You are on page 1of 40

Dr.C.

Ergun
Mak 214E

MAK214E
Summer 2006-2007
Lecture Notes 3

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Strengthening of materials
• Strain hardening: due to the increase in dislocation density and
their interaction with each other, obstacles, grain boundaries, etc.
• Martensite strengthening:
• Solid Solution hardening: Addition of different atoms provide
additional strength to the material caused by the lattice distortion
due to the mismatch of the atoms.
• Dispersion strengthening: The strengthening of a metal or an
alloy by incorporating chemically stable submicron size particles
of a nonmetallic or intermetallic phases that impede dislocation
movement at elevated temperatures (hard particles in matrix).
• Precipitation hardening: hardening in metals caused by the
precipitation of a constituent from a supersaturated solid solution.

1
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Strengthening effect of second phase

In order to get a strengthening effect


1. Soft matrix -hard precipitates/particles
2. Homogenuous distribution of precipitates/particles
3. Fine (small) precipitates/particles 3
4. Spherical precipitates/particles

Dr.C.Ergun

Phase diagrams with respect to solubility


Mak 214E

a) Unlimited solubility: One material can completely dissolve in a second


material without creating a second phase.
b) Insolubility: One element can not dissolve in another in any amount.
c) Limited solubility: One element can dissolve in another only in certain
amount.
b) c)
a)

Important in
precipitation hardening 4

2
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214ESolubility and Solid Solutions Complete solute solution of
Cu and Ni atoms

Precipitation of
a new phase: a
Cu- Zn
compound

Phases and solubility: (a) Liquid Cu and Ni: complete solubility.


The three phases of water. (Solid Cu-Ni alloys: complete solid
solubility in random lattice sites).
• Water and alcohol - unlimited solubility.
(a) In Cu-Zn alloys containing more than
• Salt and water - limited solubility. 30% Zn, a second phase forms -
• Oil and water - no solubility. limited solubility of Zn in Cu.
5

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Solid-Solution Strengthening

Effect of atomic Effect of Zn content in The mechanical


radii alloying atoms Cu on the properties properties of Cu-Ni
added to Cu on the of solid solution. alloys. Pay attention to
strengthening 60% Ni -40% Cu. 6
(Monel)-german silver

3
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Precipitation (Age) Hardening Important

Small second phase precipitates behaves as small obstacles to


dislocation motion.
Starting from a structure having coarse grained precipitates,
Steps:
1. Solution treatment: heating the material to the single phase
ragion.
2. Queching the material to room temperature having a
supersaturated solid solution with a metastable single phase
microstructure.
3. Aging the material at (reheating to) an intermediate temperature to
activate solid state diffusion to form fine grained precititates.
Overaging- aging the material too long causes coarser precipitates
loosing the effectiveness to behave as an dislocation barier
7

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E If slowly cooled-
(not hardening effect)
%100 β
T
(single phase)

Slow cooling
Equilibrium microstructure:
α+β Coarse α Grains in β matrix

Time
Composition

4
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

Steps of Precipitation (Age)


hardening treatment

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Important
Precipitation (Age) hardening
T

Solution treatment
β
Quenchin

structure
Sıcaklık

ro

α+β taging
Same mic

α-Grains
in β matrix

Time Forming the coherent


Composition
small precipitation
10

5
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

Effect of aging time on


microstructure and properties of
aged material

11

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak
• In214E
the first stage, very small coherent precipitates called -GP zones (Guinier
preston zones) forms,
• The empty spaces below the dislocation are good location for nucleating of
these GP zones (decreasing the energy of the system), thus prevents the
dislocation motions. Important
• Then, these zones form larger coherent precipitates. These precipitates
stretches the lattice and cause to strengthening the material.
Coarsening the
precipitates and loosing
Over
Coherent grain Aging
their ability to
formation strenghening the material.
Hardness

GP Zone
Lossing of Coherent
Coherency Precipitation

Temperature
β α 12

6
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

Loosing of hardening effect


during overaging!!

13

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

Overaging Important

• Overaging: As the precipitates


coarsen, the misfit stresses become
too large to sustain.
• Then the coherency would be lost, the
β the precipitates becomes uncoherent.
α
• Thus the effectiveness of the
hardening decreases.
• If the material aged long enough, the
starting coarse microstructure will be
formed.

14

7
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

Effect of aging time and aging


temperature on the properties of
aged material!!

