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Measurement of Three-Phase Transformer Derating and Reactive Power Demand under Nonlinear Loading Conditions
Ewald F. Fuchs, Fellow, IEEE, Dingsheng Lin, and Jonas Martynaitis
AbstractThe measurement of real and apparent power derating of three-phase transformers is important for transformers feeding nonlinear loads. This paper presents a new digital data-acquisition method for measuring derating and reactive power demand of three-phase transformers under full or partial load conditions. The accuracy requirements of the instruments employed (potential, current transformers, shunts, voltage dividers, optocouplers volt- and current meters) are addressed. Application examples demonstrate the usefulness of this new digital data-acquisition method. Index TermsHarmonics, nonsinusoidal operation, reactive power demand, real and apparent power derating, transformer losses.

I. INTRODUCTION EASURING the real and apparent power derating of three-phase transformers is desirable because additional losses due to power quality problems (e.g., harmonics, dc excitation) can be readily limited before any signicant damage due to additional temperature rises occurs. Measuring transformer losses from the input power minus the output power in real time is inaccurate because the losses are the difference of two large values; this approach results in maximum errors in the losses of more than 60% for high-efciency % transformers [1]. The usually employed indirect method consisting of no-load (iron-core loss) and short-circuit (copper loss) tests [2] cannot be performed on-line while the transformer is partially or fully loaded. IEEE Recommended Practice C57.110 computes the transfor various harmonics , which is former derating based on derived from the dc winding resistance and the rated load loss [3]. Kelly et al. [4] describe an improved measuring technique of as a function of frequency the equivalent effective resistance of single-phase transformers, which allows the direct calculation of transformer loss at harmonic frequencies from Hz up to 100 kHz. This equivalent effective resistance takes into
Manuscript received April 23, 2004; revised June 9, 2005. This work was supported in part by the U. S. Department of Energy, Ofce of Energy Management, under Contract 19X-SK205V, and in part by the EPRI under Contract No. 2951-07 and 4887-01. Paper no. TPWRD-00187-2004. E. F. Fuchs is with the University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309 USA (e-mail: ewald.fuchs@colorado.edu). D. Lin is with Ansoft Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA 15219 USA (e-mail: dlin@ansoft.com). J. Martynaitis is with the Department of Electrical and Lighting Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology, Kaunas LT-44244, Lithuania (e-mail: Jonas.Martynaitis@ktu.lt). Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TPWRD.2005.858744

account the total losses of the transformer: the copper losses plus the iron-core losses. Based on the fact that the iron-core losses do not depend on harmonic currents, but depend on harmonic voltages (amplitudes and phase shifts) [5], the total losses determined by [4] are not accurate. In addition, temperature-dependent operating conditions cannot be considered in [4]. Mocci [6] and Arri et al. [7] present an analog measurement circuit to directly measure the total losses for single- and ungrounded three-phase transformers. However, employment of many PTs and CTs in the three-phase transformer measuring circuits [7] decreases the measurement accuracy. This paper presents a direct method for measuring the derating of three-phase transformers while transformers are operating at any load and any arbitrary conditions. The measuring circuit is based on potential transformers (PT) current transformers (CT), shunts, voltage dividers or Hall sensors [8], A/D converter and computer (microprocessor). Using a computer-aided testing (CAT) program [1], [9] losses, efciency, harmonics, derating and wave shapes of all voltages and currents can be monitored within a fraction of a second. The maximum errors in the losses are acceptably small and depend mainly upon the accuracy of the sensors used. II. APPROACH A. Three-Phase Transformers in Connection or Y-Y Ungrounded

For - or ungrounded Y-Y connected three-phase transformers (see Figs. 1, and 2 for using shunts, voltage dividers and optocouplers), one obtains with the application of the twowattmeter method at the input and output terminals by inspection

(1) The term represents the instantaneous iron-core loss, and is the instantaneous copper loss. B. Three-Phase Transformers in Connection

Fig. 3 illustrates the application of the digital data-acquisition method to a - connected transformer bank.

