Sailing Aerodynamics

OD amics
LIBRARY
erated for aerospike591@gmail.com on 2013-08-23 16:48 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015006058302 lic Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google
ast 40th Street, Netv York 16, N. Y.
ngs.
book which has been a great pleasure to me to assemble will be,
r indirectly, a source of pleasure to yachtsmen. Some parts might
mposed of formidable equations and mathematics but when these are
will be found to be only the most elementary trigonometry which every-
tand. From these calculations, however, are derived performance
and aerofoils and these are the figures which interest us most deeply.
which these figures have been got must be given so that, not only my
checked, but also that other figures may be obtained for other aerofoils
been made to give more of aerodynamic theory than is necessary
he principles of airflow around an aerofoil and the basic figures on which
amics are founded. More advanced facts and theory may be obtained
aeroplane aerodynamics to which those interested should refer.
ons of the author are described in the text. None have been
will allow them to be perfected by anyone interested, if they should
ful. Naturally, I will give what help I can to anyone doing such develop-
given all aspects of Sailing Aerodynamics which are mentioned in
at deal of thought over a period of many years, it is certain that several
ubject have been neglected and the presentation of other aspects is not
ssible. If, therefore, anyone feels that a particular feature of the subject
re interested has been neglected, I should be glad if they would let me
Water
n of Aerofoils
ng on the Boat
of Sailing Rigs
ements in Rig
Around an Aerofoil
Bermudian Rig
and Leeward Power of Sails ic Force and its Conversion to a
ect of Sails on the Wind
.. .. .. 18
.. .. .. .. 18
.. 28
29
30
.. .. .. .. 32
1 .. .. .. 33
.. .. .. .. 35
of 0, 0.5 and 1.0.. .. 36
ce of an aerofoil .. .. 38
(w = 40) .. .. 50
orce (w = 40) .. .. 51
de force .. .. .. 52
at w = 120 .. .. 53
ourse .. .. .. 53
. .. 54
per unit heeling moment 55
.. 57
oble 71
Lateener .. .. .. .. .. 72
ge .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 73
75
.. .. 76
78
g-squaresail .. .. .. .. 79
" squaresail .. .. .. 80
ngular sails .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 81
rig .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 82
e figures of various aerofoils and a Bermudian mainsail .. 83
asymmetrical aerofoil .. .. .. 85
symmetrical aerofoil .. .. .. .. .. 86
d reefable asymmetrical aerofoil .. .. .. .. 86
a large aerodynamic force .. .. .. .. .. 87
e rig 89
rig with adjustable slope .. .. .. 94
air around a boat close hauled and reaching .. .. 98
air around a boat, running 100
dies .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 102
n and " Fronts" .. .. .. 103
one .. .. .. .. .. .. 104
nd of stable air .. .. .. .. 108
nd 109
66. Onshore winds of various kinds .. .. 109, 110
Offshore winds of various kinds .. .. .. 110
ding waves : .. . HI
f bubble thermal .. .. .. .. 113
upward air current .. .. 114
ermal wind .. .. .. .. 115
under cumulus clouds .. .. 115
cending and descending air currents on the wind .. .. 116
eze H7
eze H8
c wind 118
ic wind H9
e breeze in thermal conditions .. .. 1*9
f various surfaces on a thermal onshore breeze .. 120
nd sailing ships evolved throughout the ages by a process of
ications of the primary log, bundle of reeds or inflated skin by
ers of mostly unknown men. Each sailor may be thought of as
individuality to his boat or ship and where that individuality produced
fficiency, other sailors would adopt it. In this way, a fresh method of
or of staying the mast would slowly spread from boat to boat, if it in-
ease of handling or speed. Thus, the hollowed log canoe, the bundle
nflated skin gradually became transformed into the beautiful sailing
he nineteenth century, the J class yacht of the twentieth century or the
l but humbler dinghy.
robably passed through most of its stages on the Nile and rivers
awaddy and other Asiatic rivers. Later stages of progress occurred in
ean countries followed by the Viking countries, especially Norway and
se places have one thing in common. That is, sheltered water in
ment but not so sheltered that seaworthiness could be neglected.
aboard of North America also has great stretches of sheltered water
the rapid evolution of typically American types of sailing boats and
ance and England have very few areas of sheltered water so evolution
trial and error, did not take place. The French studied and theorised
approach made themselves the master shipwrights of the eighteenth
d's naval prowess was, in my opinion due to her cannon or her ability
she mostly copied the French hulls till she was able to master the
nique on her own in the nineteenth century. The sails of boats did
with the hulls in their development and both the square rig and the fore
improved little since the Dutch sea power was in its prime and the
ve their flax into the best sails in the world.
evolution is slow and requires the thought of generations of men
gress, however good a ship or boat it may produce for a given purpose
als available. Countless experiments must be made with devices,
nd in failure. An example of this is seen in some recent experiments
e like the wing of an aeroplane, rigid and untwisted. To be practical
ail had the same curvature on both sides. It was quite capable of driving
s not as good as the conventional Bermudian rig. The next step in
ing an aerofoil whose sides are not
ght then show an advance in effici-
adopted.
scientific study of materials,
from it which the purely practical
nce, in this study, I will show
ent than the Bermudian rig, though
ue when used as sails. This has
esult of tests of the different types
o their power to drive a boat
mics." This is a study well worth
not only may it enable us to sail our
tailed study, the basic facts of some
, of such a kind as to make the sailing
ce more fill the seas with beautiful
y is proved by the fact that the
en travels thousands of miles at an
erline length in feet, recent examples
days, 3,010 miles L.W.L. 33f.
days, 2,870 miles.
el Pepys," L.W.L. 24'.
* days, L.W.L. 16', 2,800m.
over great distances. The very
e it no faster than this, a ship one
per hour.
able of " Planing " or rising up
by its water line length so the aim
sails or aerofoils which will give the
n this way that the average speed
force of a rig or aerofoil, therefore,
it is with this force in mind that the
ich they have been spread to
s seen them has compared one with
he first primitive boat. The in-
ous stimulus to the study of the flow
shapes and sizes and, as is the way
is available to us for our information,
ed by the use of wind tunnels in
of air of known speed and the forces
he results of such experiments that
be concerned in this book. Thus, it is no longer necessary to try every
o find its value. Mathematical calculations can replace a vast amount
r work though, after the mathematics have been concluded, a practical
which appear best must be made because it is impossible to allow for
the theoretical examination of any rig. Then, too, there is the factor of
qualities of a rig, namely, whether it is not only practicable but safe to
lly should some part break. Sailing aerodynamics will therefore give
er as to whether a certain rig is worth trying on a boat and, in this way,
hich are bound to result in failure can be avoided such as the trial of a
rofoil which has already been mentioned.
as applied to aeroplanes, are different from aerodynamics as applied
The designer of aeroplanes is interested in the lift which his aeroplane
d the power which his engine must supply to give his aeroplane speed
erefore, the forces which act upon the wings of an aeroplane are
o equivalent forces, lift and drag which correspond to the two factors in
rested. Lift and drag are, therefore, primarily functions of.the wings
. The yacht designer, on the other hand, is interested in the force which
t forwards and the force which tends to drive the yacht sideways, pro-
These forces are functions of the course of the boat as well as being
sails. In addition, the keel or centreboard of a sailing boat has to be
orm to prevent as much leeway as possible without slowing the boat
and heeling and righting moments must be adequately balanced. These
licate the work of the yacht designer to such an extent that his work is
many of his designs are founded on previous ones which have proved
use the precise calculation of many of his forces is not possible.
ated for aerospike591@gmail.com on 2013-08-23 16:48 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015006058302 Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google
on of the material of this book, I have had little help from other
g aerodynamics. Opinion, at the moment, often seems to have accepted
f the aerodynamic force acting on the sails of a boat into lift and drag,
hich predominately belongs to the aeroplane. A moment's thought will,
nce anyone that this resolution is not only useless in the case of yachts
eading. The resolution of the aerodynamic force which is the resul-
e sails of a boat, after all the little pulls and pushes, acting on the sails
directions, have been integrated together, is logically to be made, not
e wind or the sails, but to the boat. It is this conception which has
culation of the forces which act on the boat to be made.
ea which has been used is that the wind itself is a force. That,
r can be. The wind striking an object creates a force by its motion
object but the force so created acts on the object.
the material which has been used for this study is the result of
hat great pioneer of aerodynamics, Eiffel, in the period before 1914.
go so far back in time to get material may seem a little odd till one
e basic nature of sails is to have the minimum of thickness. This pro-
ly simple pattern of experiments to be carried out. These experiments
ance to aeroplane designers, they
eroplanes must have thickness.
hickness for boats and is prepared
) which could be shown to have
ils. However, the first essential is
hich will give, in as few figures as
perties. This has been done and as
th each other to find which ones will
oats. Aerofoils of many different
ckness/chord ratios. Aerofoils
m have also been studied. The best of
later in the text in detail. It will
h will best serve his purpose, for no
g and boat speeds. Finally, the rigid
aerofoil that is selected may have
and canvas. If that is so, a period
f intense interest.
are reduced to figures which
hich a boat is subject. The most
which the short and convenient word
g to drive the boat sideways for
ust and side force vary as the
The course of the boat ; 3. The
e sail area and 6. The density of
the course of the boat and the speed
res or coefficients which are figures
r dimension. To explain this non-
e divided by a force gives a figure
no longer present.
onal practice where the absolute
is the coefficient, R is the
e density of air in slugs per cubic
n feet per second. Older British
o tests before 1936 where the
ue must be doubled to compare
ts, three of the variable factors
omplicate our picture. Of the three
m of the sails is used leaving only
of the boat affecting the coefficients
, the coefficient of thrust was cal-
t of side force was calculated for
at speeds only for the close hauled course. It is by these figures that
n of an aerofoil or sails is presented.
t the presentation of calculations by means of graphs will render
ly understood because one can see at a glance how the various factors
studied affect the thrust on the boat. The presentation of the graphs
dified by the forward speed of the boat is difficult. This problem is
erodynamics only and does not concern the aeroplane at all. A measure
d had to be adopted and it was found that the ratio of the speed of the
ed of the wind gave results which showed the effect reasonably. This
med the " Speed ratio." All graphs must be drawn to give an absolute
ce must be drawn to the course of the boat from the true wind, not the
However, when the speed ratio is zero, the real wind is the same as the
To be complete, the graphs would have to be drawn for all speed ratios
1. It is felt, however, that it is sufficient, as a rule, to give the two
f speed ratios 0 and 1 between which all boats sail and calculate all
m. In the more important calculations, the figures for a speed ratio
as well as those for speed ratios of 0 and 1. In strong winds, a boat
y relative to the speed of the wind so the speed ratio approaches 0. In
oat is moving quickly relative to the speed at which the wind is going
roaches 1 (over 1 in ice yachts). This does not mean that our curves
on the speed of the wind, as such. They are corrected for this. A boat
me speed as the wind, even in a strong wind, would have a curve of
1 type from its sails which we would mostly associate with light winds.
he greatest windward efficiency of yacht sails should be given for
mination of sailing aerodynamics. Three definitions can be given
side force into account. The first is the greatest possible thrust per
40 from the wind, all the sail area being measured. The second is
ssible thrust per measured sail area at 40 from the wind, the overlaps
sails not being measured. The third definition of greatest possible
greatest possible thrust per unit heeling moment at 40 from the wind,
unrestricted. In this case, the lower aspect ratio sails (aspect ratio is
en the height and base of the sails) would have greater sail area than the
atio sails because their heeling moments would be less. Only two of
s will be used in this book. Measured sail area is artificial and variable
s important, it cannot be permanently catered for. It will not be con-
l. Windward performance in strong winds depends on the ratio
s rat*o wu' De exammed, where appropriate.
been made possible by wind tunnel tests on model aerofoils of which
us number have been tested in the last fifty years. Present day tests
d reliable. Actually, they are more reliable for our purposes than they
nes owing to the law of dynamic similarity which states that for aero-
ed version will behave in the same manner as the model and produce
oth is the same, v being the windspeed
he aerofoil. Now, most wind tunnel
20 feet per second for the aerofoils
a windspeed of about 20 feet per second
been used here is better for our pur-
e fully accurate, however, because
se the performance to be much
ssing, it may be mentioned that
when -: is constant.
oils have been tested for their
e their thrust coefficients, the number
wind tunnel tests so far carried
m the results which are available, a
ey are at present employed and aerofoil
increase the efficiency of sails
of yachts and their displacements
attained for less sail area, for the
greatly increased by the wetted area
Around an Aerofoil
over and under an aerofoil inclined at a small angle to its direction
d from its course. Now, when a body is moving at a uniform
ght line, it requires a force to alter either its direction or speed.
ails exert a force on the wind and, since action and reaction are equal
he wind exerts a force on the sails.
he flow of air around an aerofoil such as that shown in Fig. 1 will
ed. The arrows represent the direction of the air as it flows by. Fig. 2
w of air around an aerofoil
same aerofoil and the arrows pointing to it and from it represent the
pon it at the various places, the relative lengths of the arrows showing
of the forces. At AA', the air is moving in a straight line and so no
ed. At BB', the air is forced out of its course upwards, from the weather
o a force is produced acting downwards, or to weather, both above and
he air is being continually pulled and pushed downwards so a force
ng upwards. At DD', a curious thing happens for the negative pressure
de pulls the air from the lower side of positive pressure right onto the
e aerofoil. This small though acute curvature of the path of the air
ig. 1
once more flowing more or less
ction as at AA', the angle between them
on of the airflow gives a measure
acting forces at the leading and
eir presence greatly affects sails in an
ify them advantageously. The jib
s good as is aerodynamically possible.
