Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ABSTRACT
Table of Content
1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................3
3.4 Learning as the Major Process of Human Adaptation as well as the Source of Knowledge Creation 21
4 CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................................22
5 REFERENCES...............................................................................................................23
1 Introduction
The views expressed above have led to reforms in adult education over the last decade
requirements and prepare the workforce for the competitive global economy. In England,
Wales and Northern Ireland, the framework for National Vocational Qualifications was
initiated in 1986. NVQs specify what the workforce would be capable of doing in the
the learners as well as the employers. It provides clear guidelines for assessment
procedures and its scientific approach with mainly behavioural objectives are still being
rated highly by the employers. This paper attempts to analyse this competency or
outcome-based approach in adult education with some cautionary notes on its ways of
learning happens and how best the learning programs may be effectively developed the
paper then argues that learning is best conceived as a process and not in terms of
outcomes (Kolb, 1993: p.143). New learning paradigms should be built on the existing
learner’s mind as being as blank as the paper on which we scratch our outline.
Yet this is not the case. Everyone enters every learning situation with more or less
articulate ideas about the topic at hand. " (Kolb, 1993: p.145).
never start with a tabula rasa. So, it seems worthwhile for a facilitator to enquire about
this status for each individual learner, which could then make the appropriate
connections easier for new adaptations of knowledge. This awareness of the experiential
status is perhaps equally helpful for the learner, which could give the learner a clear
perspective on his/ her possible learning routes necessary for making the learning more
meaningful. Hence, this paper further argues that in a learning situation, it will be prudent
to assess the learner’s existing beliefs in the subject domain based on his/ her
experiential past before attempts are made to refine the learner’s belief system to a
higher level. The approach contrasts from the traditional classroom based teaching
where a topic is addressed in a sequential manner from ‘A’ to ‘Z’ without much regard to
learner’s present belief system on the subject at hand. Finally, the paper endorses the
human cultural experiences and the subjective life experiences of the learner. (Kolb,
1993: p. 152)
"Competency based assessment, in its present form, threatens to become the new
Fordism of the educational system. The proliferation of competency specifications and
the increasing precision with which competencies are stated parallels the ‘parcellization’
of the work-force and labour process. As competencies are differentiated more finely, so
it becomes more and more possible to narrow the scope of initiative and field of
responsibility of each individual in (his or ) her work; the coherence and the goals of the
organization accordingly becomes less rather than more intelligible. " (Field, 1993: p.48).
This is the technology-focused approach to learning and Boud (1989: p.41) refers to this
as freedom from distraction. Learning goals and competencies required are derived from
analysing the needs and expected behavioural change of learners. These programmes
are tested on learners and feedback from them is used to continuously improve the
content, delivery and also the assessment format. The assessment practices for such
production where work processes were repackaged into smaller, repeatable and
measurable steps to reduce the grips of the skilled workers (Field, 1993: p.41). This is
likely to result in performance improvement when the nature of work is highly repetitive
without much demand for changes in processes involved. The approach is perhaps
suitable for specialised industries, where narrow skills are sought after. Arguably, even in
such industries, the workforce would be restricted to the specialised plants or processes
and such training would encourage more employer control and less flexibility for the
Training for the Fordist production worker, such as was needed, took place on the
line and was so empty of any wider content than repetition that there was serious
policy concern over the utter absence of any wider awakening of the young mind
criticised for its lack of attention to context (Prior 1989). Candy and Harris (1990)
However, it is also argued that competency-based courses have clear-cut outcomes with
teacher and student behaviour (Field, 1993) and thus, may be used as a tool for effecting
In its conventional forms, as Field (1993: p.48) points out, the competency movement
in order to strengthen employer control over labour, and support strategies to ‘add
value’ through the more efficient distribution of the work-force. Yet in order to work
towards these ends, it also has to allow for flexibility in the face of constant
technical and organisational change, as well as the movement of labour and its
competency-based approach. The need for flexibility in training is also far from
consensual as the employers attempt to manage the risks created by the unpredictability
out by Mezirow:
There is nothing wrong with this rather mechanistic approach to education as long
On the other hand, from the viewpoint of liberal education Jarvis attacked behaviourist
approaches for at best confusing the processes of learning with the outcomes and at
training more relevant to the workplace requirements (Harris et al. 1995). In theory,
competency-based education should combine theory with practice and reduce the gap
between the mind and the hands. However, in practice, there is a danger that the model
may be conceptualised in behavioural terms, when the competence is broken down into
models ignore connection between tasks and according to Hyland (1994) these
connections are important for performance where synthesis of knowledge and skills are
necessary.
