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All calculations based on ArmWin AS V1.0 - the calculation programme from Armacell - are based on ISO EN 12241:1998. The calculations of water-vapour diffusion were developed by Dr. Ernst W. Behrens: Bauphysik 25/1 (2003), pp. 35-38, and 26/4 (2004), p. 204.
Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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The water vapour resistance factor, commonly called -factor, is therefore a dimensionless number describing how many times better a material or product is at resisting the passage of water vapour, compared with an equivalent thickness of air. Thus high -factor = high resistance to water vapour transmission. If you compare different products, if the reduction of diffusion is the same, the equivalent thickness of air must always the same. Example: = = = = 10.000 7000 d 5000 d 3000 d d = 0,014 m -> d = 140 m = 0,020 m -> d = 140 m = 0,028 m -> d = 140 m = 0,047 m -> d = 140 m
Here you see, the lower the -factor, the thicker the insulation required to achieve the same reduction of diffusion.
Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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Armaflex with additional boundary layer To prevent condensation within the industrial process, refrigeration and air conditioning sectors, it is necessary to select a thickness of insulation such that the surface temperature of the insulation is at least the dew point temperature of the ambient air. As the difference in temperature between the cold medium (or surface) and the warm ambient air causes also partial pressure difference, one must minimise moisture diffusion into the insulation. Armaflex has a closed-cell material structure which offers a high resistance to water vapour diffusion, minimising the detrimental effect this process can have on insulation efficiency. In practice a boundary layer is often applied on the Armaflex insulation. In this case the insulation thickness of elastomeric materials has to be increased by the size of the drilling of the sheet drift screw when taking into consideration the change of the surface coefficient of heat transfer. In the past , in order to reduce the inevitably increasing costs, application specialists often chose, as an alternative to thicker elastomeric insulation, a boundary layer made of open-cell material to catch up the drilling of the sheet drift screw. As a consequence, the surface temperature of the flexible insulation material decreases to a large extent and the critical dew point temperature (ingressing zone) moved into the open-cell material. Therefore, the additional layer as water storage was and still is responsible for corrosion at the inside of the boundary layer. With the update in year 1996 the DIN 4140 "Insulation work on industrial installations and building equipment Execution of thermal and cold insulation" deleted the additional layer as protection for insulation material within the area of cold insulation. As an alternative, there is the execution of an additional air gap with an open up of the boundary layer. The air gap should be at least 15 mm thick. In addition, there should be weep- and vent holes of at least 10 mm thickness with differences of 300 mm at a maximum. This installation, also valid for objects installed outside and having an operating temperature below +120C, creates a separation of the boundary layer and the insulation material, so that a kind of ventilation of the insulation material happens and the creation of moisture can be excluded in advance. Besides that, it is possible, that condensate is able to drip through the air gap and will not ingress the insulation material. Of course, this has to be taken into consideration correspondingly with regard to the structural setting of the spacing blocks.
Calculation Methods The following calculation methods are available Condensation Control Outer Surface Temperature Thermal Transmittance Heat Flow Temperature Change of Flowing Medium Temperature Change of Stationary Medium - time to be calculated - temperature change to be calculated Prevention from freezing of standing water in a pipe Long-term Behaviour Energy Saving
Calculation Rules EN ISO 12241:1998 Thermal insulation for building equipment and industrial installations - Calculation rules
Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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Condensation Control
Condensation water can be prevented by ensuring that the insulation is dimensioned so that its surface temperature is above the temperature of dew point, even at critical points (="thermal bridge"). The necessary minimum insulation thickness is determined by the following influencing variables: minimum line temperature maximum ambient temperature maximum relative humidity external surface coefficient internal surface coefficient (for gases) thermal conductivity of the insulation material under the given temperature conditions The engineered wall thickness does concern an important role for dimensioning. When an additional system, e.g. sheet metal lagging on a air layer is applied to the correctly dimensioned Class O Armaflex insulation, this results in a change of the temperature profile in the insulation. The Armaflex surface temperature falls considerably, i.e. the critical dew-point temperature (moisture penetration zone) is displaced in the air layer.