15

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Important
Temperature

taging
Hardness

Taging(hour)
16

8
Dr.C.Ergun
Design
Mak 214E an age hardening treatment giving the temperature for each
step for the alloy having 2 wt.% Cu.

©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
18

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark


used herein under license.

19

9
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

20

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

Surface Hardening

21

10
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Surface Hardening Treatments
•In many machine parts, the ideal properties are;
• high strength,
• high toughness,
• high ductility,
• high fatigue resistance,
• high impact resistance.
•This properties require special structural configuration
• Hard and strong surface to have excellent wear resistance, fatigue resistance, etc.
• Ductile, soft, tough inside for a good ductility, fracture and impact resistance, etc.

•Low C steels: y Low strength,


• Low hardness, •High C steels: y Opposite properties.
• Good Ductility,
Modify the C content ???
• Good Toughness,

Special treatments are needed to merge both properties in single material:

Surface Hardening
22

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Surface Hardening Treatments of Steel
Methods:
1. Thermo-chemical treatments: modifying the
chemical composition at the surface (providing hard
carbide and/or nitride layer)
Introduce C and/or
• Carburizing (introducing C) N: use normally
• Nitriding (introducing N) inhardenable steel
• Carbonitriding (introducing C and N)
• Cyaniding (introducing C and N)
2. Selective heating and quenching treatment: no
chemical change in the surface composition.
• Induction hardening Use the existent C
• Flame hardening and other elements:
use hardenable steel
• Laser and electron beam hardenening
23

11
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

Thermo-chemical surface Hardening Selective heating and quenching

The C content of the surface


• Heating the surface, and the following
more than that of core after
quenching just transforms austenite to
carburizing.
martensite at the surface,
• since inside never reaches to austenite
forming temperatures.
24

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Terminology
• Selectively Heating the Surface - Rapidly heat the surface of a medium-carbon steel
above the A3 temperature and then quench the steel.
• Case depth - The depth of hardened surface made by surface hardening treatments.
• Carburizing - Surface-hardening method of steels by diffusion of carbon diffuses into
surface.
• Cyaniding - Surface-hardening method of steels by diffusion of both carbon and
nitrogen obtained from a bath of liquid cyanide solution.
• Carbonitriding - Surface-hardening of steel with carbon and nitrogen obtained from a
special gas atmosphere.

25

12
Dr.C.Ergun
Surface
Mak 214E
(Case) Hardening Treatments: Carburizing
• A thermo-chemical process to harden the normally unhardenable (low
carbon) steels by involving diffusion of Carbon (C).
• Holding low C steel at 875-925oC in a C rich gas or liquid atmosphere to
produce desired case with high carbon content resulting higher hardenability
than core.
• Then quenching rapidly to room temperature to have case hardened parts with
softer core.
• Subsequent tempering may be applied.

–Depth of hardening (case depth):


•No technical limit but generally in excess of 1.5 mm.
•Case depth / diameter (or thickness): 5-10 %.
–Carburizing time: 2-10 Hrs depending to the desired case thickness.
–Carburizing temperature: Depending on the steel, above A3: 875 –
925oC.
–Quenching: Carburized parts need to be quenched. Tempering also
possible for the desired hardness.
26

Dr.C.Ergun
Surface
Mak 214E
(Case) Hardening Treatments: Carburizing

–Types of Carburizing Process:


• Pack Carburizing: The part packed in charcoil activated with BaCO3
inside a steel container, followed by heating at carburizing temperature
and then quenching and/or tempering.
• Gas Carburizing: Carburizing in methane, ethane or natural gas at 850-
925oC and free from O2, then quenching and/or tempering.
• Liquid Carburizing: In a molten salt such as NaCN for 1 – 4hrs, then
followed by the same procedure done in pack carburizing.
27

13
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Surface (Case) Hardening: Nitriding.
Use nitriding steels with medium carbon and nitride forming alloying
elements such as Al, Ti, Cr, etc.

– Heating below A1, 500 – 570oC


in N2 + H2 atmosphere (gas,
liquid or plasma -ammonia, etc).
– Holding enough time (longer
than carburizing - 10-48 hrs) to
obtain desired case depth.

–Nitrogen diffusion into the surface


–Very hard iron nitride or alloy nitride formation.
–No quenching, no scaling or discoloration.
–The hardened layer is harder and shallower than tool or carburized steels
(1000 VHN).
–Also ion nitriding process with some advantageous such as higher hardness,
much shorter process time (2-10Hrs). 28

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214ESurface (Case) Hardening: Carbonitriding.