interesting to note that the acute
ig. 1
IR AROUND AN AEROFOIL
re of the air at the trailing edge is associated with a small eddy on the
ue to a localised instability of flow. This is the cause of the shivering
ainsails. The downward pressure which occurs explains why a home-
e saw had a leech which curled acutely to windward, much to my amaze-
er of this sail cut off the curling part to find that the leech still curled.
well, however, and seemed to be none the worse for its unusual leech.
study of the sailing curves for aerofoils with split flaps, it is possible
actually improved the performance of this sail in light winds.
am from Eiffel showing the distribution of positive and negative
h were actually measured on an aerofoil of uniform arch i.e., it was an
The arching was 1 in 7 which means that the greatest distance of the
ord was 1 /7 of the chord. These measurements were taken in a wind
g holes in the aerofoil and then sealing up all but one. A pressure
ddies
eter) was then attached to the open hole by a tube, the windflow was
pressure at that point of the aerofoil was recorded. Similarly, the
e other holes were measured and this diagram is the result of such
for the whole aerofoil section. What this diagram shows is that the nega-
n the upper side of the aerofoil is much greater than the positive
underside.
en at the Institute of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers in
nt was given of experiments on yacht sails carried out by Warner and
experiments, the negative pressure of the Bermudian rig was found
5% of the total driving force of the sails when close hauled, 45% on a
when running before the wind. This makes it desirable to have as
f air on the leeside of the sail as possible. In our Bermudian rig,
ast interferes with this flow for approximately the fore 10% of the breadth
es are formed by it which greatly reduce the negative pressure on the -J
and Ober showed that the loss of force from these eddies was 18%
led, 15% when reaching. No loss of force was caused when running.
e mast eddies, the airflow again joins the sail. Fig. 4 is a diagram
ect of the mast on the airflow.
n inclined at a small angle to
he angle, we find as we would
and the force on the aerofoil increases.
however, because, at that angle,
e described and the small eddies,
g edge, extend right forward and
s shown in Fig. 5. When a break-
ed by the aerofoil falls off rapidly
eddies and the condition is described
st, close hauled, with the sail just
e hauled, with the mainsail just under
with the mainsail well under the stall.
airflow over the wings of air-
gned to improve either the leading
membered that at those places
have been considering. Because
e devices, the stalling point is greatly
oduced by the aerofoil is increased.
a maximum value of its coefficient
angle of 12.1 from a line normal
a " Slat " is added to the leading
eatest and the angle at which it acts
ection.
rofoils are known as " Flaps."
ed being the Fowler flap and the
mple of the effect of the Fowler
e resultant aerodynamic force from
amic force which has so far been
me for an aspect ratio of 6 : 1 for a rectangular aerofoil is 2.66 for a wing
dge slat, an intermediate slot and a Fowler flap. This figure takes into
ra area which is added when the devices are in use. Fig. 6. is a diagram
tion of the system of aerofoils which gave this figure. The coefficient
" Rotor " is given as approximately 10.0, taking the diameter area for
ure will be examined later.
ature about these high lift devices is that they improve the airflow
f the aerofoil at high angles of attack so that the breakaway at the stall
dily take place. It follows as a necessary fact that one aerofoil giving
another at the same windspeed, area, density of air and angle of attack
t a greater distance from it than its fellow. This, to a certain extent,
netian blind fallacy. This fallacy is, shortly, that, if a few small aero-
lift " aerofoil section
ve just been described give a greater force than a single one, very many
ed like a Venetian blind should give more force still. The fallacy lies
the maximum coefficient which can be derived from an area through which
1, if no air outside the area is affected. This is also the fallacy of the
l schemes for driving propellors which drive boats which are heard
e to time.
have so far studied has been in two dimensions only. However,
three dimensional object and affects the air differently at different places
. Fig. 7 is a diagram of a triangular aerofoil as seen from each side.
cate the direction of airflow. Only the air at the centreline of such an
orizontally from the leading to the trailing edge. On the windward
e pressure causes the air to stream out from the centreline. On the
he negative pressure causes the air to stream towards the centreline.
y seen that the air tends to flow from the weather to the leeside at both
the trailing edges for a short distance only. The combination of all
ddies " or trailing edge vortices
the upcurving air from one side
op and bottom, however, the eddies
he bottom eddy being much the
ully if this aerofoil is a sail on a boat,
ip eddies which cause, under
rcraft.
ower by an aerofoil, the wing tip
espect so, the longer and narrower
a given loss of power in the wing
io, gjjjjjjjL is of value though,
reater wind speed at greater distances
the air flows is most difficult
ut it may be proved by holding a
arious positions near the sail.
ed upon by the wind so that
aerodynamic theory and some of this
if it were incompressible. In
flowing along a pipe which is
taken out of it. The air flowing
maginary pipes called streamlines.
ve the aerofoil, the streamlines must
ng faster there. Similarly, the
s an experimental demonstration
cal equation produced by a man called Bernouilli in 1783 showing that
locity of a flowing fluid reduces its pressure and vice versa. Thus, the
uced over most of the upper surface of the aerofoil and increased over
er surface. This decrease and increase of pressure does not mean that
l vacuum or compression of the air. The pressure referred to is the
vement of the particles of air, i.e., it is a dynamic pressure^ A homely
ch will demonstrate the flow of air around an aerofoil, at least partially,
on with the blade half submerged through a basin of granulated sugar
ns slow down and pile up in places where there would be positive
peed up and form hollows where there would be negative pressure.^
to examine the nature of the transfer of pressure from the air to
e air is affected by the aerofoil at a considerable distance from it, not
ri tube
but also across wind. At the back of the aerofoil, the wind is speeded
e its pressure is reduced for some distance away from the aerofoil.
d pressure is not then passed from streamline to streamline till it is
e surface. The pressure which is passed onto the surface is the local
utside the aerofoil due to the local acceleration of the air.
hich is exerted at any one point on the surface of an aerofoil acts
o the tangent at that point. Thus, if any part of a sail is placed so
cting at right angles to its tangent has a backward component, that part
ding the boat back. However, to place part of a sail to draw backwards,
cases, increase the forward pull of other parts in which case an advantage
d?]
aerofoil or sail produces a wake and, though this is mostly pro-
eddies which have been described, a part is produced as follows. The
th a sail moves at the same speed as it does. Outside of this air, the
, one on another, till at a certain distance away from the surface, the
y unaffected by this retarding effect. This area of slip is known as the
in the case of an aerofoil though
produced by the aerofoil are assu-
as if it were not present. If one
it is travelling along, one sees that
the same speed as the ship. The
r for a short distance and then at a
he water no longer appears to be carried
waves. The air boundary layer can
w such as has been described
the drag on the aerofoil to increase.
upon an aerofoil into lift and
drag acting in the direction of the
g aerodynamics but, as our figures
aeroplane aerodynamics, one must
which we can use. It is useful,
s and thus be in a position to under-
ened to Cdo) ard 2. Induced
of skin friction drag and " Form
ortex street " or pig tail eddies
wing tip eddies and the downwind
unction of the coefficient of lift. A
coefficient of drag on an aerofoil
n as an experimental result.
erofoil which is rigid in con-
es a difference in flow. Fig. 9
line joining the luff and leech is
ly above it. Pressure to windward
so the sail must be trimmed as
force. However, if a sail were rigid
e obtained by an elongated streamlined
olved, or very well battened like the sails of some of the boats of the
, the arch could be increased and a negative incidence accepted at the
th an increased performance. With our present day sails, the greatest
en the luff is at the greatest negative incidence it will stand i.e., with
ng. The arch of 1 in 13.5 gives the greatest forward component of
c force on a boat when close hauled with the luff just lifting. The
ves a slightly greater force but it acts more downwind and hence has less
mponent to drive the boat when close hauled.
ble gives the figures :
ero- Angle from wind
Force minus 90
13.5
gures with the luff just lifting. If negative incidence can be accepted
iderably better ones are obtained. Fig. 9 should be compared with
ow of air around a Bermudian mainsail will be understood. The
pon the sail, under these conditions, are substantially the same as in
uld be remembered that the sail, when just drawing, is also just at the
here the maximum aerodynamic force is present. Sails of low aspect
close hauled well below the stalling point because, though the force
er at the stall, the angle at which it acts results in a less favourable forward
essary to examine the flow of air over the hull of the boat and the
not ordinarily affected as by an aerofoil. The air rises at the weather
, flows over the top and eddies at the leeside. It acquires no great
e from a boat placed at 45 across its direction. There must be some
dspeed above the hull but, owing to the eddies, it is of no great value.
e sea on the windflow around the sails is of the greatest practical
ause it prevents the full development of the boom eddy. This eddy is
great waste of power and its lessening gives the sails the characteristics of
greater aspect ratio. This point can be explained more clearly by
eoretical case of the sails actually being placed in contact with the water.
friction between the wind and the water, there would be no boom eddy
ails would have the coefficients of twice their aspect ratio. In actual
er, there is friction between the water and the wind and there is the
e boom and the boat's deck. It has been estimated, though I know of
tests, to prove the point, that the increase of apparent aspect ratio as a
a is 50%. In working out the aspect ratio of your yacht, therefore, you
e your final figure an increase of 50% to produce an approximate value
are it with the sails of other boats or with aerofoils of different shapes.
il or aerofoil as the result of
form we are going to
ctions do not lend them-
is can be done in either of two ways.
e acting in one direction or, secondly,
angles to each other. Sailing aero-
and the angle at which this force acts
e is called the "Aerodynamic force"
in which it acts is taken to be the
e will be denoted by the letter d.
nnels where a model of an
ent of air flowing at a known speed.
of aeroplane designers, the measure-
w and at right angles to it. Before
solve it into the aerodynamic force
ow at which it acts.
mic force are :
both atmospheric temperature
nd.
lination of the aerofoil to the
n our boats and also which is
o set it, so we must find some way
3 do not appear. These factors
ures, but it is necessary to know that
d the area of the aerofoil. It is also
rent wind, within limits, as the follow-
rom Brown's Nautical Almanac.
MIC FORCE AND ITS CONVERSION TO A COEFFICIENT
shows is that the force is proportional to the square of the apparent
ere is a slight error in this in light winds, however, which occurs as
teration of aerodynamic characteristics which becomes marked at wind
han 5 miles per hour. This alteration, which is unfavourable, causes
both the course to be steered and the trim of the sails to be necessary
nd speeds. This effect will be examined later.
ting the aerodynamic force produced by an aerofoil by dividing
ea of the aerofoil, the density of the air and the square of the windspeed,
e which is no longer a force, a speed, an area or a density. It is non-
s called the coefficient of the aerodynamic force or Cr. This co-
acting on the aerofoil which we
which acts at a certain angle
coefficient and the angle at
arent wind.
FORCE
nts driving the boat forwards and
n be in a position to examine these
sail. The course of the boat will
le of the fore and aft line of the
. When w is O, the bow of the
blows across the water in either
CTING ON THE BOAT
ction. The forward speed of the boat causes both these to alter giving
wind" which is the wind indicated in direction by the racing flag and whose
ed by a masthead wind speed indicator, if carried. We will start by
e forces produced by the apparent wind and afterwards see how they
hen taken in relation to the real wind. The angle of the boat from the
will be denoted by the letter a.
he forces acting on a boat to drive it to windward. The apparent
the sails and produces a resultant aerodynamic force (R). This force
into two forces, one thrusting the boat forward, T, the thrust, and the
drive the boat sideways, S.F., the side force. The thrust force is less
rce but the resistance to the sideways motion is much greater than the
rward motion, due to the action of the centreplate or keel and so the boat
should be realised that the wind itself is not a force though it is stated
e books. Neither should the profile or induced drag be separately
achtsmen, except as already mentioned. They should merely be in-
of the many forces acting on the aerofoil to produce the resultant aero-
athematical resolution of the resultant aerodynamic force. WA
of the apparent wind. AC is the direction in which the aerodynamic
d being an angle aft of a right angle. AB is the direction in which the
g making an angle a with the apparent wind. The angle ABC is a right
resents the coefficient of the resultant aerodynamic force. The
-a+d.
90 -a +d) = Cr Cos. (90 -a+d) and
0-a+d).
efficient of side force so the final
it is not strictly necessary, the
equations become :
a thin rectangular aerofoil of
publishes not only the values of
e aerodynamic force and d, the angle
re the figures we need. If, now,
ainst d, the angle at which it acts,
ss or sharpness of the peak at about
value of Cr from this peak indicates
boat would be very difficult to
d mean that the full value of the
btained.
we select from the curve of
a. Each pair is then worked out
e several values of Or for each
each a is then used to produce
the Ct is the mathematical
CTING ON THE BOAT
iumq)
ACROFOH. Of MINIMAL THICKNCSS
of the aerodynamic force
aying out and hauling in the sheets to find when the drive on a boat is
rve showing the greatest possible coefficients of thrust plotted against
he boat from the apparent wind. It will be noted that the inclination
e wind is not part of this graph. It has to be extracted from Eiffel's
Cr or d and put along it.
being the graph of the Ct to the apparent wind a, is also the graph
real wind w, if it is infinitely strong or the boat is stationary, because,
trong wind, the boat may be considered to have no forward speed and
h it is a matter of practical import-
ue of drive to the apparent wind
y meets, in the aerodynamic study,
eir values in respect of the real wind
apparent wind is the real wind
pressed by saying that the ratio
has a value of zero.
h is quite a high proportion
the boat meets so that it comes
t a different speed. Thus, a boat
ng at fifteen knots has to contend
ming from a point more forward
re exerted by the wind is proportional
crease in wind speed is considerable,
e decreased angle at which it acts,
at, in a light wind, a boat will
e wind over the quarter.
ction of the boat, its size and
rries, that the effect of the speed of
