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Ergun
Mak 214E
MAK214E
Summer 2006-2007
Lecture Notes 3
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Strengthening of materials
• Strain hardening: due to the increase in dislocation density and
their interaction with each other, obstacles, grain boundaries, etc.
• Martensite strengthening:
• Solid Solution hardening: Addition of different atoms provide
additional strength to the material caused by the lattice distortion
due to the mismatch of the atoms.
• Dispersion strengthening: The strengthening of a metal or an
alloy by incorporating chemically stable submicron size particles
of a nonmetallic or intermetallic phases that impede dislocation
movement at elevated temperatures (hard particles in matrix).
• Precipitation hardening: hardening in metals caused by the
precipitation of a constituent from a supersaturated solid solution.
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Mak 214E
Strengthening effect of second phase
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Important in
precipitation hardening 4
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Mak 214ESolubility and Solid Solutions Complete solute solution of
Cu and Ni atoms
Precipitation of
a new phase: a
Cu- Zn
compound
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Mak 214E
Solid-Solution Strengthening
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Mak 214E
Precipitation (Age) Hardening Important
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Mak 214E If slowly cooled-
(not hardening effect)
%100 β
T
(single phase)
Slow cooling
Equilibrium microstructure:
α+β Coarse α Grains in β matrix
Time
Composition
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Mak 214E
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E
Important
Precipitation (Age) hardening
T
Solution treatment
β
Quenchin
structure
Sıcaklık
ro
α+β taging
Same mic
α-Grains
in β matrix
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Mak 214E
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Mak
• In214E
the first stage, very small coherent precipitates called -GP zones (Guinier
preston zones) forms,
• The empty spaces below the dislocation are good location for nucleating of
these GP zones (decreasing the energy of the system), thus prevents the
dislocation motions. Important
• Then, these zones form larger coherent precipitates. These precipitates
stretches the lattice and cause to strengthening the material.
Coarsening the
precipitates and loosing
Over
Coherent grain Aging
their ability to
formation strenghening the material.
Hardness
GP Zone
Lossing of Coherent
Coherency Precipitation
Temperature
β α 12
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Mak 214E
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Mak 214E
Overaging Important
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Mak 214E
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Mak 214E
Important
Temperature
taging
Hardness
Taging(hour)
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Dr.C.Ergun
Design
Mak 214E an age hardening treatment giving the temperature for each
step for the alloy having 2 wt.% Cu.
©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
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Mak 214E
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Mak 214E
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Mak 214E
Surface Hardening
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Mak 214E Surface Hardening Treatments
•In many machine parts, the ideal properties are;
• high strength,
• high toughness,
• high ductility,
• high fatigue resistance,
• high impact resistance.
•This properties require special structural configuration
• Hard and strong surface to have excellent wear resistance, fatigue resistance, etc.
• Ductile, soft, tough inside for a good ductility, fracture and impact resistance, etc.
Surface Hardening
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Mak 214E
Surface Hardening Treatments of Steel
Methods:
1. Thermo-chemical treatments: modifying the
chemical composition at the surface (providing hard
carbide and/or nitride layer)
Introduce C and/or
• Carburizing (introducing C) N: use normally
• Nitriding (introducing N) inhardenable steel
• Carbonitriding (introducing C and N)
• Cyaniding (introducing C and N)
2. Selective heating and quenching treatment: no
chemical change in the surface composition.
• Induction hardening Use the existent C
• Flame hardening and other elements:
use hardenable steel
• Laser and electron beam hardenening
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Mak 214E
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Terminology
• Selectively Heating the Surface - Rapidly heat the surface of a medium-carbon steel
above the A3 temperature and then quench the steel.
• Case depth - The depth of hardened surface made by surface hardening treatments.
• Carburizing - Surface-hardening method of steels by diffusion of carbon diffuses into
surface.
• Cyaniding - Surface-hardening method of steels by diffusion of both carbon and
nitrogen obtained from a bath of liquid cyanide solution.
• Carbonitriding - Surface-hardening of steel with carbon and nitrogen obtained from a
special gas atmosphere.
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Surface
Mak 214E
(Case) Hardening Treatments: Carburizing
• A thermo-chemical process to harden the normally unhardenable (low
carbon) steels by involving diffusion of Carbon (C).
