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3
opt
)
3
(4)
Prectmax =1/2_CpmaxR53opt_3. (5)
Regarding the efficiency as a constant, there is only one variable in (5). Fig. 4 shows typical
power curves under different wind speeds. It illustrates that, for a given wind speed, the
maximum power point can be determined by
dP
rect
/d=0. (6)
According to the chain rule, (6) can be expressed as
dP
rect
/d=dP
rect
dV
r
d
e
/ dV
r
d
e
d=0 (7)
where Vr is the rectifier output voltage and e is the electrical angular speed of the generator.
This e is related to the turbine shaft (or the generator shaft) speed by
e =p (8)
doc
do
=p > 0 (9)
where p is the number of pole pairs of the generator. The rectifier output voltage Vr is
proportional to the generator phase voltage Vph, as given by
Vr =kVph (10)
24
where k is a constant with a typical value of 6 when open circuited. For normal generation, it
yields
dvph
doc
> 0. (11)
From (10) and (11), it deduces to
dv
doc
> 0. (12)
Therefore, using (7)(12), (6) can be rewritten as
dvcct
doc
dVr=0. (13)
From Fig. 4, it can be observed that there is only one extreme point of Prect at a specific vw.
Hence, there is also only one extreme point of Vr to achieve the maximum value of Prect.
Fig. 5. DC field current control circuit. Fig. 6. MPPT process for the wind power generation
branch.
For the doubly excited PM brushless machine, its output voltage can be regulated by simply
tuning the dc field current [24], which can be expressed as
Vr =kVph =k /2 Ce (14)
where Ce is the electromechanical coefficient and is the flux linkage. For a given vw, is also
fixed. Thus, Vr is directly proportional to and, hence, the dc field winding current If
If (15)
Vr If . (16)
Therefore, the rectifier output voltage and, hence, power can be regulated by simply tuning the
dc field current.
Fig. 5 shows the dc field current control circuit. The H-bridge circuit functions to provide
bidirectional control of dc field current so that the dc field coil can provide positive field to
25
strengthen the PM field or provide negative field to weaken the PM field, hence achieving
flexible flux control for efficiency optimization. It should be noted that there is almost no
electromagnetic coupling between the dc field windings and the ac armature windings due to the
special structure of the proposed generator. The amplitude of the field current can easily be
regulated by adjusting the duty cycle of the H-bridge circuit.
Fig. 6 shows the MPPT process under a specific wind speed, which is based on the PAO
method. If the starting point is from.
TABLE I
PAO ALGORITHM FOR WIND POWER GENERATION
Perturbation Change in voltage Change in power Next Perturbation
Positive Positive Positive Positive
Negative Negative Negative Positive
Positive
Positive
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Positive
Negative
The system design method in this paper is shown in Fig.1 [1][2]. First, we calculate the
amount of load current. Next, we consider the regional characteristics, i.e., limited space for
available, the constraint of weather condition, etc., and determine the available energy. And then,
we determine the number of wind power generators, whose total output is comparatively
discrete, as shown in equation (1):
Wind power generation current
<Current demand load (1)
In the process of design, we adopt the concept that is that the undercurrent demand is
complemented by photovoltaic power generators, whose capacities can vary bit by bit compared
with wind power generators. Based on undercurrent demand, the parallel number of photovoltaic
power generators is obtained. And then, since this calculation leads a number of candidates, we
determine a system predicted on selection criterion as follows:
a) Power generation utilization rate is sufficiently high.
Generation Power Utilization Rate [%]
Gross generation ampacity [Ah]
=Loaded current demand[Ah] (2)
b) There are no extreme deviations in power generation output ratio of various renewable
energies.
c) From the viewpoint of output stability of the system, it is desirable that multiple numbers of
generators should be provided.
d) Comparison is made in terms of construction costs of the systems.
e) When similar results have been obtained for most items listed, select the system having
much excess current ampacity.