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Fig. 1. Eight-channel CAT circuit for accurate - or ungrounded Y-Y connected three-phase transformer loss monitoring using PTs and CTs. Fig. 3. Eight-channel CAT circuit for accurate loss monitoring using PTs and CTs. -Y three-phase transformer

and are input line currents of phases and where , respectively; and are the and are the output two-wattmeter secondary currents; line-to-neutral voltages of phases and respectively. Because the neutral of the Y-connected secondary winding (N) is not accessible, the secondary phase voltages are measured referred to the neutral of the Y-connected PTs (see Fig. 3). This does not affect the accuracy of loss measurement, which can be demonstrated below. The output power is

(2b)
Fig. 2. Eight-channel CAT circuit for accurate - or ungrounded Y-Y connected three-phase transformer loss monitoring using shunts, voltage dividers, and optocouplers.

For ungrounded - connected three-phase transformers, the currents of the Y side must be referred to the line currents of the side, as shown in Fig. 3. The loss of the transformer is given by

where denotes the neutral of the Y-connected secondary , the measured output power winding. Because referred to the neutral of PTs is the same as that referred to the neutral of the secondary winding. III. ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS FOR INSTRUMENTS The efciencies of high-power electrical apparatus such as single- and three-phase transformers in the kVA and MVA ranges are 97% or higher. For a 15 kVA three-phase transformer with an efciency of 97.02% at rated operation, the total losses W, copper and iron-core losses are W and W at V and A, respectively, as listed in Table VII(a).

(2a)

FUCHS et al.: THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER DERATING AND REACTIVE POWER DEMAND

TABLE I INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR ERROR LIMITS FOR FIGS. 1 AND 2

TABLE II MEASURED IRON-CORE AND COPPER LOSSES OF 9 kVA YY-CONNECTED TRANSFORMER

The series voltage drop is measured with the maximum error of

The determination of the losses from voltage and current differences as described in Fig. 1-where differences are calibratedgreatly reduces the maximum error in the loss measurement. The series voltage drop and exciting current at rated operation referred to the primary of the 15 kVA, 240 V/240 V three-phase V, A, retransformer are spectively (Table VII(a)). The instruments and their error limits , are listed in Table I. In Table I, and stand for the relevant calibrated voltmeters and ammeters. Because all voltage and current signals are sampled via PTs, CTs (or optocouplers) and current shunts, the error limits for all instruments are equal to the product of the actually measured values and their relative error limits, instead of full-scale errors, as shown in Table I. All error limits are referred to the meter side. combined with In Fig. 2, the voltage divider emulates the function of a PT without an optocoupler hysteresis. The optocoupler can alter the amplitude of a signal and provide isolation without affecting the phase shift of the and signal as it is corrupted by PTs. The current shunt emulate that of a CT without optocouplers indicates that hysteresis and parasitic phase shift. The prime is about of the same magnitude as , this is accomplished by the adjustment of the amplier gain(s) of the optocoupler(s). The line-to-line voltage is measured with the maximum error of (taking into account the maximum errors of and voltmeter) (3) The difference current is measured with the maximum error of

(6) The output current is measured with the maximum error of (7) and the loss component the maximum error of in (1) is measured with

(8) Thus, the total loss is measured with the maximum error of

(9)

The above error analysis employs PTs and CTs. If these devices generate too-large errors because of hysteresis, voltage dividers and shunts combined with optocouplers can be used, as indicated in Fig. 2, [10]. A similar error analysis using shunts, dividers and optocouplers leads to the same maximum error in the directly measured losses, provided the same standard maximum errors (0.1%) of Table I are assumed. The factor 2 in (9) is employed because loss components in (5) and (8) are only half of those in (1). IV. COMPARISON OF DIRECTLY MEASURED LOSSES WITH RESULTS OF NO-LOAD AND SHORT-CIRCUIT TESTS

(4) Therefore, the loss component with the maximum error of in (1) is measured

(5)

A computer-aided testing program (CATEA) [9] is used to monitor the iron-core and copper losses of three-phase transformers. The nameplate data of the tested transformers are given in the Appendix. The results of the on-line measurement of the iron-core and copper losses for a Y-Y connected 9 kVA three-phase transformer (consisting of three 3 kVA single-phase transformers, Appendix A.1) are given in Table II for sinusoidal rated line-toline voltages of 416 V, where the direct (on-line) measurement

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TABLE III MEASURED DATA OF 4.5 kVA TRANSFORMER BANK #1