–Similar to carburizing but in carbon and nitrogen rich atmosphere with


the diffusion of N and C in methane or propane + ammonia.

– Can be applied to plain carbon


steels.
– At above eutectoid transformation
temperatures: 760 – 875oC.
– Quenching with blowing gas;
much less severe than quenching
with water.
– 0.1 – 0.75 mm case depth, 60 – 65
Rc case hardness.

29

14
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Surface (Case) Hardening Treatments: Cyanding

– Diffusion of both N and C to the surface in molten cyanide.


– Supercritical treatment at 760 – 870oC with case depth 0.25-
0.75mm
– Less processing times: less than 1hr.
– Water or oil quench under a significant distortion risk.

30

Dr.C.Ergun Selective heating and quenching: Induction


Mak 214E Hardening
– High frequency alternating current on the coil induces heat on the part.
– Increase the frequency for larger parts to increase the heating depth to
austenite T ( even possible to heat to a Temp. higher than melting T.
– Lower frequency for smaller parts for a shallower penetration of heat.
– Special coil design is possible for complex geometries
– Good for medium or high carbon steels as well as low alloy steels.

• Heat the surface above A3 by induction. Advantageous:


• Then, Quenching with water after Ease for automation and control,
heating.
– Safe and clean,
– Less scale loses,
– Fast start up and quick heating,
– Low maintanance and
operating costs,
– But high investment costs.
31

15
Dr.C.Ergun
Selective
Mak 214E
heating and quenching: Flame Hardening
– Selective hardening with a combustible gas flame to above austenizing
temperature of a steel with at least 0.4 C%,
– Then, water quenching,
– Fuel: oxygen-/acetylene, propane or gas mixture with high heat output.
– Good for gear teeth, shear blades, cams, etc,
– A good result with 3 – 5mm case depth,
– Rc 65 can be obtained with a treatment from 825oC,
– Also possible by immersing the work piece into a molten salts, etc.
– Types:
• Spot Flame Hardening: flame to a spot that needs to be hardened
followed by quenching.
• Spin Flame Hardening: A rotating work piece in contact with a
stationary flame.
• Progressive Flame Hardening: The torch and the quenching medium
move across the surface of the work piece.

32

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Selective heating and quenching:
Laser and Electron Beam Hardening

– Used for selective hardening,


– Steel for these processes should have sufficient C and
alloying elements,
– A certain portion of the surface can be heated to the
desired temperature in very short times,
– Vacuum is needed for the operation of electron beam,
– Area; 6-10mm2 for electron beam, up to 100mm2 for laser
heating ,
– But high investment and operating costs,
– Only good for plain carbon steels.

33

16
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Advantageous and Characteristics
Advantageous:
•Eliminates Distortion and Cracking
•Localized hardening makes possible harden certain locations
•Heating can be performed with flame, induction coil, laser or electron beam.
–Carburizing:
• Best for low C steels
–Nitriding: Important!!!!!
• Lower distortion risk compared to carburizing.
• Higher surface hardness, but lower case depth
• Good for Cr-Mo alloy steels
–Carbonitriding
• Good for shallower case depth than carburizing
• Yields higher hardness than nitriding..
–Flame hardening:
• Suitable for bulky parts and selective hardening for large components.
–Induction hardening:
• Good for medium carbon low alloy heat treatable steels
• Suitable geometry for the induction coils.
–Electron beam and laser hardening:
• Limited to the plain carbon and low alloy steels. 34

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Effect of Process Variables

Effect of Composition
Effect of Processing
temperature

35

17
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Effect of Process Variables