In the above design procedures, the undercurrent demand is not generated. Therefore only
the battery capacity for 10-day-load backup will become necessary, and we determine the battery
capacity.
26
Fig. 8. Equivalent circuit of the PV panel.
Fig. 9. Typical currentvoltage curves of
the PV panel
Fig. 10. SEPIC circuit topology.
Fig. . MPPT flowchart for the wind power generation branch.
27
the left-hand side of the maximum power point, the voltage adjustment follows the direction of
dPrect/dVr. Thus, the increment of Vr increases Prect. In contrast, if the starting point is from the
right-hand side of the maximum power point, the voltage adjustment is opposite to the direction
of dPrect/dVr. Thus, the decrement of Vr increases Prect. Therefore, if there is an increase in
power, the subsequent perturbation will be kept unchanged until the maximum power point is
reached; otherwise, if there is a decrease in power, the perturbation will be reversed. This
perturbation algorithm is summarized in Table I. The flowchart of the whole MPPT process is
shown in Fig. 7, where Vr int is the initial value of Vr, Vmax and Vmin are the maximum and
minimum settings of Vr, 0 and are the initial value and step size of the duty cycle of the H-
bridge circuit, respectively, and Vrk and Irk are the kth steps of Vr and Ir, respectively.
B. MPPT for PV Power Generation Branch
Fig. 8 shows the equivalent circuit of a PV module. Its mathematical expression can be written as
[29], [30]
Fig. 12. Prototype of the proposed hybrid
generation system. (a) Wind power generation
branch. (b) PV power generation branch.
Fig. 11. MPPT flowchart for the PV power generation branch
28
I =IL IDjexp [
qI+ qI RS
AKI
1[
v + IRS
RSh
(17)
where V is the output voltage of the PV module, I is the current output, ID is the diode saturation
current, q is the electron charge, A is the material factor of the p-n junction, K is the Boltzmann
constant, T is the absolute temperature, RS is the intrinsic series resistance, and RSh is the
parallel resistance. From (17), a typical set of currentvoltage curves of the PV module can be
obtained, as shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen that when the voltage increases, the current goes
down. Therefore, the maximum power point occurs at the corner. Hence, by properly tuning the
output voltage, the MPPT can be performed under different irradiance levels. Although different
MPPT methods have been proposed for PV power generation, the PAO one is still the most
common method in practice due to its simplicity and system independence. Thus, the proposed
PV power generation branch adopts this method to perform the MPPT. Fig. 10 shows the circuit
topology of the SEPIC for the PV power generation branch, where Vpv and Ipv are the output
voltage and current of the PV panels, respectively, L1 and L2 are the circuit inductors, C1 and C
are the circuit capacitors, and RL is the load resistor. The SEPIC takes the definite advantage of
nonpulsating input current, as well as the capability of both step-up and step-down features. By
operating the SEPIC in discontinuous capacitor voltage mode, the input voltage Vi, output
voltage Vo, and input resistance Ri can be expressed as
V
i
=V
pv
=
Ipv1s
C1
(1 D)
2
(18)
V
o
=
d
1
V
pv
(19)
d =_
2RLC1
1s
(20)
Ri =
vp
Ip
=
1s
C1
(1 D)
2
(21)
where Ts and D are the switching period and duty cycle of the control signal, respectively. From
(21), it can be seen that Ri changes with D, namely, Ri decreases with the increase of D. Hence,
by properly perturbing the duty cycle, the input resistance of the SEPIC can match with the load
resistance, hence achieving the maximum power transfer. Fig. 11 shows the corresponding
flowchart for the MPPT, where Vbatmax is the maximum charging voltage of the battery tank,
D0 and D are the initial value and step size of the duty cycle of the control signal, respectively,
and Vpvk and Ipvk are the kth steps of Vpv and Ipv, respectively.