ain taking a limiting case, a graph
taining when the apparent wind
al wind. The limiting case which
io is unity (where the speed of the
hts can go faster than the wind which
g before it.
wind speed to the real wind
eed ratio is 1. Also on the diagram
nd strikes the boat. In this diagram
nto the wind, the apparent wind
apparent wind dies away com-
wing at intermediate speeds. For
the bow, the apparent wind of
the bow. The force exerted by the
the lesser angle at which it acts
an angle of the real wind (w)
relative speed of the apparent
rom the graph of Fig. 14, we find
by the square of the relative speed
gle of the real wind of 60 when
CTING ON THE BOAT
CTING ON THE BOAT
is 1. Similarly, we can graph the Ct for all angles of the real wind.
a graph for the rectangular aerofoil we have been examining for a speed
wo graphs, Figs. 14 and 16, for the coefficients of thrust for a rec-
aspect ratio 6 : 1 and arch 1 in 13.5 plotted against w, the angle of the
he bow. They are both drawn together in Fig. 17 with a third graph
o of 0.5. If, now, one wants to know the values of the coefficients of
, one can say that they lie between the two outside curves, nearer to
speed ratio of 0 in strong winds when the boat is going slowly relative
the wind and nearer to the curve for a speed ratio of 1 in light winds,
is going quickly relative to the wind's speed. From Fig. 17, it will be
t boat in light winds will go most quickly with the real wind just before
e wind freshens, the best speed will be obtained with the real wind
y strong winds, the best speed will be got with the real wind about 13
. These remarks will hold only for this particular aerofoil at the aspect
her efficient aerofoils including the sails of the Bermudian rig are,
imilar.
he beginning of this chapter that the factors which influence the
e resultant aerodynamic force are :
the aerofoil.
inclination of the aerofoil to the apparent wind.
the boat.
have added another variable, viz., the course of the boat and split up
rodynamic force into thrust and side force. We have assumed that the
tion of the aerofoil to the apparent wind is that which gives the greatest
the aerofoil. the boat.
rse. In this way, we have reduced the factors which alter the Cf
, but have added another, the course of the boat, so we still have three,
w) of the boat.
o know is the best shape of aerofoil or aerofoils for our boats, so what
s to draw the sailing curves of the Ct to the course of the boat for speed
1 for many shapes of aerofoils and we will then be in a position to select
suits our purpose best.
arisons between one aerofoil and another as easy as possible, certain
be extracted from the sailing curves of each aerofoil for the various
h we are most interested. Windward performance is given by the
= 40. This assumes a course made good of 45 with 5 of leeway.
of interest when close hauled because it is then greatest. Its value
s is small in comparison. The following figures have been extracted
ourse (w) of 40. In light winds, it on this figure alone that the
CTING ON THE BOAT
eed of the boat depends for, in light winds, as will be shown
l resistance is much more than is required, so the Csf >s of little
winds below 5 miles per hour, however, when the aerodynamic
e sail worsen, the Csf must again be considered.
t a course (w) of 40. This ratio is, in some measure, a figure
y of the aerofoil. It is on its value that the maximum speed
strong winds depends.
ourse (w) of 120.
t which VCx Cos. w. is greatest. This formula is a measure
ad to windward in light winds. In those conditions as will be
ore detail, the resistance of hulls is roughly proportional to the
peed at which they are travelling so the speed is then proportional
oot of the thrust. In addition, on light days the course at which
st is the best course at which to sail a boat close hauled.
actor." The above four figures which we are going to extract
curves have, as their basis, unit sail area. If we take as our
cy, unit heeling moment, however, rigs with a large side force
t ratio would need to be reduced in area to compensate. The
e formula for the area factor will be given later but it may be
the figure by which the sail area must be multiplied so that
ment of the rig will be the same as that of a sail of aspect ratio
of 1.
CT at w = 40. That is, the CT at w = 40 multiplied by the
CT at w = 120.
bined chart of all the graphs we have examined for a rectangular
tio 6 : 1 and arch 1 in 13.5. The extracted performance figures are
and top corner.
pendent on the close hauled
unnatural conditions prevail,
nt along the eastern seaboard
past, the rule makers produce a
the sails must evolve along lines
l evolution, is the change of hull
lose hauled, the gaff rig produces
s the Bermudian. This, in turn,
, in England especially, before the
nding almost from the stem to the
ds, the sail area was increased
utter with tremendous sail area and
20's, mostly onto hulls of the
ndward at a slight loss of speed
orce was much smaller and that
tly decreased. There were, indeed,
but it is possible that their information
Bermudian rig rather than by a
vent and realise why the light dis-
placing the older form. It is because
less side force than lower aspect
ed of unnatural hull development.
ere is often the need for some device
dward. The Dutch invented
for this purpose. Even this was not
s of boats of this kind quickly in-
as the seventeenth century with a
re slower in increasing aspect
ce in shoal waters. However, once
d rapidly. In England, the " length
cement " skimming dishes " which
E WATER
ugsail whose height was equal to the length of the boat, and whose yard
ical.
mples of how a hull form can affect the rig can be given. The
of the American multimast schooners where six or seven masts, each
ged were put on a ship. These ships, it has been stated, were better
an the full rigged ships but their voyages were not so good. The
was, of course, that these heavy sailing ships, with their bottoms
ed a lot of driving which only the square rig was able to give them.
was free, the square rig more than made up for the schooner's
iority. The other example is the outrigger canoe of the Pacific islands.
gh speeds of these canoes relative to the wind, the apparent wind must
orward of the beam. Therefore, a very close winded rig had to be devel-
as taken the form of a fairly high aspect ratio sail either triangular or
lan form with spars at both the leading and trailing edges. It is hard
re close winded rig.
es to examine the dynamic characteristics of a hull, especially if
o define what it is, a complex picture results. A thing, a mixture of
oat is attached to a boat. The keel cannot be called a hydrofoil because
on the surface of the water, nor can it be called a boat because it has
haracteristics of a hydrofoil. The hull, too, is not a simple boat because
akes are, to some extent, used to prevent leeway. Moreover, the whole
hauled in strong winds, travels through the water at an angle to the
of about 5, though this angle becomes less in light winds as will be
to forward motion of the hull consists of two parts: these are skin
ve making. The wave making does not become serious till the boat
a speed in nautical miles per hour of the square root of its waterline
Below this speed, the main resistance is due to skin friction which,
th hull surface, varies at just less than the square of the speed of the
propulsive power of the sails varies exactly as the square of the speed
the speed of a boat at low speeds is approximately proportional to the
nd, other factors remaining unchanged. This means that when the
smooth, if the wind blows twice as fast, the boat will go slightly more
st. This holds only for low speeds. When wave making resistance
creased speed of the boat as the wind speed increases, gets less and the
modern yacht has a top speed of about 1.5 times the square root of its
h in feet, though some very light displacement types and, of course,
ling canoes, will scoot along the top of the water and " Plane."
estions of hull form and hull balance are out of place but the whole
he fin or centreboard must be examined in so far as it acts as a hydrofoil
way which the side force, produce by the sails, would cause. It is only
amine this effect on a close hauled course because on other courses,
, in effect, negligible.
ost respects, comparable to
y," we may read " Angle of
Lift " and for resistance to
o are subject to less than 2%
lation to the hull instead of in relation
stant direction, all the forces
s equal to the resistance to forward
to lateral motion. Now, the ratio
out the whole speed range, close
e constant. These forces are shown
1^., ratio was 0-6 and,
d have to have a resistance
such as 3. Before wave making
slowly, the Fê"i resistance ratio
d and lateral resistances are
E WATER
the square of the boat's speed. As the wind strengthens, however, wave
nce appears, causing a great increase in the resistance to forward motion
able increase in speed or resistance to lateral motion. This tends to
se in the resistance ratio which can, up to a point, be kept at its
he case of our aerofoil 0.6) by increase in the angle of leeway which
teral resistance. When, however, the angle of leeway reaches the value
outs, no further increase in lateral resistance is possible by this method
ag of the hull begins to increase still further due to the oblique angle
ll is travelling through the water and the boat will slow down. The
n on the assumption that the boat is sailing reasonably upright due to
t on the keel. It seems likely that, at the stage when the boat is travelling
speed close hauled, the angle of heel should be about 30, which is the
of heel at which a hull can have a reasonable shape for going through
value of the close hauled speed is thus obtained when increase in
way can no longer maintain the t~S~ resistance ratio at the same
^^.e ratio. This demonstrates that an increased maximum speed
ay be obtained by either increasing the lateral resistance of the hull
creases the -j^-j resistance ratio or, increasing the s,7oro rat'o
hen close hauled, attain their maximum speeds in winds of 10 to
ur. Wind speeds of these values are very frequent so most boats are
close hauled at a maximum speed which is as great as possible. There
dency, therefore, for yacht designers to give their designs a great deal
ance. This results in there usually being an excess of lateral resistance
when wave making is not serious and is not having a marked effect on
ance ratio. This ratio is then simply maintained by a decrease in
becomes worth while to use overlapping headsails which increase the
oat, even though they increase the side force by a relatively greater
ecreasing the g,'^ ratio. This aerodynamic inefficiency can easily
very strong winds, on the other hand, the best possible value of the
sôuld be obtained by using a small jib or no jib at all.
nds, the similarity between our tests on models and the forces on
own (i.e., when the value of vl is very small) and the g^^'^ ratio
much greater than it is in stronger winds for the same course and setting
en this happens, the boat again begins to make leeway at a greater
e Fin
erofoil data, we find that minimum drag for symmetrical sections
kness/chord ratio of 12.6%. This gives us the ratio of thickness to
ot very good in the matter of lift
s much as twice the lift for only a
only a very small proportion
ht as a whole and a little extra may
eater force to windward of the fin
the rudder is slightly down to lee-
ology in Hoboken, New Jersey
indward force. Some recent yachts
nd have had a portion of the back
ame effect. Other forms of asym-
the depth of the centre of
oment as well as the height of the
n aspect ratio of 3 : 1. A triangular
of lateral resistance without losing
aspect ratio of 3 : 1 would be got
ny lateral resistance whatever.
rket will beat to windward better with-
anufacturer. Also a boat 24 feet long
aken to windward by 100 square
was made. The essence of these
a boat is less than its length by
lling sideways as forwards, the speed
very effective lateral resistance. The
the case of the larger boat men-
at 5 miles per hour and sideways,
our or less. This effect is naturally
ph, a long narrow hull will
er wave than those on the weather
l be less on the leeside. This
stance.
present, capable of calculation
vious yachts of a similar kind. At
e being systematically investigated
ave been published, we will then be
hull forms for minimum resistance
l resistances.
to travel at the greatest possible
ed, a hull with very light displacement
E WATER
ossible wetted area is required combined with the greatest possible sail
uivalent stability to keep the craft upright. Only two types of craft
n developed which fulfil these conditions. The first is the sliding seat
hich has been in existence for at least 2,000 years in India. These canoes
ght of up to four of the crew standing at the end of a plank stretched
oil stabilisers
d to keep an otherwise very unstable craft upright. It cannot I think,
seaworthy boat though the fisherman who use them sail them very far
second type of high speed craft is the single or double outrigger
ay-Polynesians. The Polynesians penetrated to the far islands of the
out 2,000 years ago. When the
und these boats sailing at speeds
s no doubt that they are the fastest
o faults, both of them dangerous.
hulls fail, the craft must break up.
upside down as stably as when
orthy that the Polynesians only
usually lives up to its name.
y the use of hydrofoil outriggers.
in hydrofoil motor boats. The lee
he weather one must always be in
xed, they do not create enough
sails. These hydrofoils may be
ally operated by a variety of " Joy
Fig. 20. A model boat was made by
around the local pond by two strings
nly did the model not heel towards
ropes making an angle of about
ctually heeled in the opposite direction
his model had the fault that when
ugh the weight of the metal hydrofoils
as is shown in Fig. 21 should have
cross bars are pivoted at their
angles to each other. If the ends
will separate. On these ends are
E WATER
support two bars running down to bearings on the hydrofoil. If now,
pushed up on one side, the top bearings will separate and the hydrofoil
have a positive incidence whether pushed backwards or forwards by
he boat. Similarly on the other side, the bearings will come closer to-
hydrofoil on that side will have a negative angle of incidence and thus
that side of the boat whether the boat is going forwards or backwards.
l outrigger system has no faults other than the mechanism itself and the
the outriggers. Should any part of the system break, however, the hull,
n amount of stability on its own, would be able to get back to port
sail.
that is constantly being made against all high speed sailing vessels
dward performance is poor and that any attempt to " jam her up against
ediately detrimental effect on their speed. This accusation is made
rnational 110 square foot one design ( a long narrow hull with a fin and
ell as the " Catamarans." The explanation of this observation is two-
e's impression of speed is relative and there is a large difference in
the free wind and close wind performance of these craft. Secondly, it
ter in this book that the angle at which the best force dead to windward
omes greater with a greater speed ratio. In other words, as the speed
our boat is sailing rises, you must sail at a greater angle from the wind.
ratio at which these craft sail is much greater than for ordinary boats,
e sailed a point or two freer close hauled. I believe an ice yacht sails close
gle of about 60 from the wind.
rofoil is an ellipse. The rectangle
oth wing tips, suffers losses
bout 10%). They would not
mudian mainsail, however, would
ortex if it were not for the presence
rom developing fully and, as pre-
sails to increase the resultant forces.
fects mentioned, but it is of interest
ous plan forms. In the absence of
at can be expected.
The forces on an aerofoil
g high rectangle of aspect ratio 6 : 1
of aspect ratio 3:1. The following
arious heights above the water which
made to sit properly. This sail
ttom as opposed to our present
oughout the vertical height. On
sail" compared to a Bermudian
ON OF AEROFOILS
give 20% extra drive for a luff height of 30 feet and 26% extra drive for