(a)

data are compared with those of the indirect (separate open-circuit and short-circuit tests) method. The iron-core loss of the indirect method is larger than that of the direct method because the induced voltage of the former is larger than that of the latter. The copper loss of the indirect method is smaller than that of the direct method because the input current of the former (which is nearly the same as the output current) is smaller than that of the latter. V. APPLICATIONS A. 4.5-kVA Three-Phase Transformer Bank #1 Feeding Full-Wave Rectier A 4.5 kVA, 240 V/240 V, - -connected three-phase transformer (Fig. 1) consisting of three single-phase transformers (bank #1, Appendix A.2) is used to feed a full-wave diode rectier (see Appendix A.5) with an LC lter connected across the resistive load (see Figs. 6-5 of [11]). In Table III, measured data are compared with those of linear load condition. The measured , exciting current , wave shapes of input voltage and output current of phase series voltage drop A are shown in Figs. 4(a), (b) for linear and nonlinear load con-factor and harditions. The total harmonic distortion monic components of the output current are listed in Table IV. Table III compares measured data and shows that the transformer is operated at nonlinear load with about the same losses occurring at linear load (261.3 W). With the apparent power derating denition (10) the derating at the nonlinear load of Table III is 99%. The real power delivered to the nonlinear load is 91.4% of that supplied at linear load. B. 4.5 kVA Three-Phase Transformer Bank #2 Supplying Power to Six-Step Inverter A 4.5 kVA transformer bank #2 (Appendix A.3) supplies power to a half-controlled six-step inverter (Appendix A.6), which in turn powers a three-phase induction motor. The motor is controlled by adjusting the output current and frequency of the inverter. The transformer is operated at rated loss at various motor speeds. Rated loss of bank #2 is determined by a linear
(b) Fig. 4 (a) Measured wave shapes of 4.5 kVA three-phase transformer bank #1 feeding linear load (see rms values of Tables III and IV). (b) Measured wave shapes of 4.5 kVA three-phase transformer bank #1 feeding full-wave diode rectier load (see rms values of Tables III and IV). TABLE IV OUTPUT CURRENT HARMONIC COMPONENTS, -FACTOR [Fig. 4(b)] AND

(resistive) load at rated operation. The iron-core and copper losses are measured separately and are listed in Table V(a). Measured wave shapes of input voltage, exciting current, series voltage drop and output current of phase A are shown in Figs. 5(a), (b) for linear and nonlinear conditions. The output current includes both odd and even harmonics due to the halfcontrolled input rectier of the six-step inverter. Dominant harmonics of input voltage and output current are listed for different motor speeds in Table V(b). The total harmonic distortion of the input voltage and output current as well as the -factor are listed in Table V(c) for the speed conditions of Tables V(a), (b). C. 15 kVA Three-Phase Transformer Supplying Power to Resonant Rectier A 15 kVA, 240 V/240 V, - connected three-phase transformer (Appendix A.4) is used to supply power to a resonant rectier [12] (Appendix A.7). The transformer is operated with the resonant rectier load at the same total loss generated by a

FUCHS et al.: THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER DERATING AND REACTIVE POWER DEMAND

TABLE V(a) MEASURED IRON-CORE AND COPPER LOSSES OF 4.5 kVA, - CONNECTED TRANSFORMER BANK #2 FEEDING A SIX-STEP INVERTER AT VARIOUS MOTOR SPEEDS [FIG. 5(b)]

TABLE V(b) INPUT VOLTAGE (IN rms VOLTS) AND OUTPUT CURRENT (IN rms AMPERES) HARMONICS OF PHASE A [Figs. 5(a) AND (b)]

TABLE V(c) MEASURED THD-VALUES AND -FACTOR [FIG. 5(a) AND (b)]

(a)

(b) Fig. 5 (a) Measured wave shapes of 4.5 kVA three-phase transformer bank #2 feeding linear load [see rms values of Tables V(a), (b), and (c)]. (b) Measured wave shapes of 4.5 kVA three-phase transformer bank #2 feeding half-controlled six-step inverter [see rms values of Tables V(a), and (b), (c)].

load is 30.95 , and the output displacement factor (within trans. Note that former phase) is, therefore, the wave shapes of the output currents of Figs. 6(a), (b) are about sinusoidal. If the transformer with the resonant rectier load is operated (see Table VI) at about the same loss as linear load (233.9 W), the output current of the transformer with the resonant rectier load is 26.94 A, which corresponds to the copper loss of W W). Therefore, the transformer ap192.2 W ( parent power derating of the transformer for the nonlinear load is 99.7%. The real power supplied to the nonlinear load is 78.5% of that of the linear load. D. 15 kVA Three-Phase Transformer Bank Absorbing Power From a PWM Inverter The same transformer of Section V-C absorbs power from a PWM inverter [12] (Appendix A.8) and supplies power to a resistive load (case #1) and to a utility system (case #2). The transformer losses are also measured when supplying a linear resistive load fed from sinusoidal power supply (linear load). All measured data are compared in Table VII(a).