Effect of Processing
temperature Effect of
Processing time

36

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Types of Steels
•Constructional steels:
•Profiles ( Fe37, Fe 42, Fe 50, 1010, 1020, 1040, etc.),
•Sheet or plates -deep drawing quality ( low carbon, fine grain), thin plate, galvanize, plates for ship
buildings.
•Heat treatable steels (for combination of strength and ductility)
•Carbon steels
•Low Alloy steels (alloyed less than 5%)
•Carburizing steels (low carbon steels for case hardening)
•Nitriding steels (alloyed with nitride formers such as Al and Cr)
•Free cutting steels: (To be easiliy cut by tools: high machinability, high S content)
•Spring steels (0.5-0.6 C and good hardenability and elastic properties)
•Bolt steels (Good cold formability for thread rolling)
•High temperature steels: For boilers and pipes
•Sub zero steels (shows no DBTT, generally austenitic steels)
•Valve steels (high strength, good toughness and ductility)
•Stainless steel (Ferritic, Martensitic, Austenitic, Precipitation Hardening)
•Tools steels (Hot work and Cold work Tool steel, High speed steels)
•Ball bearing steels
•Electrical steels Extra low C with Si up to 3%.
•Non-magnetizable steels -austenitic steels
•High strength low alloy steels (HSLA) micro alloyed with V or Nb etc. Common in automotive industry.
•Dual phase steels (contains martensite in ferrite matrix, obtained with inter-critical range annealing and
quenching, widely demanded for transport vehicles)
•Maraging steels ( ultra high strength as a result of martensitic transformation and following aging
treatment)
38
•Cast steels:

18
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

Types of Steels
• Tools steels
• Specilaized steels
¾ High strength low alloy steels (HSLA):
¾ Microalloyed Steels:
¾ Maraging steels
¾ Dual phase steels
• Stainless steel
9 Ferritic,
9 Martensitic,
9 Austenitic,
9 Precipitation Hardening

39

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Tool steels

Mostly have high C to provide high hardness by quenching and


tempering.
They have a combination of
9High strength,
9High hardness,
9High toughness,
9High temperature resistance.
Applications:
• Cutting tools for machining operations.
• Dies for die casting, used for casting operations.
• Forming dies, used for plastic deformation operation.

40

19
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

Tool Steels
Letter: Alloying elements,
Code Type of Tool Steel working cond., heat
M1 Molybdenum HSS treatment, etc.
T1 Tungsten HSS
H10 Chromium Hot work tool steel
H21 Tungsten Hot work tool steel
H42 Molibdenum Hot work tool steel
A2 Air Hardening Medium Alloy Cold work tool steel
D2 High C High Cr Cold work tool steel
O1 Oil Hardening Cold work tool steel Digits: Designation
S1 Shock resistant steel the Composition
L2 Low alloy special purpose tool steel
P2 Low C mold steel
W1 Water hardening tool steel

41

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Secondary
Hardening Peak

• Alloying elements may improve the high T


stability of these steels:
• Water hardenable steels soften rapidly even
at relatively low T.
• Oil hardenable steels temper more slowly but
still soften at high T.
• Air hardenable and special tool steels do not
soften near A1.

• High alloyed steels may pass through a secondary hardening peak near
500oC as the normal cementites dissolve and hard alloy carbides precipitate.
• The alloy carbides are particularly stable, resist growth and spheroidization
and providing high T resistance of these steels.

42

20
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
SPECIAL STEELS
• High Strength Low Alloy Steels (HSLA)
• Microalloyed Steels
• Maraging Steels
• Dual Phase Steels

High Strength Low Alloy Steels (HSLA)


• Low C steels and small amount of carbide former alloying elements, such as
Ti, Nb, Ta, Zr, etc.
• Carbide forms at grain baundaries and therfore very fine grains.
• Therefore high strength and high ductility without heat treatment.
• Specifications based on their strength. Commonly used in automotive industry.

Microalloyed Steels:
• Even less alloying elements than HSLA
• Rely partly on a carefully controlled hot-rolling process for precipitation
strengthening.- no other heat treatment needed.
• Precipitation of carbides of nitrides of Cr, V, Ti or Zr.
• Thus dispersion strengthening and fine grain size provides the strength. 43

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

Maraging Steels: Ultra high strength with Martensite + Aging


• Steels with low carbon and high alloying element concentrations.
• Combination of
¾Solid solution strengthening,
¾Precipitation hardening with a low C martensite + aging.
• Austenizing and quenching to produce soft martensite with 0.3% C.
• Upon aging at about 500oC, precipitation of intermetallic compounds,
such as Ni3Ti, Fe2Mo and Ni3Mo.

Dual Phase Steels:


• A good combination of strength and ductility in low C steels with an
inter-critical annealing of hot or cold rolled sheet steels
• A microstructure of martensite and ferrite which is initially ferrite
and pearlite.