15 feet, the foot of each sail being 5 feet above the water. The heeling
bout 70% greater, however, so the advantage must be weighed carefully.
stinct from that of aspect ratio. By definition, both sails would have the
tio as will be seen later though it seems likely that, aerodynamically, the
nsail would have the properties of a lower aspect ratio. When the
ern squaresail
ried out on a 16 foot canvas canoe with a sail area of 40 square feet, the
t did not seem to be excessive as a practical objection to the rig, but it
y greater than with a normal triangular sail. Even in a strong breeze,
the sail was a finger tip job and it was as easy to spill the wind in the
of the velocity gradient is to cause the angle which the apparent
h the sails to be different at different heights. For example, with two
ther at 14 feet per second, with the
n :
wind from bow.
thrust (w = 40)
t 7 feet per second in this velocity
ower thirty feet and that a boat
of 8.6 in the lower thirty feet. The
sails of full rigged ships is not known,
oard affecting the wind before it
ore from the bow than the higher
ON OF AEROFOILS
o.
in the case of a sail, the relationship between the luff and the foot.
wings, it is the relationship between the span and the average chord or
distance across the wings. Neither sails nor wings are, as a rule, simple
es and to reduce various shapes to a simple figure, the aeroplane aero-
, having originally experimented with rectangular aerofoils, take for
figure . This is a good formula for approximately rectangular
unfortunately results in a triangular sail having twice the aspect ratio
man would give it. A Bermudian mainsail of aspect ratio 3:1, therefore,
amic aspect ratio of 6 : 1. This value of 6 : 1 then needs to be increased
ly 50% as a result of the sea reflection and to be fully accurate, it further
usted for the effect of the velocity gradient of the wind. If the wind
red at the level of the centre of effort, however, this last adjustment can
experimental figures quoted here, except for yacht sails, are for rect-
s and the term aspect ratio when used will mean the ratio of height to
ape. In all the graphs which follow neither the improving effect of the
eventing the boom eddy nor the velocity gradient of the wind is taken
of aspect ratio on the coefficient of side force (w = 40)
ures, the sailing aerodynamic curves were worked out for eight
same arch (1 in 13.5) and values taken from these curves have been
their aspect ratios. Fig. 23 is the effect on the coefficient of thrust at
from the wind, of varying aspect ratios. It will be seen from this graph
ient increases with aspect ratio up to 6 :1 beyond which, no real increase
will also be seen how increase in aspect ratio improves light weather
uch more than it does performance in strong winds. Fig. 24 gives a
or the coefficient of side force at w =40. This does not alter so much
of thrust. Fig. 25 gives the changes in
n shows that an aspect ratio
s can be obtained.
varies with aspect ratio. In
s with aspect ratio. In strong winds,
of 1 : 1 is by far the best. This is
ynamic force coefficient (Cr) is got
dence over which this value is
cult to keep a sail of this aspect ratio
s figure is not of very great practical
erodynamic force shows a sudden
s of the aerodynamic force are
keep the sails properly trimmed.
o windward are obtained. These
ate that increase in aspect ratio de-
ned. In this case, however, the value
the ratio of 6 : 1 is very little better.
heir sheltered water sisters when
e *j**1d resistance ratio of the hull
with an arch of 1 in 7 and for
w no different factor from those des-
ON OF AEROFOILS
of aspect ratio on the best close hauled course
tors has been examined. One
rea remained constant. It is possible,
f the sail about an axis and then study
arying the sail area so that when the
versa. A boat heels about the axis
alculations enormously to be
d is that of the base of the sail. The
% from the mean for aspect ratios
ON OF AEROFOILS
nd 4:1. It is always unfavourable to the higher aspect ratios. All
which follow are for rectangular aerofoils of arch 1 in 13.5. Heeling
of importance when close hauled in strong winds. The calculation or
eas for the different aspect ratios are, therefore, derived from the coeffi-
rce at a course of w = 40 at a speed ratio of zero. The derivation of
the area factor is as follows :
t = K x Area x Height x Csf- If K = Jpv2.
Area x Aspect ratio
ng moment = $K x Area rea x Aspect ratio Cgp.
oment j
f)'
-1 61 H-\
of aspect ratio on the coefficient of thrust per unit heeling
formidable equation but it is easy to solve with a book of logarithm
s a graph of these areas for the aspect ratios of the rectangles we are
n a strong wind close hauled,
h area is multiplied by the coeffi-
ed ratios of 0.0, 0.5, and 1.0, we
heeling moment.
o on the coefficient of thrust
uld be studied closely because they
oats. It has been seen that the
io of our boats is obtained by the
trong winds where the speed
reater power for the same heeling
ncreased till it is travelling at a
e is 4 : 1. Now the ordinary yacht
the region of 0.5, so from this graph
heck of the aspect ratios of some of the
er 4 : 1 for their measured sail area
faster boats should have slightly
rica's cup defenders still shows an
aft, whose speeds are such that
f 1, the graph of Fig. 29 shows that
io at which the boat is sailing
and they also make use of the greater
eefed sooner as the wind gets stron-
eed ratio gives the same drive
reefed sooner.
d has been of the utmost im-
area was of little importance to
ower and so aspect ratio was kept
The large crews could quickly
d be sailing with foul bottoms which
ail, in which case the low aspect
course, the low aspect ratio gives
er several masts. When manpower
spect ratio increased to 1.5 : 1 or
e value of the better leeward power
th the higher aspect ratio modern
e least work for the greatest all
square topsail which, when taken
1 aerodynamic). There were no
gged, has to have a jib, but the
ON OF AEROFOILS
pared to commercial vessels, find that the cost of sails is a consider-
of their upkeep and so the rig has to be designed with a considerable
vas as well as to involve the least labour of working. This attitude is
nounced by rating rules which take sail area into account. Both these
make the aspect ratios of sailing yachts greater than they might otherwise
is not, at the present time, exaggerated and several yachts built
seem to be of a higher type, had aspect ratios of 4.5 : 1 aerodynamic
t is quite possible that the losses in efficiency of the triangular plan form
n rig are such that an aspect ratio of 4.5 : 1 is aerodynamically equivalent
*85 i*o S<?
HICH Aid TVRMKO
ect of varying the arch of the sail
ct ratio in a squaresail, but it is not possible to be sure in the absence of
unnel tests of the problem. It would be of great value and interest if
tricted classes would allow aspect ratio to be variable on condition that
ould be less with the higher ratios in such a way that the heeling moment
me for all. This would quickly give us the answer to this problem.
ons just given must be regarded as only approximate. Imponder-
he effect of the hull and the sea improve the low aspect ratios and the
nt improves the high ratios. It is only because the conclusions derived
ulations have been found to correspond with the conclusions of practical
ey have been included in this work.
pect ratio 6 : 1 of the following
in 27 and a flat plate. The same
urves and have been graphed against
es turn the air. Thus, a flat plate is
of 18.4, an arch of 1 in 13.5 has a
64.
= 40 and also the Csf at
e angles by which the aerofoils turn
phs show that an increase of arch to a
ll respects when the aspect ratio is
ed close hauled in a canvas sail.
of 1 in 7 is not maintained.
1 in 13.5 are about equal in all res-
ut equal as the following table shows :
1 in 13.5 is better to windward and
pect ratio of 3 : 1. If this aspect
might be better to have the arch
om his performance figures,
the sail is of little importance. It
part of the sail as this improves the
10% without substantially altering
ture at the leech in the shape of
be examined when the sailing curves
he partial similarity between having
ap may be noted.
e swept back. Aerodynamic
decrease the lift below the stall and
ift above the stall. When sailing
tly below the stall and with the wind
ON OF AEROFOILS
ree, the sails are kept only just at the stall and it is not until the wind
quarter that the sails are stalled completely, so that both sweepforward
will decrease the forward drive on the boat except with the wind very
efore, is best to have the aerofoil as nearly at right angles to the wind
when in sailing trim.
mainsail with a vertical mast is aerodynamically swept forward
ever, when sailing close hauled at an angle of heel of the same value
rward, this disappears and the sail becomes aerodynamically at right
nd. When sailing, the thrust from the sails depresses the bow and raises
e so the mast might, on that account, be given a few degrees of sweep-
boat is not sailing. The value of the sail being at right angles to the wind
hy, in light winds and close hauled, when a boat is being heeled to lee-
sails take their natural shape, it helps to trim the boat by the bow. This
more into a line at right angles to the windflow. This manoevre also
wetted surface of the hull a little, which helps.
st.
aeroplanes are mostly bent upwards. This is because it is theoreti-
ve the leading edge as a portion of an ellipse as well as for reasons of
alogy, the topmast should bend to leeward. If this were to be tried
ever, it would be found that the shape of the sail would be distorted
ns would be put on the mast so that it would be in very great danger
e loss of efficiency in the jib from having the concavity of the luff to
y marked and the jib stay should be as taut as possible.
el.
boat heels, the aerodynamic force which was acting horizontally,
leeward. This results in a component tending to drive the boat verti-
s, thus increasing the displacement. This vertical component is, how-
lanced by a component acting vertically upward from the keel or centre-
Op and the Cgp decrease due to the oblique angle at which the wind
but this decrease is not capable of useful formulation. It is approxi-
onal to Cos. h (h, being the angle of heel).
clination of the wind to the sails lessens as the boat heels, the
sails being left untouched. The reason why the sails do not always
den puff of wind hits a boat and heels it over is that, in an increasing
ent wind becomes more free and this is enough to offset the apparent
curs as the boat heels.
erofoil of minimal thickness, of
epback. It is usually of tri-
ts value as an aerofoil on its
has no mast to interfere with the
gging of the luff on the forestay cause
ated by the increased sweepback
th the sweepback and the increased
ective area for area than the mainsail.
nsiderable sweepback and a small
the reverse holds and a small jib
height. Close hauled, the
the sail is arched. Reaching, the
n the rest. This difference in arching
only one arch of the sail will give the
improving effect on the main-
he sail just at the stalling point
ing to form all over the leeside
uff to the leech. If, now, the jib is
ed out by the wind from the weather
ve pressure on the sail increases
but the total effect is favourable
efficiency is only slight. On the
is about 20% of the total area.
o reduce sail area in strong winds
ainsail so the rule makers artificially
oats by only counting it at about
manship but also has the effect
re its weight improves the seakindly
nel tests may be quoted to show how the mutual effect of two aero-
ts best. Two aerofoils were set up in tandem, one behind the other,
ons relative to each other and at various angles of inclination to the air-
unnel. They were of the same plan form (rectangular). The greatest
erodynamic force and almost the best angle from the wind were achieved
oils were separated from each other by a gap of one fifteenth of the chord
rofoils and the two aerofoils were inclined to each other at an angle of
g is in accordance with what has been found best in yachts where a
een the jib and mainsail is found to produce most thrust for a given area
f the foot of the jib is put at about 12 from the fore and aft line of the
verlapping jib derives its value from the excess lateral resistance
oats have in light winds. This sail increases thrust, when used, though
produces is proportionately higher than that of a non-overlapping jib
other words, it is not as efficient as a non-overlapping jib and it is
using if the overlap is not counted in the sail area. When the wind is
sheet being eased, the Genoa is able to come forward and is then able
its area almost to the full. The Genoa, or overlapping jib, has a more
namic axis or slope than a non-overlapping jib. In some cases, it is
or sails on a boat such that,
t about a vertical axis. This
mic experiments with hulls
es an improved performance to
the hull of the boat.
the boat and the line of
ng through it.
e hull of a boat varies in the
amlined part of the keel of a boat
al resistance is about 25% of the chord
centre of lateral resistance moves
ing edge. This is a useful feature
ig tends to turn a boat up into the
ore useful with a squaresail whose
o that, running before the wind,
tend to turn the boat's head down-
running before the wind as far as
at up into the wind when the
he little pulls and pushes on a sail
ts at the centre of effort of the sail.
odynamic force must pass vertically
e boat. When this happens, the
diagrammatic representation of
ly is rigged to carry no helm close
at is now sailed with the wind
ayed out and the sail swung out more
of effort remains unchanged in
namic force will intersect the fore
the stern, till, with the boom athwart-
ind aft, the line of action of the aerodynamic force will he parallel with
he boat and to leeward. It has already been seen that the centre of
ce of the hull moves aft as the angle of leeway gets less, but this is not
nce the movement aft of the intersection of the line of action of the
rce and the midline of the boat, so more and more weather helm is needed.
lance
is shown diagrammatically in Figs. 31a, 31b, 31c and 3Id. We have
he centre of effort remains unchanged in position on the sail but this is
sailing range at the smallest possible angle of inclination with soft
e of effort lies at about 40% of the chord from the leading edge of the sail
le of inclination increases, it moves aft towards the geometric centre of
reaches when the angle of inclination is 90. This movement towards
results in still more weather helm.
ble with soft sails), the centre of
at least two reasons. Firstly,
he aerodynamic forces taking place
o great. Secondly, as the wind
reater arching to that sail. This
ing disproportionately to that of
me way but that has no bearing
neutralises to some extent, the
Figs. 31e, 31f, 31g and 3lh show
ed jib tends to equalise the balance
oom.
nsails of high aspect ratio with
wings, are more easily balanced by
ooms and large centre of effort
e between jib and mainsail are
o one with the wind free, the forward
e jib being eased and its arch being
ion of the aerodynamic force of the
he centre of lateral resistance.
ays. Firstly, because the
concerned on a close hauled course
side force forward of the centre of
us decreasing weather helm. Secondly
winds, there is an excess of lateral
of the angle of leeway. This,
the centre of lateral resistance to
using lee helm. The extra side force
b partially corrects this, at the same
and Leeward Power of Sails
Power.
al sail area used is counted, the windward efficiency of sails depends
wing :
atio.
amic slope.
amic shape.
ence and the parasitic effect of stays and struts.
This may be taken to be g^^, X 1.5 for sea improvement.
t when the mast is vertical because, at present, the measurement of the
s taken along the mast, whether sloped or vertical. Even were it taken
al height, which would allow the mast to be sloped without penalty, the
ast would be increased if it were sloped and hence would decrease stability.
y seen that increase in aspect ratio up to a value of 6 : 1 increases the
r of a sail for unit area, even without taking the velocity gradient of the
