than suggested. Today Historians accept:

Lycurgus did exist, but he did not solely introduce the Spartan system A variety of pressures produced the Spartan system

6 Everyday life

Daily life and leisure activities:

Spartiates were fulltime warriors and training for battle occupied a majority of a male citizens time.

All citizens were expected to put state before family. Spartans had an abundance of leisure time. They would spend their spare time exercising, hunting, banqueting (religious consisted of dancing and sacrificial rituals; mess consisted of eating, singing and the telling of stories), drinking and chariot racings. Both genders engaged in these activities.

All Spartans enjoyed aspects of life which in other cities would have been confined to the upper class or the wealthy e.g. horse racing.

Possibly, leisure among the perioikoi was much like that in other rural communities in the rest of Greece. It is even more probable that the helots at least enjoyed the right to celebrate religious festivals which contributed to the well-being of the state.

Women had their own religious activities which would also have involved feasting and dances. Women also had much leisure time did not rear children or spin/weave. Participated in athletics until they were married. Also had religious activities, which included feasting/dancing.

Hunting was one of very few acceptable excuses for absence from the mess. Lycurgusestablished a similar system of sharing hunting dogs; those who need the dogs invite the owner to join the hunt and if he has not the time himself he lens the pack with pleasure. (Xenophon

Banqueting as part of festival ritual. Stories, songs, jokes and camaraderie of the syssitia.

Food: Food for all of Sparta, including the military messes, was grown by the helots. Food consumed was very basic and included barley, cheese, fish and meat. Wine was available to all.

Spartiate boys were encouraged to steal food. This was considered good practice and training for life in the army.

Marriage customs: Spartan marriage customs were unusual. Features of Spartan marriage: Spartan women married in their late teens. Expected to marry within own social class??. Betrothals took place and dowries were given; wealth was considered to be of some importance. Until permitted to live with her, Spartan man would visit his wife by stealth. Before marriage, was a feast for women only. After the marriage there was also a wedding feast.

Marriage was by capture by which a man would choose a bride and carry her off, suggest a lack of choice on the girls part.

The reasons for cutting the brides hair and dressing her in mens clothing includes the implication of chastity and to ease a young bridegroom into unfamiliar sexual intercourse with a woman rather than a man.

It is believed that the marriage ceremony was kept a secret until a child was produced. If the wife was sterile then a new marriage contract would be arranged.

Both Plutarch and Xenophon suggest that the nature of marriage practices and households was designed to make young Spartans of either gender look forward to marriage and the production of children rather than recoil from it or see it as a burden.

There was unusual freedom in sexual relationships boys and girls spent more time together than anywhere else in Greece.

Brides and bridegrooms were not very different in age.

Clothing Women: Wore short peplos. Was fastened on the shoulders but not sewn down the sides allowed women to move more freely while exercising. Was vastly different from more conservative clothes worn by other Greek women.

Were forbidden to wear make-up, jewellery, perfume or even dye their clothes. Were to express natural beauty only. Often had their hair cut short.

Men: Boys were given one cloak per year and had to go bare-footed to toughen their feet and make them strong enough to endure harsh weather. During war, soldiers wore long red cloaks and curled their long hair.

Occupations: Spartiates Full-time soldiers hoplites Government officials Priests Overseeing the training of youth Helots Agricultural workers (farmers) Domestic servants Nurses Perioeci Craftsmen Traders Industry workers Fishermen Shipbuilders Sailors Blacksmiths hoplites Artisans Potters Miners Farmers

(homosexuality encouraged BW soldiers fighting with lovers = more rage and more anger)

Spartas Decline Chariot racing and large lots of land allocated to the horses and chariots caused economy and number of Homoioi to decline. Loss of Sparta's military superiority at Leuktra. G L Cawkwell, a model historian, argues that Sparta's defeat at Leuktra highlights the failure of the social system. Aristotle blames the downfall of Sparta on the decline in Spartan population and on the narrowness and militarism of Spartan society.