three-phase linear (resistive) load. Measured data are compared in Table VI. Measured wave shapes of input voltage, exciting current, series voltage drop and output current of phase A are depicted in Figs. 6(a), (b). The fundamental phase shift between and phase current output transformer line-to-line voltage of the resonant rectier is 67.33 , and the output displacement factor (within transformer phase) is therefore . The fundamental phase shift between output line-to-line voltage and phase current for the linear resistive

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TABLE VII(a) MEASURED DATA OF 15 kVA THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTED TO PWM INVERTER [FIG. 7(a)(c)]

(a)

b) 4.5 kVA three-phase transformer feeding uncontrolled full wave rectier load; c) 4.5 kVA three-phase transformer feeding half-controlled rectier load; d) 15 kVA three-phase transformer absorbing power from PWM inverter (14 kW); e) 15 kVA three-phase transformer feeding resonant rectier load (8 kW). VI. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
(b) Fig. 6 (a) Measured wave shapes of 15 kVA three-phase transformer feeding linear load (see rms values of Table VI). (b) Measured wave shapes of 15 kVA three-phase transformer feeding resonant rectier (see rms values of Table VI). TABLE VI MEASURED DATA OF 15 kVA THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER WITH RESONANT RECTIFIER LOAD [FIG. 6(a) AND (b)]

A. Discussion of Results A new approach for the measurement of the derating of threephase transformers has been described and applied under nonsinusoidal operation. It extends the measurement approach of single-phase transformers [1], [9], [12], [13], [17], [14], [18], [15] to three-phase transformers [11], [15], [16]. The apparent power (kVA) derating, (10), of three-phase . Even for transformers is not greatly affected by the values of about 70%, derating is about 99%. The real power (kW) derating is greatly affected (see Fig. 8) by the current wave shape generated by solid-state converters, in particular by the phase shift of the fundamental current component. Therefore, inverters and rectiers should be designed such that they supply and draw power, respectively, at a displacement (power) factor of about 1. Three-phase transformers have similar derating properties as single-phase transformers [1], [9], [12], [13], [17], [14], [18], [15]. The maximum error in the directly measured losses is about 15%, which compares favorably with the maximum error of more than 60% [1] for loss measurement based on the difference between input and output powers as applied to high-efciency % transformers. Transformers of the same type may have signicantly different iron-core losses as measured in Table III (261.3 W) and Table V(a) (220.6 W). Small transformers (kVA-range) have relatively small wire cross-sections resulting in small skin-effect losses. Large transformers (MW-range) have aluminum secondary windings with relatively large wire cross-sections resulting in relatively large skin-effect losses. For this reason substation transformers can be expected to have larger apparent power derating than the

Measured wave shapes of input voltage, exciting current, series voltage drop and output current of phase A are shown in -factor Figs. 7(a)(c). The total harmonic distortion and harmonic amplitudes of the transformer output current are listed in Table VII(b). , apFig. 8 summarizes the total harmonic distortion parent power (kVA) derating, and real power (kW) derating for uncontrolled (a, b), half-controlled (c) and controlled (d, e) converter loads of transformers. In particular the graphs of Fig. 8 can be identied [11] as follows: a) 25 kVA single-phase pole transformer [13], [17], [14], [18], [15] feeding uncontrolled full wave rectier load;

FUCHS et al.: THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER DERATING AND REACTIVE POWER DEMAND

(a) Fig. 8. Total harmonic distortion of current , apparent power (kVA) derating, and real power (kW) derating for uncontrolled (a, b), half-controlled (c) and controlled (d, e) converter loads.