nt. For unit heeling moment at speed ratios about 0.5 the aspect ratio
and for speed ratios of 1.0, an aspect ratio of 6 : 1 is best. With the
increase in aspect ratio greatly affects both the forward aerodynamic
insail and the backward aerodynamic slope of the jib, lessening both.
amic slope. This may be defined as the slope from right angles
he line joining the centres of pressure of chords of the sail. These
sure lie at about 40% of the chord from the leading edge when close
he mast is vertical, which it should be to get the greatest aspect ratio,
mainsail has between 10 and 15 of sweep forward, the lesser figure
tio of 3 : 1. As the boat heels, however, this sweep forward
becomes converted into sweepback when the angle of heel becomes
e angle of sweepforward. The jib always has sweepback which increases
ls. It is due to this sweepback only that the jib is a less efficient sail to
the mainsail. If the luff and leech of the jib were such that the sail
dynamically swept forwards, its windward efficiency would improve.
amic shape. The arching of the sail should be between 1 in 13.5
angular sail is not very efficient aerodynamically, especially with a
apter 6, a long narrow squaresail was described giving 20% to 26%
ts heeling moment would be greater.
of the velocity gradient alone. The
ally of benefit possibly to the extent
n increased positive pressure on
flow of air on the leeside in the same
ese improving effects are offset
of a Bermudian mainsail, this rig
dvocate returning to the square-
f barge with a squaresail and square-
ind than the fore and aft rigged barges.
mically sloped forward less than the
by slackening the down haul of the
far as sail balance goes, no rig
tically, this is the rig which will,
nce. For each unit of heeling moment
This may account for the lesser
compared with the Thames barge.
re and aft sail but it was used by
D AND LEEWARD POWER OF SAILS
ury river boats commonly and in a modern version on wire stays under
quite possible when tried out on a 16 foot canoe with 2 foot 6 inches beam.
ence and the parasitic effect of stays and struts. This is always
beating to windward with the Bermudian rig and should be reduced
t is not so unfavourable with the squaresail and dipping lugsail.
As explained, the jibs at present used owe their value to their
wind free. On the wind, the sail area of the jib could be put into the
mproved performance. All rigs other than the sloop are less efficient
they need not be considered here.
apter, we have only considered the windward ability in relation
vas. If we take into account the overlap of the jib on the mainsail which
xed by the rules of many racing classes, we find, firstly, that the jib may
tly sloped aerodynamically, thus increasing its value as a sail on its own.
il area can have considerable thrust even close hauled, though it may not
ts area as the rest of the sails. Moreover, the centre of effort is low and
n be easily reduced by lowering the large jib and setting a smaller one.
es of overlapping canvas make it the most useful innovation of recent
ails. It is impossible with the information at present available to esti-
oximately, the relative values of overlapping sails.
wer.
iciency of sail is increased by the following :
atio.
sweepback.
of the sail area. Yawls, Ketches and Schooners are faster
Sloops and Cutters.
ct of stays and struts.
d sails.
ures either increase the aerodynamic force at very large angles of in-
e drag and eddies acting downwind.
ng factors :
of the ship often depends
a lee shore in a gale of
e bellying of the sails which are,
h will be most closely examined,
he wind that determines its greatest
htsman, fisherman or trader, though
s where the wind is mostly favourable,
e to four months, which the square
ON OF SAILING RIGS
took on the Australian run, the ability to run comfortably with a follow-
eks on end was the most important property they could possess and more
or their lack of efficiency on the wind.
o realise that no rig ever invented so far is absolutely incapable
dward. Even the rig used by Queen Hatshepsut in the expedition to
0 B.C. shown in Fig. 33 with an aspect ratio of 1 : 2, being twice as
rs as in vertical height, by tilting the spars would become a lugsail as
r of the nile
gar on the Nile at the present day (Fig. 34) and would be capable of
The only reasons for complete inability to go to windward are :
asitic effect of the spars and stays.
anvassed.
of hull with very great beam and shallow draught.
m.
s been described, it is simply
be braced around far enough, it
as fast down wind. The Humber
ed, look a point closer to the wind
s due to the aerodynamic
t vertical and straight aerodynamic
r speed on all courses
atest defect of the squaresail is its
example, often making about three
il of these craft flew loose and aback
ed to get it under control. They
e late stages of their history, the
handling a good deal. It is no
y a turn of the wheel without losing
efficient craft are extinct. In the
ing about proved to be not such a
ostly, the sail came across in a manner
uragement needed from the crew.
he leading edge on a wind,
ff of a jib needs to be as straight
il need to be as straight as possible
pes and stays, this must have
was, however, mostly because of
be used.
were built, especially by the
wind than the full rigged ships
at the schooners were much more
a full rigged ship showing a mass
gging of the schooner, but there
hip which was due to the sub-division
It is hard to know whether to place
amic, as it has the qualities of both.
leeward of the mast, being
as many of the virtues of the square-
closer winded than the gaff rig if
wind is less than that of the square-
low at the peak and also due to the
eat virtue, as compared with the square-
ake short tacks up a river or estuary
N OF SAILING BIGS
hire coble
the lug or changing the yard to leeward each time the boat is put
by the fishermen that they did not consider dipping the lugsail of
their boats and never sailed with the sail on the windward side of the
ge Scotch luggers, dipping the lug must have been hard work, because,
ded, they were often sailed with the lug on the wrong side of the mast
so far as to keep two sails, one on each side of the mast so that the heavy
need to be hauled aft and across the boat on tacking. An advantage
alanced by a disadvantage, and the advantage to windward in handiness
was balanced by the necessity to
ter to the other.
ast forward. This is because
ertain of the characteristics of the flap
orce. When placed farther forward,
but is always on the same side
some types, as in the Venetian
N OF SAILING RIGS
k of the sail is fixed about halfway between the midline of the boat and
unwhale. It has the virtues of the dipping lugsail when the sail is to
mast but, on the other tack, the mast interference affects the airflow
f the sail with a loss of efficiency.
home is the Mahommedan countries of the world or where Mahom-
e spread in the past, is generically a lugsail. A simple version is shown
es barge
ail is slung from a long yard and is essentially a triangle in shape
corner is cut off in some types. Aerodynamically, it is very clean
ong yard at the leading edge and points well up to windward due to the
namic axis, though this is often considerably sloped backwards. The
ery great in some types which also improves performance.
handiness, the lateen sail varies. Some kinds will not put about
round. Others put about quite satisfactorily. The wind can easily
the sail by letting the sheet out and this is one of the virtues of the rig.
fort is lower with a triangular sail and so the heeling moment is smaller.
en sail with a vertical aerodynamic axis is probably as good a sail as has
sed to take a boat to windward and could only be improved by stream-
ning the yard to make it straight.
y the first type of fore and aft
e sail, quadrilateral in shape,
the peak is held up by a long pole or
can be quickly brailed up by a
rea, it has little to commend it,
w on the leeside of the sail on
his even worse and, moreover,
bargemen are so very fond of their
to windward for their aspect ratio
ical and straight and they are quite
e spritsail itself is that of the
soon. The spritsail was readily
the nineteenth century for the much
rench luggers who, so often, out-
smuggling industry which was present
ff along the head and a boom
r a lacing. This sail requires far
ug or lateen. It has a reasonable
erodynamically clean. As a rule,
much to be desired. With the
s has an angle in it and it is owing
otherwise might be. Fig. 38 shows
seen shapes. The aerodynamic
show the angle which has been men-
N OF SAILING RIGS
ks of all these sails are inefficient to windward, the plan form shown
g the best. In nearly all of these sails, therefore, the gaff could be
sail area reduced and the windward performance improved. The speed
d would be lessened somewhat at the same time. A topsail, preferably
ould straighten out some of these axes, though not all. The sail shown
ails
tjalk
itself, a better sail for close hauled driving when the boat is upright
ct ratio Bermudian mainsail but, as soon as the boat heeled, the Bermudian
be better. The parasitic effect of the mast above the gaff, the halliards
ht prevent the sail from achieving this result in practice.
series of gaff sails with straight aerodynamic axes. In all cases,
o the boom. These sails are better
h or without topsails. Sails of this
merely proves the point that clever
ory to help them. A diagram of
ff sails of Fig. 39 will, if given
elop angles in its aerodynamic axis.
o applicable to Iugsails and another
also straightened out this axis. These
d lugsail, have not only a straight
angement, have abolished the twist
hese factors make the Chinese
sed. A diagram of this sail is seen
il which is possessed of the same
s reefed by lowering away on the
n the topping lifts which, to say the
n be reset by simply hauling on the
N OF SAILING RIGS
, the only faults with this sail are the mast interference on one tack
of the sail.
Mainsail.
ess labour to work it than any other so far considered, even though
is easier to reef. It can have a greater aspect ratio with a straight
an any. Its aerodynamic axis is substantially straight though slightly
which is an inefficiency when the boat is sailing upright and disappears
boat heels or a mast head Genoa jib is set. There are but three causes
with a Bermudian mainsail. These are the 18% loss caused by the mast
the wind flow, the loss caused by the twist in the sail when close hauled
se on a free wind unless a kicking strap is used, and the loss caused by
f the foot of the sail at the boom. The loss or gain in efficiency caused
r shape over a long narrow squaresail is impossible, at present, to
ble that the boom of a Bermudian mainsail should be at right angles
mic axis.
and Schooners.
y the virtue of having their sail area split up. Their windward
much worse than that of the sloop due to the parasitic effects of the extra
and the splitting up of the canvas. With a free wind, they are all faster
mpletely superceded for yachts.
manship, has only the defect
sults in weight and windage aloft
shore. The gaff rig is believed to
old fidded topmast is used) because
When a small trysail has been set
and is ready to face any weather
mlined, revolving Bermudian
can be obtained by a version of
s of circular cross section.
sail, is fully streamlined in its upper
pe that both mast and yard together
OVEMENTS IN RIG
ned form as shown in the diagram. The sail is hoisted in a groove in the
the yard. Both mast and yard would need to be made from one of the
s. This rig would restore most of the 18% loss of efficiency at present
mast and, in really rough weather, the yard could be lowered on deck
jointed for easy stowage. Even if the yard remained aloft, however,
ng lug-squaresail
uld be considerably less than that of a conventional Bermudian mast.
ongated in the fore and aft direction, it is possible that it could act like
t any canvas being set upon it at all.
w squaresail previously described in this book might prove
bed, it might prove too unhandy for
lide on a fitting at the end of the sprit
rted into a standing lugsail placed
s would be needed with this rig,
caught aback and short tacks
ent in the square rig proper, of the
ults in sternway. As a squaresail,
and they would also be avoided when
tack. Putting about would be handy
uld remove the risk of an accidental
erence with the airflow when the
s would be partly compensated
whole, it is hardly conceivable
uising boat.
aresail " which would be slightly
OVEMENTS IN RIG
s triangular sails
e than a rectangular one and it would have less heeling moment. Its
n most respects, the same as those of its rectangular fellow.
teen rig with a vertical aerodynamic axis as shown in Fig. 45 might
es. The only fault of such a rig is the fault of the cat rigged boat, the
her helm when the sheet is eased.
is to have a more or less vertical
tays. Then, as the wind freed, the
nd hoisted on one farther forward
erent aerodynamic slopes so that,
eepback might be set with improved
all, if the forestay can be kept
he weather side of the sail causes
plit flap of an aeroplane. The effect
o whether it is more or less effective
46, which was also a single sail
OVEMENTS IN RIG
etter sail to windward than a Bermu-
also be better on that course. Also,
aft of its aerodynamic axis is a faster
ict the superiority of this rig on all
nt of sail area. It would probably
as.
thead Genoa jib seems to be
of yacht, there seem to be jibs to
ct ratio can be carried in winds of
il of a boat rigged in this way then
p of an aeroplane while the Genoa
big, masthead, overlapping jibs
of air where it is disturbed by the mast
mast causes on the Bermudian main-
ce figures of 24 aerofoils and a
erodynamic curves which have
tangular and its aspect ratio was
g :
st of the Bermudian mainsail
speed in light winds.
10.
e even close hauled.
erformance than a slat.
the system of aerofoils shown
ratio is obtained with
ose hauled speed of a boat,
e, so a lower value of this
nts are better.
ion that U.S.A.T.S. 10 is
l further by fitting it with
might also be fitted which
ils on a boat must need a good
is to attach the aerofoil by its
re of a universal joint. The leading
auled down to the lee gunwhale
sail. Fig. 48 shows how an aerofoil
OVEMENTS IN RIG
d in this way. It might be supposed that the mast would upset the air-
aerofoil. This it does, but the effect is not to make the thrust force
ld suppose but to increase it. The analogy with the aerodynamic effect
on the Fowler flap, which Fig. 47 shows to increase the thrust force,
ng an asymmetrical aerofoil
d of erecting an aerofoil on a boat is to have the section alterable so
ly assume a definite form when drawing. The snowshoe affair in Fig.
he former of such an aerofoil. A series of these, covered by canvas
would give the aerofoil its plan shape as in Fig. 50. In each former,
il
OVEMENTS IN RIG
arts are the cross pieces and the triangle at the trailing edge, the diagonal
k wires. The perimeter is flexible in the front part. The sheet would
ar the trailing edge. When the aerofoil is drawing, the windward side
ut as much as the diagonal wires would let it and the section would assume
e. These formers could be hoisted up the mast, which is shown in cross
e leading edge and hence the aerofoil could be reefed or stowed. It is
urther invention would be required to make this rig a success.
e greatest possible aerodynamic force may be of interest to us for
nd abeam or well aft. Fig. 51 shows the author's conception of the rig
iving a large aerodynamic force
kely to produce this. It is a stick and canvas version of the aerofoil of
ect ratio of 1 : 1 with a slat, a flap and an intermediate slot. Both the
p would probably need to be of dural or one of the synthetic wood sub-
nstability of flow at the leading and trailing edges. This rig, if successful,
et, as is the square rig when running before the wind, with the leading
t. Thus, the component of the aerodynamic force which is not driving
ds is trying to lift the boat out of the water which will decrease displace-
allow the boat to travel faster. The coefficient of the aerodynamic
kely to be reached by this rig is in the region of 4. This compares very