29
4.0 Establishment of a Wind/PV Hybrid Unit
The hybrid unit contains two complete generating plants, a PV solar cell plant and a
wind-turbine system. These sources are connected in parallel to a 12V DC line. The power is
next connected to a DC to AC inverter and is then supplied from the inverters output to a single-
phase 60 HZ, 120 VAC load. The overall project structure is presented in Figure 1. The wind
turbine is installed at the top of a steel tower that has a height of 18.3 meters and a diameter of
8.9 cm. The wind turbine depicted is a 0.7 kW unit and the solar panels depicted number four in
all with a capacity of 50 Watts each. The instrumentation panel depicted monitors the outputs of
the generator using digital panel meters.
A small wind turbine was chosen for its low maintenance and many safety features. One
of the low maintenance features is the turbines brushless alternator and an internal governor.
The turbine generates 0.4 kW when turning at its rated speed of 47 km/hr and it is capable of
generating up to 0.7 kW at its peak wind speed of 72 km/hr. The actual systems pictures are
shown in Figure 2. The turbines blades are made of a carbon fiber reinforced composite that will
intentionally deform as the turbine reaches its rated output. This deformation effect changes the
shape of the blade, causing it to go into a stall mode, thus limiting the rotation speed of the
alternator and preventing damage in high winds. Another feature of the wind turbine is a
sophisticated internal regulator that periodically checks the line voltage and corrects for low
voltage conditions. The solar panels are 12 VDC units and were chosen for their ultra clear
tempered glass that is manufactured for long term durability. Figure 3 shows the DC voltage
measured across the 12 volt DC bus where the wind turbine and PV arrays outputs are
connected.
A slight ripple in power regulation can clearly be seen. This ripple is a function of the
unpredictable nature of wind and sunshine along with the dynamic effects of the electrical load.
As mentioned earlier, one of the largest problems in systems containing power inverters is power
quality. This problem becomes serious if the inverter used in the system does not have a good
sinusoidal waveform output and causes problems such as harmonic contamination and poor
voltage regulation. According to the IEEE (a professional society which codifies such issues)
standards, a maximum of 3 to 4% total harmonic distortion (this is a quantitative measure of
how bad the harmonic contamination is) may be allowed from inverter outputs. However, many
inverter outputs have much more harmonic distortion than is allowed. The inverter used in this
system has a power rating of a 1.5 KVA and was manufactured by Trace Technologies . The
battery banks contain 4 deep-cycle lead-acid batteries connected in parallel. High power capacity
heating resistors, energy efficient light bulbs, incandescent light.
30
Figure 1. Established Wind/PV hybrid power generation unit.
31
Figure 2. Actual pictures of wind/PV hybrid power station.
bulbs, and two small AC motors constitute electrical loads that can be applied to the system. To
monitor and store the voltage, current, power, and harmonic contamination data, two Fluke
power quality analyzers (types 39 and 41) are used in the system. In addition, permanently
Figure 4&5. AC load voltage and current waveforms, current harmonic spectrum of system
mounted AC/DC digital panel meters form part of the systems instrumentation. A laptop
computer is interfaced to the system via the Fluke power quality analyzers to store data in real-
time.
Figure 4 illustrates such data as voltage and current waveforms on the load side of the inverter
in the case of small heat and lighting loads connected to the system. As shown in figure 4, the
current waveform is much more distorted than voltage waveform. Since current harmonic
contamination has a more detrimental effects on industrial power quality problems than voltage
harmonic contamination, the current harmonic spectrum of the inverter output is vivid
illustration of the pitfalls present in the measurement of real power quality problems in
industrial simulations. Figure 5 illustrates the current harmonic spectrum in the case of nonlinear
loads. A harmonic spectrum is a graphical plot of harmonic contamination on the y- axis and the
32
frequency where this contamination occurs on the x-axis. This plot is commonly used in
industry to study harmonic contamination and its possible remedies.
Voltage sags may cause a crucial damage to high precision measurement and protection
devices, especially computer equipment present in many highly-automated industrial plants. A
voltage sag example for the system is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Voltage sags recorded in the wind/PV system.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------
Figure 7. PSCAD/EMTDC Simulation of system with load and RLC filter.