The increasing gap between rich and poor that resulted from alienation of land less Homoioi = less child productivity. Number of Homoioi became dangerously low in the 4th century. There were a number of factors causing this: Many Spartiates died in the invasions against the Persians Lives were lost in the earthquake of 468BC Following quake, related disturbances amongst helots revolts Relationship with Perioikoi (critical to economy) and Spartans appeared to worsen

Decline: Battle of Leuktra loss was turning point After Leuktra Sparta no longer a major power had been unable to cope with the Thebans new strategy. Spartan conservative kings had not modified their way of fighting continued using same methods worked. Failed against innovation of Theban leader. After Thebans won invaded Sparta, destroyed economic base by establishing Messenian independence. Peloponnese pro-Spartan oligarchs overthrown and replaced by anti-Spartan democracies further isolated by break-up of Peloponnesian league and formation of anti Spartan alliances.

Conclusion: Spartas reputation for military superiority spread across Greece. The army was considered invincible. Spartas soldiers were professional, well-armed, trained and disciplined. Spartas leadership expanded over most of mainland Greece. However, Spartan soldiers could not adopt, or think creatively, when required to deal with changing conditions, methods, weapons or tactics. Spartan soldiers, especially the most successful, were regarded with suspicion and all had limited commands. This was to protect Sparta against possible tyranny by a successful commander. Its weaknesses were that the officers could not capitalise on their successes or anticipate an extended command to complete campaigns. The attention given to military training meant that, in Sparta, there was not time or place for the humanities. The Spartans lacked vision and imagination. The limited objectives of the education system produced willing soldiers, able to obey orders. Artistic pursuits were considered non-essential to the defence of the state.

Spartas army was invincible for a long time. But maintaining this state of preparedness weakened Sparta in the longer term. Spartan social and political life meant numbers for the army were always small. Its immediate army was about 5000 hoplites. It had, consequently, great need of allies to help defend itself.

Synoecism was the process of unifying the four villages into the political, economic, and social entry of Sparta.

Vocabulary Helots state-owned serfs who had to work the land for the Spartiates. Peloponnese the southern peninsula of Greece which is joined to the mainland by the Isthmus of Corinth. Polis an independent Greek city-state. Delphic oracle a shrine at Delphi where the ancient Greeks consulted a priestess for advice or a prophecy from the gods. AGOGE- the education, training and discipline of boys. KLEROS- an allotment of land farmed by helots. KRYPTEIA- similar to a secret police force. PYTHIOI- officials appointed to ask the Delphic Oracle questions and bring the answer back to Sparta. SYSSITION- the public mess (eating hall) in Sparta. BIBASIS- am exercise performed by spartan girls. DOWRIES- property or money brought by a bride to her husband upon their marriage.

EIRENS- spartan boys in their nineteenth year who had supervisory responsibilities over the younger boys. PAIDONOMOS- warden or public gaurdian who supervised the education of young spartan boys. CUIRASS- breastplate. FLAX- a plant that produces fibers from which linen is made. GREAVES- armor that protected the leg from the knee down. HOPLITE- a heavily armed Greek infantryman. HOPLON- large round shield made from wood and faced with bronze and leather; designed to protect most of the body. KOPIS- short sword about 60 centimeters long, used as a hoplites secondary weapon. MUREX MOLLUSC- a shellfish which was harvested for the purple dye it produced. PHALANX- a formation of infantry involving soldiers standing in rows with overlapping shields and using spears as weapons. BIER- a moveable stand on which a coffin or a dead body is placed before it is buried. REMITS- forgives, cancels or reduces a debt. STRAPHLODROMOI- 'grape cluster', runners. INNUMERATE- they had no knowledge of maths. GRUEL- a very thin soup. STEALTH- secrecy, not out in the open.

LYCURGUS Summary Accomplishments include: -introduced changes to the govt of Sparta est. Ephorate and Assembly referred to as the Great Rhetra -establishing the public messes to abolish the laziness that sitting at home created setting food limits to prevent eating too much or too little compulsory contributions otherwise become an inferior -abolishing compulsory drinking

-mingling age groups so younger would learn from the experiences of the elders -outlawing the use of coinage to deter greed -laid down the stage of Spartan citizens developments -redistributed land so each citizen had kleros and helots, enabling Spartans to concentrate on military training -gave attention to the role of women and the education of girls