a mainsail at right angles to the wind which has a coefficient of about
ficient should be obtained but
eresting results. This other
ave any heeling moment on the boat.
, light and easily driven like a racing
ade by me in an attempt to get
o take a boat to windward. The
side to the other, the kite swung
ome people how a kite flying
the wind can take a boat to windward,
of why an ordinary rig takes a boat
ne of action of the aerodynamic
OVEMENTS IN RIG
erodynamic force of every aerofoil always acts down wind, though some
cate that the contrary can be the case. I did not follow up this line
the performance which I got would just have taken a boat to windward.
slands in the South Pacific, on one occasion before the coming of the
were used to tow canoes from one island to another with which the first
ar. The canoes were filled with food which, being a gesture of peace,
ed kite rig
he second island had to repay with other food. Unfortunately for them,
come in person with their presents and they were ambushed and, I
However, I have been unable to find out whether the Samoans achieved
with the kite propulsion of their canoes to windward than I did.
the string of the kite by a pole and removed the tail. This rig I
ut on a Montague whaler and successfully beat to windward. In a lop,
eward yard kept dunking its end in the sea. The rig is shown in Fig. 52.
the boat as in Fig. 53 and found it reasonable. The rig is certainly
s. On putting about, the sprit,
An extension of the boom forward
eve, have made this rig easier to
nded.
jib with any of my kite rigs.
the combined sails which completely
Bermudian rig, if trimmed as
eered. It must therefore be that
es due to the forward shift of the centre
hat it can override this tendency and
less rather oddly set, though I
omposed of jib and mainsail only.
found in supporting the sails
rofoils, or by using a hydrogen
upport the aerofoil or sails.
a ship which could be revolved
rotors could drive the ship to wind-
he canvas which the ship had carried
very satisfactory and they performed
ad shown they would. They created
ng of the ship before conversion
was very poor, however, and they
ht wind performance is the great
peared to a far greater extent than it
he rotor was slower than sails in
ettner might have had more
make them two or three times as
Bermudian Rig
en enter for and want to win races. Races may be won by tactics,
euvering your boat so that you take the wind of another boat by
he zone of eddies created by your sails or by placing him where
e a windflow unfavourable to him, such as on your weather quarter.
ude the use of tides and local patches of wind of greater strength.
on less often by tactics than by the fact that your boat simply and solely
n those of your opponents. In fact, " Tactics " of any kind other than
ntary use of tides and winds generally result in a worsening of one's
one's boat is faster than most and, if your boat is faster than others,
nt to waste your advantage by gyrations which merely slow you down.
ing is, then, to make your boat sail as fast as you can, sail your race
ye to your speed than your opponents' manoeuvres (always bearing in
of way rules) and you will stand the greatest chance of winning.
essentially an empirical art. One tries various settings and trim-
ils and spars till the boat appears to be going as well as possible. If
e design, the best settings will be found more quickly, for the boat which
e faster than its sisters.
amics can help us to sail our boats faster than we do, not only by
igs of boats, if, indeed, improvement on the Bermudian rig is possible,
ng us the best courses to steer, the amount of lateral resistance to use
the boat and sails. In what has already been written in this book,
any hints to the helmsman and most of these will be gathered together
The various conditions of sailing will be separately examined and the
which affect speed will be stated with the explanation where known.
mstances.
erformance to have a clean and smooth surface on the bottom of
ould be straight if the sail has been cut for a straight mast. This
of the sail what the makers intended.
e windflow, the best curve
the wing tips bent in the
boat, the extremities of
ff to a jib, the reverse is
sail.
f about 15 from the midline
gives the greatest s^ê
orce close hauled.
he foot from the tack should be
his as possible. Where a
it takes over the functions
ply to it rather than to the
as a wind which does not drive
e square root of the waterline length
half a point freer than for strong
This is also the course
assed or the sea is rough.
force ceases to decrease in
omes even smaller. The
d the course sailed is freer
peed ratio.
of the mainsail should, there-
ail can have as much flow as
ch curves acutely to wind-
he smallest angle to the wind
. The sheets must be let
leeward to let the sails take
out of them " by the lop
c axis of the mainsail a
o leeward, the hull of a centre-
uces wetted surface and,
ull a hydrodynamic shape
ntreboard to be reduced in
HE BERMUDIAN RIG
compatible with point 4 without bending the mast sideways
e boat.
sistance should be reduced, if possible, because it is excessive
he centreboard should be partially or completely pulled up
ets sail balance to the extent of needing lee helm when it is
t down. With a fixed keel boat, an overlapping or Genoa jib
employ at least some of the excess lateral resistance. In very
centreboard should be fully lowered because the s^^*r'ce
. It is still worth while to carry overlapping canvas, however,
extra speed.
a Strong Wind.
may be defined as a wind which drives a boat at a speed greater
waterline length speed.
ailed should be about 40 from the wind.
ils pull better so the luff and foot should be taut and the leech
lack. Battens improve the set of the sail.
uld be trimmed so the luffs are just lifting in the same way as in a
of course, as the boat is sailing closer to the wind, they will be
e.
eed approaches the waterline length speed, the g'^ ratio
uld be rendered as great as possible by setting the smallest
wed by the sail balance.
sistance should be maximum to decrease the ll"""1* resistance
ould only be allowed to heel till the aerodynamic axis becomes at
he windflow. It would be better for the mast to be kept up-
o be sloped aft to correct this axis.
y agreed that the hull of a boat should not be allowed to heel more
se, beyond that angle, the shape of the hull is such that the resis-
d motion increases greatly.
posing ways in which the mast and hull should be allowed to heel
ed by stepping the mast on a T-shaped structure, the shrouds coming
ort ends of the T and the forestay to the long end. The T would then
a universal joint onto a stub mast as shown in Fig. 54. This arrangement
he aerodynamic axis always to be kept at its most advantageous angle
ow and the rig could always be kept so that there was never a component
mic force driving the boat vertically downwards into the water for, no
ch the boat heeled, the rig could be kept vertical.
alling point.
hould be slackened and the
ift and then pulled in slightly.
sloped back, if possible.
il when it is no longer being
HE BERMUDIAN RIG
sistance required varies. Some may be needed on a close reach
set, especially in strong winds. None should be needed with
abaft the beam.
ead down wind, it is as well to remember that the maximum co-
aerodynamic force which the wind striking your sail will develop is 1.
ate or nearly flat plate will develop a coefficient of the aerodynamic
.2. The extra 0.2 is due to the air being affected around the sail for
e. Therefore, to increase the pull of sails when running, it is necessary to
flow from them at right angles to the direction of the wind as much as
to the obstructive and reflective effect of the sea, it helps to direct the
wards. This is the principle on which the balloon spinnaker is based.
the balloon spinnaker set, the wind should strike the Mainsail
angle of about 40. The air will then flow forward along the sail on
e and spill into the spinnaker. The spinnaker will spill most of the wind
but will spill enough at its foot directly downwards onto the sea to
ing force. On the leeside of the mainsail, eddies form because the sail
s the wind passes from the leech to the" luff, it will be drawn on the whole
nnaker to increase the drive on that sail. In running, the air in the lee
ull of eddies so the negative pressure in the lee is less than the positive
windward side. For this reason, the lee flow can be neglected and the
ails can be conceived of as being molecules of air striking the sails from
trying to catch with the bag one has erected, but the bag must be emptied
ssible so that more molecules may strike it.
ward.
m our sailing curves that, when the speed ratio is 1, there is no
when going in the same direction as the wind. Even when the speed
wind speed falls off to half its value on this course and hence its pressure
quarter. This results in it often being worth while to travel a zig-zag
or going considerably out of one's way to look for wind.
speed of a boat is limited as a rule, so, if a boat is travelling near its
d, it will gain nothing by deviating from a straight line to its destination.
n the other hand, a distinct advantage may be obtained.
boat down wind, in light winds, often results in a speed ratio of
ed, so the calculations which follow will be based on that ratio. Slower
ve less success from this manoeuvre.
n wind is given by the formula VOr Cos. (180-w). The following
tios of 3 : 1 and 6 : 1 for several
of 1 in 13.5 arch.
l be greater by about 10% if one
at a deviation of 50, providing the
d is blowing. If one should be sailing
rengthen to such an extent that
ength speed, one should immediately
ect of Sails on the Wind
scribes how a sailing boat so affects the wind around it that other
e either favourably or unfavourably influenced.
Fig. 55 shows in an exaggerated way how the streamlines are affected
d downwind of a boat which is sailing close hauled. These would be
n aerofoil of about ten times the power of sails but the deviations are of
e with our boats, if only about one tenth as great. Where the stream-
ed together, the wind speed is increased and where they are far apart,
is lessened.
ch the wind is affected by a boat is, approximately, an ellipse placed
s across the direction of the main windflow at a slight angle. The size
ries from one to four mast lengths from the boat, being relatively smaller
s.
ctly behind another boat, your boat will increase the speed of the
will get and will make his wind freer. As his boat also carries an ellipse
ll be in area 4, the wind you meet will head you and be slightly slower.
of the two ellipses will cause you to push him along. This might be a
o do with a team mate in a team race, but, where yachts are racing
u are helping him to such an extent that you have little chance of closing
ituation has been called the " Impossible position." The maximum
ese effects appear when your opponent is on your lee bow and you are
quarter, the so-called "Lee bow position." If sufficiently close to him,
ome aback and your only hope is to put about or, by a sudden dive under
angle of about 45 from his boat, break into area 2 of his boat. The
sition " is not quite so impossible if you can induce a third boat to sail
o as to free and freshen your wind. If this third boat should be positioned
ot only you but also he stand an excellent chance of breaking through
oat ahead.
nes show that it is unwise, if on the port tack, to cross a boat on the
oo closely because his " Advance wind " will head you as you approach
asing the risk of collision. If you pass under his stern, on the other hand,
FFECT OF SAILS ON THE WIND
ree your boat's wind and also make it faster while your advance wind
is in area 2 of your ellipse, the wind he meets heads him slightly,
than made up for by its being slightly faster. You are thus helping
much as in the relative areas of 1 and 4. You are in his area 5 where
r but is slowed to such an extent that it is slightly unfavourable to you.
this situation is, therefore, to sail as close to the wind as possible (where
w you because his wind is not so free) and lengthen the distance between
crease your disadvantage from the mutual interference.
in area 3 of your ellipse, you are in a favourable position. The wind
e of your sails heads him, even though it is slightly faster. He has two
him. Either he can sail by the wind, in which case, due to its increased
be able to get into your area 2. However, the advance wind from his
ble to you, both in course and speed, so he should not succeed. Or, he
nd take advantage of the favourable wind from your sails, at the same
slightly less favourable wind for you. Even if you tack almost immedi-
nd to gain a few seconds of great advantage. Repeated tacking to cover
s enable him to gain steadily on you. If, therefore, a boat in area 3 to
ent to stay there (as he should, if he does not tack) let him go and trust
il faster than he does.
to you must either put about hoping that you will do so too when
yourself in his area 4, or try to break through your lee into area 2.
should be left alone. You would only be able to squeeze up to
n your area 4 if your boat were faster than his so that, as you have
m as you are, he should fall back into the safe leeward position in either
this area 5, however, that a boat would stand the greatest chance of
gh your lee.
er but slower winds is in the unfavourable part of your ellipse.
er, in area 3 of the other boat which is an unfavourable part of his ellipse.
s thus cancel out. Your only hope is to forge ahead till he is area 5.
th while, under certain circumstances, to sail a slightly freer course for
o achieve this.
FFECT OF SAILS ON THE WIND
n the beam, the area affected by a sailing boat is approximately
ve to the wind as in the close hauled position. The size of the ellipse
maller with some rigs but is usually greater and the wake of eddies passing
ttle broader, but the streamlines are essentially of the same shape.
gh another boat's ellipse is much more difficult with a beam wind
ons. Firstly, one " Drives " the boat ahead more by strengthening and
. Secondly, the boats are travelling faster so increase in speed is more
, the eddying wake is greater. Even overtaking a boat to windward
which is being overtaken to speed up and, of course, he is at liberty to
, so changes of place on this course occur less frequently than on other
Fig. 56 shows how the streamlines are affected both upwind and
boat sailing with the wind dead aft. As before, where they are crowded
nd speed is increased and where they are separated, the wind speed is
area in which the wind is affected is made up of two partial ellipses,
wnwind. In between, there is an area of eddying air around the boat,
now shoe, which is produced by the direct action of the sails. In each
here are but two zones of different effect to a boat on the same course.
r, area 1 in the diagram Fig. 56, the wind is faster and turns away from
ch bow, area 2 in the diagram, the wind is slower and turns towards
hange in direction of the wind may mean that an overtaking boat may
ng the streamlines to avoid having its spinnaker collapse. If this fact
ed, the helmsman may think he has got into the zone of eddies and be
ack, whereas he may be able to sail on at only a slight reduction of speed
se.
dies.
the wind, the sails are completely stalled. That is, the smooth
ind breaks down and the air swirls in all directions downwind of the sails.
me, a so-called " Air cushion " forms on the weather side of the sails
as been brought almost to a standstill. Both of these places may be
of eddies. In the diagram we have just been examining, this zone is
now shoe shaped lines.
n which the arrows are pointing in the zone of eddies are examined
be seen that there is a current of air blowing to windward on the lee-
. This counter current is a loss of power to a boat and various people
ith holes in them to prevent this loss. It has not been shown, however,
e sails are an improvement on a sail without such a hole. On the other
other boat so that he obstructs this
only will the power of your sails
as the eddying wind from your
wind. Indeed, if he is closer to you
urrent from your sails may be strong