reach his optimum potential. The broad competencies of such a flexible curriculum,
three aspects, vocational, social and individual to equip one with a capacity to assess
ones educational needs and to supplement the shortfall of requirements with new
industry needs.
employers or their places of work (as they get transferred from ship to ship) on frequent
narrow competencies as the course content, it will produce a workforce at worst needing
retraining, perhaps every time they get transferred to a different type of ship. More
importantly, the competencies, which are taught in decontextualised manner, will have
limited retention for the learners. Unless the learning outcomes are made content-
for each learner, the resources expended for a competency-based programme is less
likely to be worthwhile.
the following section I look at adult learning beyond the outcome-based approach and
view it from an experiential perspective, which perhaps holds the key for unlocking new
knowledge.
3 Experiential Learning
abstract symbols and behavioural learning theories deny any role for consciousness and
and behaviour (Kolb, 1993). Kolb also pointed out the strong emphasis of this
experiential perspective in the work of Dewey, Piaget and Lewin. In the next section I
attempt to depict the commonalties of their models of learning, where the dimension of
well as observation and action. He claimed that the crucial educational problem is that
(Dewey 1938: p.69). The following figure depicts this formation of a purposeful action
from an original impulse modified through judgmental intervention, which constitutes the
learning process.
Formation of
purposeful
action – a
rather complex
intellectual
operation
Judgement on observation
and knowledge-recall to
decide what is significant
Knowledge of what
has happened in
similar conditions
in the past
Fig1. Dewey’s view of
learning process from the
Observation of experiential perspective
surrounding
conditions
For Piaget, the dimensions of experience and concept, reflection and action form the
basic continua for the development of adult thought. Development from infancy to
accommodation of new experience and assimilation of the same into one’s existing
schema leading to a higher level of cognitive functioning. Again as pointed out by Kolb
below, the type of intelligent adaptation resulting from balanced tension between
accommodation and assimilation depends on the dominance of one or the other of these
cognitive growth from concrete to abstract and from active to reflective is based
in successive stages, each of which incorporates what has gone before into a
Figure 2 illustrates Piaget’s view of the learning process as seen from the experiential
perspective.
Existing level of
cognitive
functioning
Accommodation of concepts
or schemas as new
experience
Accommodation of concepts
or schemas as new
experience
Figure 3 is adapted from Lewin’s cycle of adult learning as described by Kolb (1984).
Here, the concrete experience is given the focal point of the learning process, which
the learner. Much of the individual and organisational ineffectiveness could be traced to
the lack of observation and reflection (Kolb, 1993), as this feedback process may not
take place as a spontaneous follow up action after each concrete experience. Thus,
perhaps there is a distinct requirement to initiate such action by nudging the learners into
a reflective mode. I would like to argue that many times this could be achieved through
raising judicious queries to coax the learners to re-examine the concrete experience
from various perspectives, which, in turn, may lead the learners to higher levels of
alone may not be the key to the progressive growth of the body of knowledge for the
observations about this experience. In the next section I argue that this facilitated
mechanism could take the form of objective type questionnaires on the experience to set
Active
experimentation
leading to the
next concrete
experience.