• Holding low C steel at 875-925oC in a C rich gas or liquid atmosphere to
produce desired case with high carbon content resulting higher hardenability
than core.
• Then quenching rapidly to room temperature to have case hardened parts with
softer core.
• Subsequent tempering may be applied.
Dr.C.Ergun
Surface
Mak 214E
(Case) Hardening Treatments: Carburizing
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Mak 214E Surface (Case) Hardening: Nitriding.
Use nitriding steels with medium carbon and nitride forming alloying
elements such as Al, Ti, Cr, etc.
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Mak 214ESurface (Case) Hardening: Carbonitriding.
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Mak 214E
Surface (Case) Hardening Treatments: Cyanding
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Selective
Mak 214E
heating and quenching: Flame Hardening
– Selective hardening with a combustible gas flame to above austenizing
temperature of a steel with at least 0.4 C%,
– Then, water quenching,
– Fuel: oxygen-/acetylene, propane or gas mixture with high heat output.
– Good for gear teeth, shear blades, cams, etc,
– A good result with 3 – 5mm case depth,
– Rc 65 can be obtained with a treatment from 825oC,
– Also possible by immersing the work piece into a molten salts, etc.
– Types:
• Spot Flame Hardening: flame to a spot that needs to be hardened
followed by quenching.
• Spin Flame Hardening: A rotating work piece in contact with a
stationary flame.
• Progressive Flame Hardening: The torch and the quenching medium
move across the surface of the work piece.
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Mak 214E
Selective heating and quenching:
Laser and Electron Beam Hardening
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Mak 214E Advantageous and Characteristics
Advantageous:
•Eliminates Distortion and Cracking
•Localized hardening makes possible harden certain locations
•Heating can be performed with flame, induction coil, laser or electron beam.
–Carburizing:
• Best for low C steels
–Nitriding: Important!!!!!
• Lower distortion risk compared to carburizing.
• Higher surface hardness, but lower case depth
• Good for Cr-Mo alloy steels
–Carbonitriding
• Good for shallower case depth than carburizing
• Yields higher hardness than nitriding..
–Flame hardening:
• Suitable for bulky parts and selective hardening for large components.
–Induction hardening:
• Good for medium carbon low alloy heat treatable steels
• Suitable geometry for the induction coils.
–Electron beam and laser hardening:
• Limited to the plain carbon and low alloy steels. 34
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Mak 214E Effect of Process Variables
Effect of Composition
Effect of Processing
temperature
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Mak 214E Effect of Process Variables
Effect of Processing
temperature Effect of
Processing time
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Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Types of Steels
•Constructional steels:
•Profiles ( Fe37, Fe 42, Fe 50, 1010, 1020, 1040, etc.),
•Sheet or plates -deep drawing quality ( low carbon, fine grain), thin plate, galvanize, plates for ship
buildings.
•Heat treatable steels (for combination of strength and ductility)
•Carbon steels
•Low Alloy steels (alloyed less than 5%)
•Carburizing steels (low carbon steels for case hardening)
•Nitriding steels (alloyed with nitride formers such as Al and Cr)
•Free cutting steels: (To be easiliy cut by tools: high machinability, high S content)
•Spring steels (0.5-0.6 C and good hardenability and elastic properties)
•Bolt steels (Good cold formability for thread rolling)
•High temperature steels: For boilers and pipes
•Sub zero steels (shows no DBTT, generally austenitic steels)
•Valve steels (high strength, good toughness and ductility)
•Stainless steel (Ferritic, Martensitic, Austenitic, Precipitation Hardening)
•Tools steels (Hot work and Cold work Tool steel, High speed steels)
•Ball bearing steels
•Electrical steels Extra low C with Si up to 3%.
•Non-magnetizable steels -austenitic steels
•High strength low alloy steels (HSLA) micro alloyed with V or Nb etc. Common in automotive industry.
•Dual phase steels (contains martensite in ferrite matrix, obtained with inter-critical range annealing and
quenching, widely demanded for transport vehicles)
•Maraging steels ( ultra high strength as a result of martensitic transformation and following aging
treatment)
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•Cast steels:
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Mak 214E
Types of Steels
• Tools steels
• Specilaized steels
¾ High strength low alloy steels (HSLA):
¾ Microalloyed Steels:
¾ Maraging steels
¾ Dual phase steels
• Stainless steel
9 Ferritic,
9 Martensitic,
9 Austenitic,
9 Precipitation Hardening
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Mak 214E Tool steels
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Mak 214E
Tool Steels
Letter: Alloying elements,
Code Type of Tool Steel working cond., heat
M1 Molybdenum HSS treatment, etc.