her and thus greatly slow him down.
are shown in Fig. 57.
es the power which drives the sailing boat and a knowledge of the
r its strength and direction is of nearly as much value to the sailing
of his sails. A perfectly rigged boat with the smoothest of bottoms
calm will not accomplish as much as a barnacle encrusted tub with a
n a breeze.
horizontal motion of the air. The air moves from one place to
e of differences of atmospheric pressure. Figs. 58 and 59 are two maps
pressure commonly seen in the northern hemisphere of the world.
awn through places where the pressures are of the same value. For
ces where the pressure of the atmosphere will support a column of
ession and " fronts "
ne and similarly, for different at-
e lines are called " Isobars." Be-
above sea level at which the reading
e pressures at one height and this
ne, the maps of the isobars would
cause the pressure is much more
cause the winds and weather.
s " and they are published
parts of the world from which information is available. The result
contours of hills and valleys of an ordnance survey map with mountains
e and hollows of low pressure. The synoptic chart is usually drawn
on an outline map of the land below and, in temperate latitudes in the
phere, moves across it from west to east at about 10 to 15 miles per hour,
ed and direction of movement both vary. It is usually possible to predict
accuracy, winds and weather for about twenty four hours.
o blow from places where the pressure is high to places where the
The rotation of the earth, however, causes the wind to deviate to
path in the northern hemisphere (to the left in the southern hemisphere)
the winds blowing along the lines of equal pressure on the synoptic
across them.* The explanation of this deviation is that a south wind
s not only travelling northwards relative to the surface of the earth but
g at approximately 1,000 miles per hour towards the rising sun, due to
he world. Should this wind blow up to 60 of north latitude, where the
e is only half as great, however, it would find that the ground below it
g eastwards at a rate of about 500 miles per hour. The momentum
h the air had acquired at the equator would then pull the air eastwards,
s path. In the case of a wind blowing from 60 of north latitude to
e air would arrive with an eastwards speed of only 500 miles per hour
nd moving at 1,000 miles per hour eastwards. This would then cause
twards deviation relative to the earth's surface. Thus, the air deviates
s path in the northern hemisphere. The force caused by the tendency
eviate to the right is exactly balanced by the gradient of pressure shown
chart, and so the wind flows along the lines of the isobars.
p between winds and pressures is given by Buys Ballot's law :
stands with his back to the wind, the lower pressure is on his
ern hemisphere, on the right in the southern hemisphere."
ptic charts of Figs. 58 and 59, the winds will blow along the lines
t 2,000 feet above sea level, anticlockwise around the rough circle of
he pressure is low in the middle and clockwise around the rough circle
e the pressure is high. The surface winds blow slightly across the iso-
e lower pressures as shown by the arrows.
d in Fig. 58 that two lines are marked coming out like an inverted
re of low pressure. These lines represent " Fronts " where one kind
eplaced by another. The first of these fronts to reach an observer
em is the " Warm front " where cool air is suddenly replaced by warm
often after a marked fall of pressure with a sudden veering of the
ollowing clouds have passed in this order :Cirrus, Cirrostratus,
Nimbostratus. Rain generally falls when the front is passing. In
tor " which is the part between the two limbs of the Y, the pressure and
ally high and the wind is strong.
comes up with a bank of clouds
nd the temperature falls. The air
d below, masses of warmer air rise up
give irregular and squally winds
ists for the subsequent duration
the pressure rising. A vertical
ominent features of each part marked.
l can be calculated from the close-
(except near the equator). The
n with the surface. But at levels,
mes of 500 to 3,000 feet, this friction
ticles of air in contact with the earth
d the " Boundary layer " of an
koned to be two thirds as fast
greater and the wind at 33 feet is
eet. Wind blowing over forests
wind speed with decreased height
ty gradient is least over the sea,
e southern ocean from the water
e of its wings and taking it up into the sky and keeping it there for days
ween the wind and the earth partially neutralises the effect of the
world which makes the wind flow along the isobars, because the reduced
uces the force to the right caused by this rotation in the northern hemi-
ssure gradient then causes a flow of air towards the lower pressure
ace winds blow at a slight angle across the isobars of from 10 to 30
he amount of surface friction, being least over the open sea and greatest
d built up areas.
ble gives the variations of wind velocity near the surface of water.
velocity at 100 feet above water to be 1.0, the mean velocities at other
ccordance with the following figures as measured in one wind gradient
s :
ty gradient varies with different atmospheric conditions, being greatest
t layers of the atmosphere are cooler than those above and least when
yers are hotter than those above.
wind against the ground or sea sets up turbulence or eddies which
small and it is the energy used up by these eddies which causes the fall
ear the surface. The result of these eddies is either to increase or de-
eed for a few seconds by as much as 50% above or below its average
n of the eddies may be horizontal in their rotational movement and
dden fluctuations in wind direction as well as speed. Many such eddies
eet across and therefore last some 5 seconds but they are very variable
ar as is known, it is not possible to tell when they will come in any given
e, is of course, greater over forest than open country and over land
most to be expected in an offshore wind from wooded country.
n in the Wind.
s not to be confused with land and sea breezes. It consists of a
ars with a lessening of the force of
eviation from the isobars during the
open sea and may only be expected
with strong convectional currents
at night when the air in the lower
oled by contact with the cold earth.
r 1,500 feet in the daytime, becomes
er. The warm air above does not
in such conditions but tends to
becomes light. As was seen in the
eed causes a lesser force pulling the
dient to become relatively strong
obars.
h its direction and speed change.
a vertical sense, that is, air which
hence is not excessively warm in
bstructions instead of over them.
headland and an adjacent bay.
o the bay being weakest at the head-
ect is exaggerated if the headland
leet of sailing boats affects the wind
ntre boats will get less wind than those
o weather and to lee of the fleet
are all sailing the same course, the leading boat will have a freer wind
lers.
d is affected in the same places as is the onshore one. It is strongest
blows outwards from the centre. It is weakest in the lee of the headland.
he wind strengths and directions.
ations of the wind are only found with a vertically stable wind.
flowing over a warm sea or even more when it flows over hot land,
ions are very different. These flows will be examined later.
ws.
ated obstruction is in the wind's path such as an extensive cliff,
re wind
re winds of various kinds
re winds of various kinds
e over it. It is interesting to note that a wooded shore has the characteri-
ue to the great frictional resistance it presents, piling up the air above
t. The wind flows are shown in Figs. 63, 64, 65 and 66.
, it will be seen that a ground slope of less than 42 does not greatly
re breeze, but where the slope is larger than 42 a return eddy of air
s of less than 20 miles per hour. When the wind is stronger than this,
aced by turbulent air flow and therefore is not so useful for driving a
ehaves like a steep cliff.
behave as in Figs. 67, 68 and 69. Here, the steepness or otherwise
ot of so much importance as with onshore winds, except so far as with
he eddying may have become settled by the time the sea shore is reached.
re of offshore winds is a return eddy extending to about four times the
stacle from its highest point. This eddy also is replaced by turbulent
more than 20 miles per hour. A low wood will affect the wind flow
ards from the shore.
ng waves
ng waves
ied by glider pilots because it
ns us because it can affect winds over
te is shown in Fig. 70 and the winds
over the mountain ridge descends
fixed distances over large eddies.
the true wind where this descends
nd is separated by a calm belt.
ld be belts of lessened wind intensity
es, stationary cloud belts extending
o be found.
udy have only occurred in recent
s certainly open to question whether
wn as the surface. However, the
exist.
and this warms the air in con-
ering seen over pavements on hot
n till a layer of air possibly some
nd therefore lighter than the air above
hrough the colder air above at
e air from the superheated layer
ble of air forms, which rises often
layers, there is an inflow of air
mass of air is called a " Bubble
als join together to form thermal
he surface and reach up many
e of the lesser pressure at heights
oling causes the water vapour
ter and become cloud, which, in
d cumulus cloud with a flat base at
uch a cloud, so its presence indicates
o other way to recognise that such
of course, invisible.
integrate and soon disappears,
ually be felt at the surface. The
short and the average is alleged to
rance.
AIR
tion of bubble thermal
Thermal*.
als are caused by heating of the bottom layer of the atmosphere by
he globe, they will be greater or more frequent where the surface heating
nature of the surface soils is, therefore, of importance. Arranged in
ng order, the surface can be placed as follows :
such as the fenland.
s.
up areas.
rn.
especially over chalk.
n will greatly alter this order because of the heat absorbed in evaporating
elds of ripe corn are particularly productive of thermals, probably
d until it is very hot. Thermals
d current of air, which has remained
r ocean. This state is frequently
d when the wind swings into the north,
ated cumulus clouds.
curring upward currents of
wer layer of air meets an obstacle.
nough for it to break through the
fleet of boats in a warm sea sailing
heated lower layers of air would
ld form slightly down wind of the
ous line of cumulus clouds and the
This last occurrence would result
a lesser wind on the lee side and,
getting a closer wind to sail in than the
that which occurs with a stable
so rans " a closer one.
where an offshore wind flows
oducing land. When the sea shore is met by such a wind as shown in
thermal is produced. This thermal accentuates the normal sea breeze,
ow more strongly and from farther out at sea. It also tends to be gusty.
own a state where the whole sky may be covered with separated
. Each cloud has an upward air current below it with compensating
urrents between each. Each upward and downward air current affects
d below. The cause of this cloud formation is, at the moment, rather
rents under cumulus clouds
al Air Currents on the Wind.
he effects of upward and downward air currents on the wind. As
ppreciated, there is a radiating air flow from a downward current and
ow from an upward one, each superimposed on the normal windflow.
note, however, is that the strongest winds are to be found, not downwind
current or upwind of an ascending one, but at the sides of each. This
a marked effect on the best course to steer to get the best value from such
guidance can be given, however, as to which current one is in with
te of knowledge so that, apart from the presence of cloud in either
solution or the observation as to how the wind is striking other boats,
a loss as to where to go for the best wind.
of a sky full of separated cumulus clouds, there will be a periodic
e wind in both strength and direction, the periods lasting for a few
depending on the regularity of the clouds and the wind speed.
ermal Effects.
ready described have been very small disturbances in the atmos-
f the order of one or two hundred yards in horizontal extent. Over
ver, there is a cumulative effect from the effects of many small thermals
warm the lower two or three thousand feet of the atmosphere. This
rtical mixing of the air caused by all the bubble thermals ascending and
eat to higher levels. The warming of the air over the land up to such
pressure changes and hence winds at the surface of which the most
sailor are the land and sea breezes.
COOl.tR AIR
ATMOSPHERIC
t PRESSURE MORE
a breeze
reezes.
weather with sunny days and clear, cool nights, the breeze sets
in the morning or early afternoon, starting between the shore and a mile
wing onto the land later. The onset may be sudden with a squall and
temperature and the later in the day it appears, the more suddenly it
eze is limited in its extent to between 10 to IS miles on either side of
oes not appear at more than 1,000 feet in height. In some places in
s wind tends to blow along the coast with the land to the left in the nor-
re. The sea breeze slackens in the evening and fails soon after sunset
followed by the land breeze of less strength during the night.
are caused by the sun heating the air over the land which becomes
hence causes a decrease of barometric pressure over the land as compared
his difference of pressure then causes the air to flow toward the land.
rising over the land as compared
act diagrammatically.
by the sea breeze. In this
hore outside a calm belt.
land may become hot and it
ping markedly, this hot air will
tact with the hot ground and when
mountain, this hot air will become
produced by such conditions is
o sea but its effect increases the force of
strength of the sea breeze opposite
wind."
ping land cools during the night
with a cloudless sky. As shown in Fig. 80, the air in contact with the
lows like water down the slopes, sometimes to rush out of the valleys
great strength like the " Bora," an offshore wind on the northern shores
which frequently gusts at over 100 miles per hour.
tabatic wind
shore breeze in thermal conditions
rmal Wind.
s where the land produces a superheated layer of air, the wind
e land is very different from a normal onshore wind of stable air. The
is that the land attracts air instead of repelling it. Fig. 81 shows an
owing onto hot land. Now, instead of the wind being diverted from
s to blow at right angles to the shore
e the ends of ridges of high land
ese ridges may occur and this may
he strongest wind may now be found
ame distribution as the onshore
o the shore line when the sea breeze
ind will cease before the true sea
conditions are of the same
nds. The headlands, either high or
l onshore breeze
the stronger wind in the middle of
w.
have different thermal-producing
wind will be deviated by such
inds will temporarily deviate to
upwind as the bubbles break free.
area is shown to be greater than it
because, of course, trees have the
19
," 97
xis, 70, 74, 92, 93
rce, 13, 20, 24, 26, 28
rce, greatest possible, 51
ope, 58, 65, 66, 67
, 84
l, 25
aerofoil, 17
sail, 21, 22, 24
118
tion, 20, 26, 27, 31
4, 117
15, 29, 34, 37, 41
on heeling, 59
25, 57, 58, 66, 67
54
, 22, 25, 51, 65
w, 25, 67
essure, 103
ch B., Thames B., Humber
93 24 like velocity gradient, 106 76
5, 76
nsail, 77, 91
nsail like flap, 84
nsail, sweepforward, 58
2, 25
e smooth, 91
nd sea, 117
al Almanac, 26, 27
s, 112
107
w, 105
44
er, 41, 44
, 62
l resistance, 62
iling, 92, 97
, 27, 37
rmals, 114
uled, 92
112
et " 114
, 74
4, 26
n in the wind, 107
g boats, 12, 41, 44
48, 62, 66, 70, 79
angular, 80
of air, 112
ute of Technology, 44
, 97
rd, 78
mulus, 114
5, 37, 93
65, 67
58, 65
rofoils, 11, 84
, 104
ard, 95
56, 70, 74
roach, 11, 22
ms, 112
ow, 119
d ratio, 14
e ratio, 15, 39, 84, 93
e, 74
ortices, 22
11
resail, 80
ails, 25
ails, mathematically, 30
und aerofoil, 24
he wind, 107
0, 76
84, 93
, 105
nt, 22, 48, 106
allacy, 21
s, 72
, 109, 112, 115
of air, 117
g edge, 22
06
sistance, 41
43, 62
e, 13, 29
2, 15, 19, 26
e propeUor, 21
rmance, 37, 65, 68
, 22
effect on wind, 111
ffice.
on.
struction.
crew Theory.
t.
High lift devices).
and Asia.
of Yacht Sails. American