Conduction
Heat is the transfer of energy between communicating systems due solely to a difference in temperature. There are three mechanisms recognised for the transfer of heat and, depending on the circumstances, they may occur separately or simultaneously. Conduction Convection Radiation
Conduction is the transfer of heat in a solid material due to the temperature difference.The energy is transferred through movement of the constituent molecules and particles of the solid. Thermal conductivity is a measure of the rate of heat transfer through the material. Metals are generally very good conductors of heat. Thus copper has a thermal conductivity of 401 W/(m.K).
Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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= + 22 C
= + 19,4 C
= + 22
= 85%
= 100%
= 100%
For installations in refrigeration applications, this means that the insulation thicknesses must be designed so that temperatures are not lower than the dew point temperature anywhere on the surface of the insulation material.
Convection
Heat transferred by the motion of fluid particles is known as convection. A liquid or gas is warmed up by contact with a hot surface, the liquid or gas fluid moves away carrying the heat within the particles as they move away. Heat transfer by convection may be forced or natural. Forced convection requires an external agency such as a pump, stirrer, fan. The cooling effect of wind is also an example of forced convection. Natural convection is the transfer of heat between a solid and a fluid due only to the temperature difference between the two. The fluid motion is due entirely to natural buoyancy forces arising from a changing density of the fluid in the vicinity of the surface. The flow within the fluid medium may be laminar or turbulent which will affect the rate of heat transfer. In addition the shape and orientation of the solid will affect the type of flow.
Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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Remark for calculation "Condensation control": One could not take the higher external surface coefficient values which arise when air movements (forced convection) are present as the basis for calculations since the thicknesses of the insulation layers calculated in this manner would have an indequate water vapor diffusion resistance (d value). Restricted convection due to "congested areas" (too little space, badly ventilated cavities) results in lower external surface coefficients. In such cases a calculation according to ISO 12241:1998 Standard is necessary.
Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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Heat Flow
In order to save energy it is often required in practice that a certain heat flow is not exceeded. One necessary value is the: external surface coefficient internal surface coefficient The density of heat-flow rate q is the heat-flow rate related to the unit of the surface transgressed. The unit is W/m. In the insulation technology, the density of heat-flow rate is related to the surface of the insulation system. The linear density of heat-flow rate is the heat-flow rate divided by length; the unit is W/m.
Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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Permeability Units
The common unit is: kg/(m h Pa) Other units are: 1 kg/(msPa) 1 kg/(msPa) 1 kg/(msPa) 1 kg/(msPa) 1 kg/(msPa) 2,97 10-10 kg/(mhPa) 3,6 10-8 kg/(mhPa) 0,52 10-8 kg/(mhPa) = kg/(mhPa) 3600 = gm/(Nh) 2.778 1013 = gm/(sMN) 10-9 = g/(mhmmHg) 479,17 10-6 = g/(msbar) 10-8 = g/(m24h) = g/(MNs) = gr in/(hftinHg) "perm-in"
Pressure Units
The common unit is Pa. Other units are: 1 bar 1 N/m 1 kp/m 1 Torr = 10-5 Pa = 1 Pa = 9.81 Pa = 133 Pa
Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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Radiation
Heat transfer by radiation differs from the other two mechanisms (conduction and convection). Radiation is a transfer of energy which occurs most freely in a vacuum and occurs between all material phases. All materials which are above Absolute Zero temperature (-273C) emit radiation due to the vibration of the electrons within the molecules of a material. The amount of energy emitted depends on the absolute temperature of the body in accordance with the StefanBoltzmann equation. The equation is only strictly applicable to a "black body" which is a perfect radiator. A real material will emit less energy and its proportion to the energy emitted from the "black body" is defined as the emissivity of the material.
Relative humidity
A given volume of air is able to hold a small amount of water vapour and this (maximum) amount of water vapour depends upon the air temperature. The air will not always hold the maximum possible quantity of water vapour so that it is usual to express the amount of water vapour present as a percentage of the maximum:actual amount of water vapour present Relative humidity = maximum amount of water vapour that may be held at a particular temperature or actual partial pressure of water vapour Relative humidity = saturated vapour pressure
At a temperature of 22C the maximum amount of water vapour that the air can hold, i.e. saturated, is 16.6 g per kg at normal pressure. Thus at a relative humidity of 85% the actual amount of water vapour will be 14.1 g/kg. If the air temperature is now reduced to 19.4C the actual amount of water vapour will not change but the relative humidity will be increased to 100%, i.e. at 19.4C the maximum quantity of water vapour that the air can hold is 14.1 g/kg. Warm air can hold more water vapour than cooler air, hence when warm air comes into contact with a cold surface then the air next to the surface will be cooled and may exceed its saturation level leading to condensation.
Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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Stationary Medium
This calculation option allows to calculate cooling (or heating) effect of stationary (stand-still) medium. There are two calculation options for a given, known insulation thickness: time to be calculated, temperature change to be calculated. Should the insulation thickness be calculated, then both above values must be known. For operational reasons it is often required that in practice a certain final medium (service) temperature or certain standstill time may not be exceeded. For calculation the necessary values are (among others): External surface coefficient Internal surface coefficient (for gaseous media) Specific heat capacity For gaseous media the heat capacity of the container (tank, pipe, duct) is taken into account and thus the input data refering to the container (specific heat capacity, density) is required.
Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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Surface Coefficient
The surface coefficient of heat transfer is the density of heat flow rate divided by the temperature difference between the surface and its suroundings. q h= Ts - T a For a more detailed understanding of surface coefficients it is necessary to consider: Temperature difference between the surface and surroundings.Outer diameter of the insulation. Orientation of the pipe.Nature of the surface. Movement of air over the pipe i.e. laminar or turbulent. Any radiative heat transfer. The thermal surface coefficient is the sum of the convective and radiative contributions. h = hcn + hr where the convective contribution is dependent on air movement, relative orientation and the type of material. The radiative contribution is dependent on the nature of the surface and its emissivity. A number of equations are available to calculate values for surface coefficients under different operating conditions. [W/(m2K)]
Temperature Units
Kelvin: Rankine: Celsius: Fahrenheit: Tk TR tC tF = 273,15 + tc = 459,67 + tF = 5/9 (tF-32) = 1.8 tC + 32 = 5/9 TR = 1.8 TK = TK - 273,15 = TR - 459,67 (K) (Ra) (C) (F)
Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability of a material to allow heat to pass through it. The value is a property of the material and is dependent only on the temperature of measurement and the moisture content of the insulation. When comparing the thermal conductivity of different insulation materials then lower values are better. Common unit is: W/(m K) Other units are: 1 W/(mK) 1 W/(mK) = kcal/(mhK) 1.163 = Btu in / h ft deg F 0.1443
and materials should be selected so as to provide the best combination of the above properties.
Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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Thermal Resistance
Thermal resistance is defined by the equation: T1 - T2 R= q i.e. the temperature difference divided by the density of heat flow rate in the steady state condition. The thermal resistance can be related to either the material, structure or surface. d R=
For a plane layer of material where d = the thickness of the layer and lambda is the thermal conductivity of the material. The unit of thermal resistance is (mK)/W. To calculate that total thermal resistance of a structure it is necessary to consider also the appropriate surface resistances. Thus for pipe insulation the linear thermal resistance is calculated, i.e. the thermal resistance per meter length of pipe run, where RL is measured in (mK)/W. For pipes, the material thermal resistance: De ln RL = Di 2 where De = outer (external) diameter of insulation. Di = inner (internal) diameter of insulation (external pipe diameter). p = 3.1416 In order to calculate the total thermal resistance of a structure, to the material thermal resistance the inner and outer surface resistance, Rsi and Rse must be added respectively. Where (for pipe insulation): 1 Rsi = hi Di and Rse= he De 1
and hi and he are the internal (between medium and a pipe) and external (between insulation and the ambient air) surface coefficients of heat transfer respectively. In this approach the thermal resistance of the pipe material is neglected (due to its usually high thermal conductivity and small thickness - compared to the insulation material).
Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.
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Armacell UK Ltd. Mars Street Oldham, Greater Manchester OL9 6LY Tel 0161 287 7100 Fax 0161 633 2685 www.armacell.com/uk info.uk@armacell.com All statements and technical information are based on results obtained under typical conditions. It is the responsibility of the recipient to verify with us that the information is appropriate for the specific us intend by the recipient. The data and information are provided as a technical service and are subject to change without notice.