B. Comparison With Existing Techniques The maximum error in the directly measured losses is about 15% (using potential and current transformers), which compares favorably with the maximum error of more than 60% [1] (employing shunts and voltage dividers) for loss measurement based on the difference between input and output powers as applied to % transformers. high-efciency The technique of [4] uses the pre-measured transformer efas a function of frequency to calculate fective resistance transformer total losses for various harmonic currents. This method can be classied as an indirect method because the transformer losses are obtained by computation, instead of direct measurement. In addition, the approach of [4] neglects the fact that the iron-core losses are a function of the harmonic values are not constant phase shift [5], in other words the for any given harmonic current amplitude but vary as a function of the harmonic voltage amplitude and phase shift as well. Finally, temperature-dependent operating conditions, for example, cannot be considered in [4]. For the above reasons, the method of [4] must be validated by some direct measurements, such as the method presented in this paper. The method of Mocci [6] and Arri et al. [7] has not been practically applied to three-phase transformers. The presented measurement circuit for three-phase transformers [7] uses too many instrument transformers (e.g., 9 CTs and 9 PTs), and therefore, the measured results will be not as accurate as those based on the measurement circuits of this paper, where only 4 CTs and 5 PTs are used as shown in Fig. 3. APPENDIX 1) 9 kVA Three-Phase Transformer Bank: Y-Y connected V of rated line-tothree-phase transformer bank with line voltages consistsof three single-phase transformers.The type numbers of the three single-phase transformers are J7065, J7610, and J7065 (bank #1), and the nameplate data of which are: Powerformer Dry-type transformer CAT. no.: 211-101, 3 kVA, single-phase, 60 Hz; High voltage 240/480 V; Low voltage 120/240 V. 2) 4.5 kVA Three-Phase Transformer Bank #1: Singlephase transformers with the nameplate data listed in A.1 are

(b)

(c) Fig. 7(a) Measured wave shapes of 15 kVA three-phase transformer feeding linear load [see rms values of Tables VII(a) AND (b)]. (b) Measured wave shapes of 15 kVA three-phase transformer fed by a PWM inverter (case #1) [see rms values of Tables VII(a) AND (b)]. (c) Measured wave shapes of 15 kVA three-phase transformer fed by a PWM inverter (case #2) [see rms values of Tables VII(a) AND (b)]. TABLE VII(b) AND -FACTOR [FIG. 7(b) AND (c)] OUTPUT CURRENT HARMONICS,

ones measured in this paper. Unfortunately, transformers in the MW-range cannot be operated in a laboratory under real-life conditions. Therefore, it is recommended that utilities sponsor the application of the method of this paper and permit on-site measurements.

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used in this bank #1 and are connected in such way that the rated V. Only the two high-voltage line-to-line voltages are windings of each single-phase transformer are employed as primary and secondary, and the rated apparent power of the three-phase transformer bank is therefore 4.5 kVA. 3) 4.5 kVA Three-Phase Transformer Bank #2: Singlephase transformers with the nameplate data listed in A.1 having the type numbers J7605, J7606, and J7605 are used in this bank #2, and are connected in such way that the rated line-to-line voltages are V. Only the two high-voltage windings of each single-phase transformer are employed as primary and secondary, and the rated apparent power of the three-phase transformer bank is therefore 4.5 kVA. 4) 15 kVA Three-Phase Transformer Bank: 15 kVA, - connected bank consists of three 5 kVA transformers. The original rated apparent power of the single-phase units is 10 kVA. The two high-voltage windings were used as primary and secondary, and the rated power of the bank is therefore 15 kVA. The nameplate data are: Westinghouse Type: EP transformer Frame no.: 179, 10 kVA, single-phase, 60 Hz; V Low voltage: V. High voltage: A, 5) Three-Phase Diode Bridge: V. 6) Half-Controlled Three-Phase Six-Step Inverter: General Electric AC adjustable frequency drive Model no.: 6VGAW2007CI Input: Output: Volts: 230 HP: 7.5, kVA: 8.8; Hertz: 50/60 Volts: variable; Amps: 22 Hz: 660; Phase 3 Amps ac: variable; Phase 3. 7) Controlled Three-Phase Resonant Rectier [12]: University of Colorado ID no.: 5484 Input: Output: Volts: 340600 ac 20 kW; Hertz: 1260 Volts: 380 dc; Amps: 45 Amps: 60 dc. Phase 3 8) Controlled Three-Phase PWM Inverter [12]: University of Colorado ID no.: 5485 Input: Output: Volts: 360 dc 20 kW; Amps: 70 dc Volts: 240 ac; Amps: 80 ac; Power factor: 0.7 (lead) to 1.0 p.u.; Hertz: 50/60. REFERENCES
[1] E. F. Fuchs, D. Yildirim, and T. Batan, Innovative procedure for measurement of losses of transformers supplying nonsinusoidal loads, in Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., Gen., Transm. Distrib., vol. 146, IEE Proceedings online no. 19 990 684, Nov. 1999. [2] Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book, 1964. Westinghouse Electric Corporation.