T1 Tungsten HSS
H10 Chromium Hot work tool steel
H21 Tungsten Hot work tool steel
H42 Molibdenum Hot work tool steel
A2 Air Hardening Medium Alloy Cold work tool steel
D2 High C High Cr Cold work tool steel
O1 Oil Hardening Cold work tool steel Digits: Designation
S1 Shock resistant steel the Composition
L2 Low alloy special purpose tool steel
P2 Low C mold steel
W1 Water hardening tool steel
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Secondary
Hardening Peak
• High alloyed steels may pass through a secondary hardening peak near
500oC as the normal cementites dissolve and hard alloy carbides precipitate.
• The alloy carbides are particularly stable, resist growth and spheroidization
and providing high T resistance of these steels.
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Mak 214E
SPECIAL STEELS
• High Strength Low Alloy Steels (HSLA)
• Microalloyed Steels
• Maraging Steels
• Dual Phase Steels
Microalloyed Steels:
• Even less alloying elements than HSLA
• Rely partly on a carefully controlled hot-rolling process for precipitation
strengthening.- no other heat treatment needed.
• Precipitation of carbides of nitrides of Cr, V, Ti or Zr.
• Thus dispersion strengthening and fine grain size provides the strength. 43
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Mak 214E Stainless Steels
¾ Stainless steels - Excellent resistance to
corrosion. Contain at least 12% Cr, a
thin protective surface layer of
chromium oxide to form under oxygen
exposure.
¾ Categories of stainless steels:
9Ferritic SS
9Martensitic SS
9Austenitic SS
9Precipitation-Hardening (PH) SS
9Duplex SS
(a) Ferritic, (b) Martensitic containing large primary carbides and small carbides
formed during tempering, (c) Austenitic, (d) PH stainless steels. 45
Dr.C.Ergun
Mak 214E Austenite region shrinks and
Chromium carbide becomes a
Phase Diagrams stable phase as the Cr content
increases in steel
(a) The effect of Cr on the Fe-C phase diagram. Cr content (a) 0 %; (b) 5%; (c)
17%. At low-carbon contents, ferrite is stable at all temperatures.
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Mak 214E
Ferritic Stainless Steels
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Martensitic Stainless Steels
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Mak 214E Austenitic Stainless Steels
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Mak 214E
Sensitization
• If C content more than 0.03 % sensitized to intergranular corrosion.
• Upon slow cooling between 870 – 425oC, chromium carbide
precipitation at the grain boundaries. Austenite region shrinks
and Chromium carbide
To prevent sensitization: becomes a stable phase
1.“Quench anneal treatment”:
heat above 870oC to dissolve
carbides, then rapidly quench to
prevent carbide formation. Or
2.As an alternative solution
“Stabilization”: add Ti or Nb to
combine C forming TiC or NbC
which are more favorable than
chromium carbide. 18% Cr-8% Ni. At low-carbon
contents, austenite is stable at room
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temperature.
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Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels
Mak 214E
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Difference
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Cast Irons
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Mak 214E Cast Irons Important
Cast iron - A ferrous alloys containing
2 < % C < 4 and 0.5 < % Si < 3
Eutectic and Eutectoid reactions controls the microstructure in Cast Irons.
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Mak 214E
Fe/C ve Fe/Fe3C Faz diyagramı
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Cast iron: Cooling rate
• Different microstructures form depending on the cooling rate
from molten state,
• Fast cooling (not quenching) cementite formation (no time for
graphite formation).
• Very slow cooling rates: graphitization due to decomposition
of cementite into ferrite and graphite or pearlite/ferrite and
graphite.
• Si is a graphite stabilizing agent.
• Cr and Bi, cementite stabilizing agents.
• Si reduces the amount of C in the eutectic composition.
• Therefore, Si content evaluated in Carbon Equivalent concept.