Sailing Aerodynamics

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OD amics

ast 40th Street, Netv York 16, N. Y.

book which has been a great pleasure to me to assemble will be,

r indirectly, a source of pleasure to yachtsmen. Some parts might

mposed of formidable equations and mathematics but when these are

will be found to be only the most elementary trigonometry which every-

tand. From these calculations, however, are derived performance

been made to give more of aerodynamic theory than is necessary

he principles of airflow around an aerofoil and the basic figures on which

aeroplane aerodynamics to which those interested should refer.

will allow them to be perfected by anyone interested, if they should

given all aspects of Sailing Aerodynamics which are mentioned in

at deal of thought over a period of many years, it is certain that several

re interested has been neglected, I should be glad if they would let me

ect of Sails on the Wind

of 0, 0.5 and 1.0.. .. 36

per unit heeling moment 55

e figures of various aerofoils and a Bermudian mainsail .. 83

d reefable asymmetrical aerofoil .. .. .. .. 86

a large aerodynamic force .. .. .. .. .. 87

rig with adjustable slope .. .. .. 94

air around a boat close hauled and reaching .. .. 98

air around a boat, running 100

n and " Fronts" .. .. .. 103

nd of stable air .. .. .. .. 108

66. Onshore winds of various kinds .. .. 109, 110

Offshore winds of various kinds .. .. .. 110

f bubble thermal .. .. .. .. 113

upward air current .. .. 114

ermal wind .. .. .. .. 115

under cumulus clouds .. .. 115

cending and descending air currents on the wind .. .. 116

e breeze in thermal conditions .. .. 1*9

f various surfaces on a thermal onshore breeze .. 120

nd sailing ships evolved throughout the ages by a process of

ications of the primary log, bundle of reeds or inflated skin by

ers of mostly unknown men. Each sailor may be thought of as

individuality to his boat or ship and where that individuality produced

nflated skin gradually became transformed into the beautiful sailing

he nineteenth century, the J class yacht of the twentieth century or the

l but humbler dinghy.

awaddy and other Asiatic rivers. Later stages of progress occurred in

ean countries followed by the Viking countries, especially Norway and

se places have one thing in common. That is, sheltered water in

ment but not so sheltered that seaworthiness could be neglected.

aboard of North America also has great stretches of sheltered water

the rapid evolution of typically American types of sailing boats and

approach made themselves the master shipwrights of the eighteenth

ve their flax into the best sails in the world.

evolution is slow and requires the thought of generations of men

als available. Countless experiments must be made with devices,

nd in failure. An example of this is seen in some recent experiments

e like the wing of an aeroplane, rigid and untwisted. To be practical

s not as good as the conventional Bermudian rig. The next step in

ing an aerofoil whose sides are not

ght then show an advance in effici-

scientific study of materials,

from it which the purely practical

nce, in this study, I will show

ent than the Bermudian rig, though

ue when used as sails. This has

esult of tests of the different types

o their power to drive a boat

mics." This is a study well worth