4. 1 Simulation of the Hybrid System
Figure 7 presents the overall system including a passive RLC filter on the AC side of inverter.
This filter is a circuit made up of a resistor (R), inductor (L), and a capacitor (C). Such filters are
33
commonly installed in industrial situations to remedy power quality problems. The inverter is of
a twelve pulse type and the inverter and the control circuit models are both standard
When To Consider An Hybrid Solar-Wind System
Even during the same day, in many regions worldwide or in some periods of the year, there are
different and opposite wind and solar resource patterns. And those different patterns can make
the hybrid systems the best option for electricity production.
The Combination
The combination involved on hybrid systems is rather obvious: to get a target goal of, say, 120
kWh of electricity per month we can use a single 3kW wind turbine (instead of a 6kW one...) and
a solar system with a smaller array of modules.
Size And Price
An hybrid wind-solar electric system
demands an higher initial investment than
single larger systems: large wind and solar
PV systems are proportionally cheaper than
two smaller systems...
But the hybrid solution is the best option
whenever there is a significant improvement
in terms of output and efficiency - which
happens when the sun and the wind
resources have opposite cycles and
intensities during the same day or in some
seasons.
4.2 OPTIMIZATION OF HYBRID SYSTEMS
Different types of hybrid systems and modeling [3] procedures, performance studies of
hybrid systems, operating strategies, economic analysis and case studies are discussed in details.
The technical terms of interest are:
Deficiency of power supply probability
The Deficiency of Power Supply Probability (DPSP) is defined as the sum of the deficit
in power generated by hybrid system with respect to the total annual load.
Relative excess power generated
The Relative Excess Power Generated (REPG) for the hybrid system is defined as a ratio
of the total annual excess power generated by the hybrid system in a year to that of the total
annual load.
34
Energy to load ratio
Energy to Load Ratio (ELR) is used for designing the system and analyzing performance
of the hybrid system. It is the ratio of energy produced by the renewable components to energy
demand.
Life cycle cost
Life Cycle Cost (LCC) of a hybrid system consists of initial capital investment, the
present value of operation and maintenance cost and the battery replacement cost. Life cycle cost
analysis is a tool used to compare the ultimate delivered costs of technologies with different cost
structures.
Levelised energy costs
The Levelised Energy Costs (LEC) is defined as the ratio of the product of LCC with
capacity rate factor (CRF) to the energy generated per year.
Life cycle unit cost
Life Cycle Unit Cost (LUC) is defined as the ratio of life cycle unit cost to the total
power generated for a given period of time.
4.3. DESIGN AND OPTIMIZATION
METHODOLOGY
In a PV-wind hybrid system with battery autonomy, the optimization
5
of the size of the
individual systems can be made in a variety of ways, depending upon the choice of parameters of
interest. Unlike the LPSP [2] and graphical construction methods
8
the algorithm developed in the
present work, employs an iterative technique to determine the optimum size of solar panels, wind
machines and capacity of batteries of a hybrid system based on Levelised Energy Cost (LEC),
Life Cycle Unit Cost (LUC), Life Cycle Cost (LCC), Deficiency of Power Supply Probability
(DPSP) and Relative Excess Power Generation (REPG). The structure of the model developed
consists of a database that serves as a backhand tool during the computation and in the front end,
calculations on size of the wind, solar and battery systems are carried out following an iterative
scheme based on the respective average daily data on energy generated. Initially, the size of wind
machines required to meet the average daily demand is calculated on a daily basis throughout a
year from which the maximum and minimum size of the wind machines required is determined.