44

21
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Stainless Steels
¾ Stainless steels - Excellent resistance to
corrosion. Contain at least 12% Cr, a
thin protective surface layer of
chromium oxide to form under oxygen
exposure.
¾ Categories of stainless steels:
9Ferritic SS
9Martensitic SS
9Austenitic SS
9Precipitation-Hardening (PH) SS
9Duplex SS

(a) Ferritic, (b) Martensitic containing large primary carbides and small carbides
formed during tempering, (c) Austenitic, (d) PH stainless steels. 45

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Austenite region shrinks and
Chromium carbide becomes a
Phase Diagrams stable phase as the Cr content
increases in steel

(a) The effect of Cr on the Fe-C phase diagram. Cr content (a) 0 %; (b) 5%; (c)
17%. At low-carbon contents, ferrite is stable at all temperatures.

Cr is ferrite stabilizer, Ni and Mn are austenite stabilizer agents


46

22
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Ferritic Stainless Steels

• Up to 30 % Cr with less that 0.12 %C.


• Solute Solution Strengthening and strain hardening is
possible.
• When the C and Cr content high, dispersion strengthening of
carbides but embrittles.
• General Properties:
• Good strength
• Excellent corrosion resistance,
• Moderate ductility/formability,
• Relatively inexpensive.

47

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Martensitic Stainless Steels

• Less than 17 % Cr to have large enough austenite field to


control austenizing temperature and C content.
• 0.1 - 1 % C content for martensite formation.
• First austenize the steel than quench to get martensitic
structure.
• Cr content makes possible air or oil quenching.
• Combination of hardness, strength and corrosion resistance.
• Lower corrosion resistance than the other stainless steels.
• Good for high quality knives, ball bearings, valves.

48

23
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Austenitic Stainless Steels

¾ Ni content to stabilize γ at the room temperatures.


¾ Due to the FCC structure;
9Excellent ductility, formability.
9No DBTT and high impact resistance even at low
temperatures (sub zero applications).
9Non ferromagnetic materials – no ferrite inside.
¾ Strengthening possible with solid solution and cold
working.
¾ Expensive due to high Cr and Ni content.
¾ Less than 0.03% C to prevent carbide formation.
Otherwise, sensitized to intergranular corrosion with the
formation of Cr23C.
50

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Sensitization
• If C content more than 0.03 % sensitized to intergranular corrosion.
• Upon slow cooling between 870 – 425oC, chromium carbide
precipitation at the grain boundaries. Austenite region shrinks
and Chromium carbide
To prevent sensitization: becomes a stable phase
1.“Quench anneal treatment”:
heat above 870oC to dissolve
carbides, then rapidly quench to
prevent carbide formation. Or
2.As an alternative solution
“Stabilization”: add Ti or Nb to
combine C forming TiC or NbC
which are more favorable than
chromium carbide. 18% Cr-8% Ni. At low-carbon
contents, austenite is stable at room
51
temperature.

24
Dr.C.Ergun
Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels
Mak 214E

¾A similar composition to austenitic stainless


steel with the addition of Al, Nb, or Ta.
¾Strengthening with
9Solid solution strengthening,
9Strain hardening,
9Age hardening,
9Martensitic transformation.
¾High mech. Prop. even at low C contents.

52

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

A heat treatment for a


typical 17-7 PH with

Starting material in annealed condition:


¾ Conditioning: Austenizing at 760 – 955oC
¾ Quenching and transformation: Cooled to about 15oC
or below for martensitic transformation temperature.
¾ Precipitation: Reheated to 500-600oC permitting Ni3Al
and other precipitates to form from martensite.
¾ Higher strength obtained with lower aging times.
53

25
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

Duplex Stainless Steels:


•A microstructure with a combination of ferrite and austenite.
•Small amount of other phase may be present to modify the
properties.

Difference

A duplex stainless steel, A dual-phase steel,


Ferrite + Austenite Ferrite + Martensite
Ferrite: Dark, Ferrite: Dark,
Austenit: Gray. Martensite: Gray. 54

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

Cast Irons

55

26
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Cast Irons Important
ƒ Cast iron - A ferrous alloys containing
ƒ 2 < % C < 4 and 0.5 < % Si < 3
ƒ Eutectic and Eutectoid reactions controls the microstructure in Cast Irons.