In an adult learning situation, many times the learners have rich diverse experience on
the topics of the course curriculum. This is applicable for the advanced maritime courses
at the Singapore Polytechnic, where I am actively involved. The learners bring with them
their existing belief system for the subject in hand, some of that could be very relevant,
while others would need modification. So, when introducing new ideas for the subject in
hand, perhaps the key issue would be not to resort to a method of substitution of the
learners’ old belief systems. Instead, provide scenarios, which will encourage learners to
review their existing belief structure and if found pertinent they will modify these to suit
…. one’s job as an educator is not only to implant new ideas but also to dispose of
or modify old ones. In many cases, resistance to new ideas stems from their
conflict with old beliefs that are inconsistent with them. If the education process
begins by bringing out the learner’s beliefs and theories, examining and testing
them, and then integrating the new, more refined ideas into the person’s belief
systems, the learning process will be facilitated……On the other hand, when the
through substitution are incongruent with theories-in-use that are more integrated
with the person’s total conceptual and attitudinal view of the world.
Hence, as suggested by Kolb above, perhaps each education process should begin by
tapping into the learner’s experiential past, relating the topic-in-hand to the learner’s
theories-in-use. One way of doing that would be to expose the learners through leading
questions e.g. by using a number of objective type questions, which may prompt the
learners to re-live their experience on the topic-in-hand. This should encourage reflection
and if required, modification of the learner’s belief structure. This process would simulate
an environment where the learners can claim ownership of the new level of knowledge
and understanding on the topic-in-hand rather than considering the same being thrust
onto them by the lecturer. Additionally, from the outcome of such a transaction further
learning steps could be planned in an adaptive way, which will cater more precisely to
the learners’ needs while accrediting prior learning of the learners on the topic-in-hand.
Kolb endorses such a view (1993) when learning involves transactions between the
person and the environment and such an approach, thus, helps to go beyond the notion
that learning and educational processes are strictly limited to the province of institutions
conclude that learning was primarily a personal, internal process requiring only
limited environment of books, teacher, and classroom. Indeed, the wider ‘real-
processes, perhaps one would do well to raise the relevant queries in the minds of the
include the instruments learning style inventories, which help us to determine the
The use of learning style in increasing the effectiveness of learning and teaching is not
during our diverse exposure in learning and as we progress through life, we do tend to
develop our own learning styles. The key points of the widely used ‘Kolb’s Learning Style
Model’, adapted from explanations given by Felder (1996) and Rogers (1996) are given
below. They define the four distinct types of learners identified by Kolb.
Felder (1996) they are Type 1 learners. They could be grouped as ‘Why?’-learners,
who respond well to explanations of how course material relates to their experience,
their interests, and their future careers. Felder also claimed that to be effective with
• Some become proficient as theorists. They tend to be analytical people; they try to
make coherent pictures out of complex material. They speak in general rather than
concrete terms (Rogers,1996). According to Felder (1996) they are Type 2 learners.
an organised logical fashion and benefit if they have time for reflection. Felder also
claimed that to be effective with Type 2 students, the instructor should function as an
expert.
brings to bear a number of facts or principles on a single topic: problems have ‘right’
or ‘wrong’ answers (Hudson, 1966). According to Felder (1996) they are Type 3
an environment that allows them to fail safely. Felder also claimed that to be effective
with Type 3 students, the instructor should function as a coach, providing guided
• Some become proficient as activists. They tend to be dynamic, intuitive people; they
they are Type 4 learners. They could be grouped as ‘What if?’-learners, who like
applying course material in new situations to solve real problems. Felder also claimed
that to be effective with Type 4 students, the instructor should stay out of the way,
Rogers (1996) stated that we tend to use all of these styles and we do not confine our
learning efforts to one type alone. But we feel stronger at learning through one approach
rather than through any of the others. Hence, we should be aware that in any learning
group there would always be people with a range of different learning styles.
Consequently, Rogers (1996) concluded that the instructors should adopt a wide range
of teaching-learning activities in order to help those who prefer to learn through active
engagement with experience, those who prefer to reflect critically, those preferred to
develop more generalised views, and those who prefer to experiment and test out other
people’s theories.