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Carbon equivalent and Si
1
CE% = C% + Si% (CE : Carbon equivalent)
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TTT Diagram of Cast irons
True equilabrium
Metastable
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The Matrix:
• Slow cooling rates: γ Æα + graphite
• Annealing: slow (furnace) cooling leading ferritic matrix.
• Normalizing: air (faster) cooling leading pearlitic matrix.
• Quenching and tempering: Tempered martensite.
• Austempering: Bainitic matrix or surface hardening.
• Matrix structure also effected by the composition of iron:
• Si, graphite and ferrite stabilizer,
• 0.05% Sn and 0.5% Cu, pearlite stabilizer.
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Mak 214E
Chilled iron; surface white iron, center gray iron for low cost wear resistant
components.
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Mak 214E Gray cast iron
• Slow cooling permits the diffusion of C and forming graphite flakes.
– If very slow cooling rate: Ferritic cast iron.
– Medium cooling rates Ferritic-perlitic cast iron.
– Faster cooling rates Perlitic cast iron.
• As the pearlite ratio increase, strength increases but ductility always low
due to the notch effect of flake edges.
Grafit Lameller
α
Perlitik DD
Ferritik DD
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Important
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White cast iron Important
Eutectic reaction:
Liquid ⇒ ledeburite microstructure (γ+Fe3C) •Fast cooled structure: White
cast iron.
•Due to cementite: hard and
S
brittle.
γ+S y1 S+Fe3C
y2 1 Liquid
Transformed Ledeburite
γ
y 3γ+Fe C
3
2 γ
Proeutectic γ
Ledeburite
α+Fe3C y4 3 Eutectic γ
Eutectic Fe3C
4
Cast iron Eutectoid
Eutectic Fe69
3C
Perlite
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Important
White cast iron
• Microstructure consits of cementite network and
pearlite
• Extreme brittleness
• High hardness
• Wear resistance,
• Can not machined by tools, only by grinding
• An intermediate product for malleable iron
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Important
Malleable cast iron
• Produced by heat treatment of white iron.
• During malleablizing, cementite dissolves and graphite clumps or nodules
looking like popcorn forms.
• Rounded graphite provides a combination of strength and ductility.
• Steps for mallebilization:
9Starting material: white cast iron with a CE of 3 %.
9First stage graphitization (FSG): at about 925oC to decompose
cementite into austenite and graphite. (Fe3CÆ γ + graphite)
9The austenite decomposes in the subsequent cooling from FSG
temperature with two different structures.
¾Ferritic Malleable cast iron BETTER DUCTILITY
and TOUGHNESS
¾Pearlitic Malleable cast iron
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Important
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Pearlitic Malleable Iron:
• Cooled in air or oil. Important
• Pearlitic if air cooled, martensitic if oil quenched.
• Both hard and brittle.
• To improve ductility, the pearlitic malleable iron is drawn below eutectoid T.
Drawing process
• Tempers martensite or spheroidies the pearlite, thus reducing the amount of
combined C or cementite.
• Thus the strength of pearlitic malleable iron decreases and ductility and
toughness increase.
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Important Ductile or Nodular Cast Iron
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Desulfurization: S flake stabilizer. So for low S is needed. Important
9 High quality starting material;
9 Melting in furnace to remove S;
9 Mix the liquid iron with desulfurizing agents, calcium carbide.
Nodulizing:
9 Add Mg near 1500oC to spherodize the graphite (also remove S
and O) in the molten metal,
9 Residual 0.03% Mg is enough for nodulization.
9 Since Mg vaporizes at 1150oC, ferrosilicon used to Mg
recoveries.
9 Fading (non violent vaporization or oxidation) of Mg should be
controlled with pouring the molten metal within a few minutes,
otherwise turns to gray iron.
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Inoculation:
9 Mg is a carbide stabilizer in other words white iron forms.
9 Inoculation with ferrosilicon alloys (50 - 85 % Si) and small amounts of
Ca, Al, Sr or Ba.
9 So nucleation sites for graphite to grow is provided by inoculation of
molten metal.
9 Also this effect fades with time.
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Compacted Graphite (Vermecular) Cast Irons
Mak 214E
Important
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Uygulama
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Uygulama
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Coding System
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Gray Cast Iron
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Malleable Cast Iron
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Nodular Cast Iron
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