ƒ Types of cast irons:


¾Gray cast iron
¾White cast iron
¾Malleable cast iron
¾Nodular (Ductile) cast iron
¾Compacted graphite
(vermicular) cast iron

56

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Fe/C ve Fe/Fe3C Faz diyagramı

57

27
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Cast iron: Cooling rate
• Different microstructures form depending on the cooling rate
from molten state,
• Fast cooling (not quenching) cementite formation (no time for
graphite formation).
• Very slow cooling rates: graphitization due to decomposition
of cementite into ferrite and graphite or pearlite/ferrite and
graphite.
• Si is a graphite stabilizing agent.
• Cr and Bi, cementite stabilizing agents.
• Si reduces the amount of C in the eutectic composition.
• Therefore, Si content evaluated in Carbon Equivalent concept.

59

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Carbon equivalent and Si

1
CE% = C% + Si% (CE : Carbon equivalent)
3

The eutectic composition: 4.3 % CE,


9 CE ≤ 4.3 %, hypoeutectic.
9 CE ≥ 4.3 %, hypereutectic.
60

28
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
TTT Diagram of Cast irons

True equilabrium

Metastable

61

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

The Matrix:
• Slow cooling rates: γ Æα + graphite
• Annealing: slow (furnace) cooling leading ferritic matrix.
• Normalizing: air (faster) cooling leading pearlitic matrix.
• Quenching and tempering: Tempered martensite.
• Austempering: Bainitic matrix or surface hardening.
• Matrix structure also effected by the composition of iron:
• Si, graphite and ferrite stabilizer,
• 0.05% Sn and 0.5% Cu, pearlite stabilizer.

62

29
Dr.C.Ergun

Cooling rate and Types of Cast Iron


Mak 214E
Important

• Depending on the cooling rate, different cast irons.


– Slow cooling: Gray cast iron.
• Ferritic,
• Ferritic/pearlitic,
• Pearlitic.
– Fast Cooling: White cast iron.
• Malleable (Tempered) cast iron: Annealing Heat
treatment of White cast iron.
– Nodular cast ion: with the addition of spherodizing agents,
such as Mg (and Ce).
– Compacted graphite (vermicular) cast iron: Shape of the
graphites in between flakes and spheres.
63

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

The eutectic reaction:


• Solidification between two eutectics: a
graphite containing cast irons: Such as
gray, ductile or compacted graphite
iron.
• Solidification below the lower eutectic
temperature: white cast iron.
• If solidification starts above lower and
finish below it, mottled iron, a mixture
of white and gray iron –not desirable.

Chilled iron; surface white iron, center gray iron for low cost wear resistant
components.

• The chill depth: tests for


CE measurements.

64

30
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Gray cast iron
• Slow cooling permits the diffusion of C and forming graphite flakes.
– If very slow cooling rate: Ferritic cast iron.
– Medium cooling rates Ferritic-perlitic cast iron.
– Faster cooling rates Perlitic cast iron.
• As the pearlite ratio increase, strength increases but ductility always low
due to the notch effect of flake edges.

Grafit Lameller
α
Perlitik DD

Ferritik DD

Important Ferritik-Perlitik DD Perlit


65
Artan Soğuma Hızı

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Important

• Most commone one,


• Microstructure consists of ferrite and/or pearlite plus
graphite flakes
– Low almost no ductility
– Low strength (higher in compressive loading)
– High brittleness
– Higher sliding wear resistance
– Good thermal conductivity
– Self lubrication,
– Good machinability
– Vibration damping property: engine blocks

66

31
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

• Interconnected graphite flakes connected where the nucleation originated:


nucleation sites.
• The graphite flakes behaves like small cracks in the cast iron causing
stress concentration. Therefore low tensile strength and brittleness with an
elongation of 1% or less.
• As the flake size (finer graphite) decreases tensile strength increases. The
finer the graphite is, the stronger the cast iron is.
• At lower CE, the nominal strength is higher.

Notch effect causes


stress concentration
at the sharp edges of
the graphite flakes

67

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
White cast iron Important

Eutectic reaction:
Liquid ⇒ ledeburite microstructure (γ+Fe3C) •Fast cooled structure: White
cast iron.
•Due to cementite: hard and
S
brittle.
γ+S y1 S+Fe3C
y2 1 Liquid
Transformed Ledeburite

γ
y 3γ+Fe C
3
2 γ

Proeutectic γ
Ledeburite

α+Fe3C y4 3 Eutectic γ
Eutectic Fe3C
4
Cast iron Eutectoid
Eutectic Fe69
3C
Perlite

32
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Important
White cast iron
• Microstructure consits of cementite network and
pearlite
• Extreme brittleness
• High hardness
• Wear resistance,
• Can not machined by tools, only by grinding
• An intermediate product for malleable iron