Commenting on the learning cycle, Fardouly (1998) expressed concern that the
expectations of educators are somewhat biased, as they are more inclined to validate
the way ‘theorists’ learn. According to him, the aim of all education is to produce
analytical theorists even though about 70% of learners are not analytic learners. On the
We learn better, as well as feel good about ourselves, when someone is teaching
us in our most comfortable style. The process of learning which best encourages
well-rounded skill development, is one which moves through all the learning
comfortable and successful part of the time while being stretched to develop other
learning abilities. They will also learn from each other as they each excel at
Figure 4. gives a perspective view of the Kolb’s learning style concept, which is
superimposed on the experiential learning diagram. The figure shows the two major
differences in our learning activities, namely, how we perceive and how we process.
others are more at ease to think things through as we take new information. Fardouly
• are intuitive.
Thinking people
• reason experience
In processing information, some of would be active doers while others would prefer to be
reflective observers or watchers. Again Fardouly (1998) defined these two groups as
follows:
Watching people
Doing people
These four combinations of perceiving and processing determine the four different
Sensing/
Feeling
Concrete
Experience
Activis Reflec to
Doing Experimentationt
Active
r Reflective
Observation Watching
Expe rimen t Theo ris
er t
Fig 4. Kolb’s Learning Style
model superimposed on the
experiential learning cycle.
Abstract
Conceptualisation
Thinking
Interpretation Booklet (Kolb, 1985). The other widely used learning style inventory is by
Honey and Mumford and is called the Learning Style Questionnaire (Honey et al., 1982).
More recently Index of Learning Styles by Solomon and Felder (Felder et al.
which has forty four questions to categorise learners’ style of learning in the following
categories:
(Allison et al., 1988). Even though it is possible to identify the learning styles of
in teaching, when individuals are exposed to only a limited number of learning activities
to which they are, in theory, best suited. (Robotham, 1995). Therefore, he advocated that
training should seek to move beyond the enhancement of performance within a narrow
spectrum of activities, and consider the development of foundation skills, such as self
directed learning, when the learner would choose the appropriate learning style to suit
3.4 Learning as the Major Process of Human Adaptation as well as the Source of
Knowledge Creation
Thus, Kolb stated that experiential learning should be viewed from a broader
adaptation, where thinking, feeling, perceiving, behaving are all there ------
etc. Learning connects all experiential life situations such as school, work, leisure and
other exposures ---- thus, making it a holistic adaptive process, continuing through
various stages of life. This continuous nature of exposure, according to Dewey, has an
active side, which changes the objective conditions under which experiences are held.
Kolb refers to this as the transactional relationship between the learner and the
environment, which gives a dual meaning to the term ‘experience’ ---- one subjective and
personal and the other objective and environmental and once they are related, both are
human cultural experience and the individual person’s subjective life experiences.
the learning process, and to understand learning, we must understand epistemology ----
the origin, nature, methods and limits of knowledge. (Kolb, 1993: p.153).
4 Conclusion
This paper attempted to analyse the present trends in outcome-based adult education
and its pitfalls when such practices are focused on a narrow range of competencies as
the course content. It was pointed out that in lieu of emphasising on content or outcome,
the stress should be on the process of adaptation and learning. Learning was also seen
5 References
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Literacy Equation, pp. 71-79. Red Hill, Australia: Queensland Council for Adult
Literacy.
Dewey, J. 1963. “Experience and Education”, Collier Books, New York.
Felder, R. 1993. “Reaching the Second Tier: Learning and Teaching Styles in College
Science Education”. J. College Science Teaching. 23(5), 286-290.
Field, J. 1993. “Competency and the pedagogy of labour”, in M. Thorpe, R. Edwards and
A. Hanson (eds.), Culture and Processes of Adult Learning, London,
Routledge.
Harris, R.; Guthrie, H.; Hobart, B.; and Lundberg, D. 1995. “Competency-Based
Education and Training: Between a Rock and a Whirlpool”. South Melbourne:
Macmillan Education Australia.
Jarvis, P. 1987. “Adult learning in the context of teaching”, Adult Education (US) 60.
Kolb, D. A. 1985. “LSI Learning-Style Inventory”. Boston, McBer & Company, Training
Resource Group.
Knowles, Malcolm S . 1970 . The modern practice of adult education . New York ,
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Mezirow, J. 1981. “A critical theory of adult learning and education”, Adult Education
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