[3] IEEE Recommended Practice for Establishing Transformer Capabilities when Supplying Nonsinusoidal Load Currents. IEEE Std. IEEE C57.110-1998. [4] A. W. Kelly, S. W. Edwards, J. P. Rhode, and M. Baran, Transformer derating for harmonic currents: A wideband measurement approach for energized transformers, in Proc. Industry Applications Conf., 30th Ind. Appl. Soc. Annual Meeting, vol. 1, Oct. 812, 1995, pp. 840847. [5] M. A. S. Masoum and E. F. Fuchs, Derating of anisotropic transformers under nonsinusoidal operating conditions, Elect. Power Energy Syst., vol. 25, pp. 112, 2003. [6] F. Mocci, Un nuovo methodo per la determinazione della potenza assorbita dai doppi bipoli, LEnergia Elettrica, no. 78, pp. 323329, 1989. [7] E. Arri, N. Locci, and F. Mocci, Measurement of transformer power losses and efciency in real working conditions, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 384387, Apr. 1991. [8] LEM USA, Inc., Current and Voltage Transducer Catalog, 3rd ed., Milwaukee, WI. [9] D. Lin, E. F. Fuchs, and M. Doyle, Computer-aided testing of electrical apparatus supplying nonlinear loads, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 1121, Feb. 1997. [10] S. Rieman, An optically isolated data acquisition system, Independent Study, Dec. 1997. [11] W. M. Grady, E. F. Fuchs, D. Lin, and T. D. Stensland, The potential effects of single-phase power electronic-based loads on power system distortion and losses, Volume 2: Single-phase transformers and induction motors, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Palo Alto, CA, Tech. Rep. 000 655, Sep. 2003. [12] D. Yildirim, Commissioning of 30 kVA variable-speed direct-drive wind power plant, Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. Colorado, Boulder, CO, May 1999. [13] E. F. Fuchs, D. Yildirim, and W. M. Grady, Measurement of eddy-cur, derating of single-phase transformers, and rent loss coefcient comparison with K-factor approach, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 148154, Jan. 2000. [14] D. Yildirim and E. F. Fuchs, Measured transformer derating and comApproach, ibid, vol. 15, no. 1, parison with harmonic loss factor pp. 186191, Jan. 2000. [15] E. F. Fuchs, Transformers, liquid lled, Encyclopedia Electr. Electron. Eng., 2000. paper no. 934C. [16] E. F. Fuchs, Y. You, and D. Lin, Development and validation of GIC transformer models, Final Rep. Contract 19X-SK205V, Jun. 1996. [17] T. Batan, Discussion of Measurement of eddy-current loss coefcient - derating of single-phase transformers, and comparison with K-factor approach, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 13311333, Oct. 2000. [18] E. F. Fuchs, D. Yildirim, and W. M. Grady, Corrections to Measurements of eddy-current loss coefcient - derating of single-phase transformers, and comparison with K-factor approach, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 15, no. 4, p. 1357, Oct. 2000. Ewald F. Fuchs (F90) received the Dipl.-Ing. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Colorado, Boulder, in 1967 and 1970, respectively. Currently, he is a Professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of Colorado. Dingsheng Lin received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in electrical engineering from the Shanghai University of Technology, Shanghai, China, in 1982 and 1987, respectively. Currently, he is a Senior Research and Development Engineer with Ansoft Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA. He was promoted to Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering with Shanghai University of Technology in 1991. His main interests are the design and optimization techniques of electrical machines and electromagnetic eld calculation. Mr. Lin received the third prize of the Chinese National Award of Science and Technology in 1987, and two second prizes of the Shanghai City Award of Science and Technology in 1986 and 1989. Jonas Martynaitis received the Dipl.-Eng. degree from Kaunas Polytechnic Institute, Lithuania, in 1969, and the Ph.D. degree in lighting engineering and electronics from the Moscow Institute of Energy, Moscow, Russia, in 1980. Currently, he is an Associate Professor with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania. During the 1980-1981 academic year, he was with the University of Colorado at Boulder performing research.