70

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

71

33
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Important
Malleable cast iron
• Produced by heat treatment of white iron.
• During malleablizing, cementite dissolves and graphite clumps or nodules
looking like popcorn forms.
• Rounded graphite provides a combination of strength and ductility.
• Steps for mallebilization:
9Starting material: white cast iron with a CE of 3 %.
9First stage graphitization (FSG): at about 925oC to decompose
cementite into austenite and graphite. (Fe3CÆ γ + graphite)
9The austenite decomposes in the subsequent cooling from FSG
temperature with two different structures.
¾Ferritic Malleable cast iron BETTER DUCTILITY
and TOUGHNESS
¾Pearlitic Malleable cast iron

72

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Important

Ferritic Malleable Iron:


• The casting is cooled 5-15oC/h through the eutectoid temperature to second
stage graphitization (SSG).
• The γ transforms to α and excess C diffuses to graphite nodules.
• Exceptional toughness.

73

34
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Pearlitic Malleable Iron:
• Cooled in air or oil. Important
• Pearlitic if air cooled, martensitic if oil quenched.
• Both hard and brittle.
• To improve ductility, the pearlitic malleable iron is drawn below eutectoid T.

Drawing process
• Tempers martensite or spheroidies the pearlite, thus reducing the amount of
combined C or cementite.
• Thus the strength of pearlitic malleable iron decreases and ductility and
toughness increase.

74

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Important Ductile or Nodular Cast Iron

• Addition of Mg (or Ce) to high CE liquid iron to form


spehroidal graphite during solidification.
• Best ductility. BEST DUCTILITY
• Steps: and TOUGHNESS

9 Desulfurization: S flake stabilizer.


9 Nodulizing.
9 Inocculation

75

35
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Desulfurization: S flake stabilizer. So for low S is needed. Important
9 High quality starting material;
9 Melting in furnace to remove S;
9 Mix the liquid iron with desulfurizing agents, calcium carbide.

Nodulizing:
9 Add Mg near 1500oC to spherodize the graphite (also remove S
and O) in the molten metal,
9 Residual 0.03% Mg is enough for nodulization.
9 Since Mg vaporizes at 1150oC, ferrosilicon used to Mg
recoveries.
9 Fading (non violent vaporization or oxidation) of Mg should be
controlled with pouring the molten metal within a few minutes,
otherwise turns to gray iron.
76

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E

Inoculation:
9 Mg is a carbide stabilizer in other words white iron forms.
9 Inoculation with ferrosilicon alloys (50 - 85 % Si) and small amounts of
Ca, Al, Sr or Ba.
9 So nucleation sites for graphite to grow is provided by inoculation of
molten metal.
9 Also this effect fades with time.

77

36
Dr.C.Ergun
Compacted Graphite (Vermecular) Cast Irons
Mak 214E

• Graphite shape; intermediate between flakes and spheres.


• Nodulizing the molten metal with a residual Mg content of 0.015% (<0.03%)
• May also form with fading of ductile iron.
• Compared to gray cast iron; better strengths and ductility good thermal
conductivity, and vibration damping characteristics.
• Similar treatment to that of ductile iron.
¾Low S starting material,
¾Inoculation to nucleate graphite.
¾Pouring shortly after inoculation to prevent fading (loosing the
spheoridizing effect of Mg with time due to its evaporation).

Important

78

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Uygulama

(a) White cast iron prior to heat treatment.


(b) Ferritic malleable iron with graphite nodules and small MnS inclusions.
(c) Pearlitic malleable iron drawn to produce a tempered martensite matrix.
(d) Annealed ferritic ductile (nodular) iron.
(e) As-cast ferritic-pearlitic ductile iron.
(f) Normalized pearlitic ductile iron.
79

37
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Uygulama

(a) Annealed ferritic ductile iron


(b) As-cast ferritic-pearlitic ductile iron
(c) Normalized perlitic ductile iron with.

• Compared to gray iron, excellent strength, ductility and toughness.


• Compared to malleable iron, higher ductility and strength, but
slightly lower toughness due to higher Si content.

80

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Coding System

Yokes: Bağlantı Knuckle: oynak nokta


Gear: Dişli Cap:kapak
Drum: arka fren dış kabı Hub: merkez kısım
Hausing: gövde
81

38
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Gray Cast Iron

82

Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Malleable Cast Iron

83

39
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Nodular Cast Iron

84

40

You might also like