Then, a loop is operated between the maximum size of the wind machine type chosen and the
calculated minimum size of the wind machine. For each size of the wind machine, the size of
solar panel is determined for the difference in load (E
L
-E
w
) on a daily average basis, from which
the maximum and minimum size of the PV panel required are found. Then an inner loop for each
size of the wind machine is operated between the minimum and maximum size of the chosen
solar type. Next, the size of the battery system is calculated for the deficit in energy generated by
both the wind and PV system on a daily basis throughout the year. Thus for each size of the wind
and solar PV system combination, the maximum and minimum size of the battery are calculated.
Innermost loop for every assigned size of the wind and PV system is then operated between the
minimum and maximum size of the chosen battery model. The inner most loop is executed
completely first, the second loop next and finally the outer loop. The quantities of interest are
then evaluated from the results obtained for the set of combinations of wind/PV/battery system.
The optimal size of wind/PV/battery system of a specific type can then be obtained from the final
output with respect to DPSP, based on LCC or LUC or LEC and REPG.
35
It can be understood that the optimization of hybrid systems are carried out in order to minimize
the deficiency as well as the excess power generated thereby reducing the cost of the system.
However matching the load requirements for a most probable period throughout the year is
difficult in most of the cases. Therefore in the present analysis, battery banks are
designed/optimized taking into account the deficiency in power generated throughout the year,
during the combined operation of wind and PV system.
5.0 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
It is pertinent that economic justification should be made while attempting to optimize
the size of integrated power generation systems favoring an affordable unit price of power
produced. The economic analysis
7
of the hybrid system has been made and the cost aspects have
also been taken into account for optimization of the size of the systems. Using the model
developed various costs namely, LEC, LUC and LCC have been computed considering the life
period and replacement costs of the individual systems. Life cycle cost analysis is a tool used to
compare the ultimate delivered cost of technologies with different cost structures the pay back
analysis method for PV wind hybrid system depends on the various parameters such as
investment, replacement cost, annual operation and maintenance cost, income etc. Table-1 shows
the cost values of the economic parameters and components for the base case.
5. 1 Comparison of model
The model output data is compared with the real time output data, which is obtained for a
hybrid plant installed at Chunnambar, Pondicherry. Chunnambar Island is located about 3km
from the nearest motorable road (Pondicherry-Cuddalore road). The latitude is 11.46
o
N and
longitude 70.46
o
E. The location is on the beach and receives good sunshine that is
complemented by local wind. Mean annual wind speeds are relatively low in Chunnambar Island
and the annual average wind speed is about 4.55 m/s at 25m height. Solar radiant flux is
abundant at the location. The mean daily insolation is in the range of 4.8-6.9 kWh/m
2
. The daily
energy requirement at the site is 12.11 kWh/day and the annual energy consumption is 4320
kWh. The plant is installed with wind machine 3.3 kW and capacity of solar panel 1.8 kW
p.
From Table-2 it is observed that the output from the model for a 3.3 kW wind energy system is
3569 kWh whereas the real output from the site was only 3347 kWh per year. The variation is
estimated to be 6.22%. Similarly for a 1.8 kW
p
solar photovoltaic generation system, the
predicted power generation was found to be 3094 kWh against the real value, 2872 kWh. The
estimated variation is 7.18%. The percentage variation of total energy generation between the
model output and the real value is found to be 6.66%.
5.2. Case study
For a given location, the choice of various combinations of the sizes of wind machines, solar PV
array and battery is made from the results obtained from the computations. The optimal selection
of a suitable combination of solar, wind and battery capacities for a specific type can be made
based on the calculated values of the quantities such as DPSP, REPG, LCC, LEC and LUC. For
a given DPSP, an optimal combination of the system is obtained based on the minimum LCC or
LEC or minimum REPG.
36
A case study is attempted at a place called Poompuhar (11
o
8N, 79
o
51E), located in
Tamil Nadu, India. The choice of the site has been made based on the fact that the wind and solar
power throughout the year is adequate for setting up a hybrid power generation. The mean daily
insolation was found to be 5.63 kWh/m
2
and the annual average wind speed was about 4.8m/sec
at 25 m height. The daily energy requirement at the site is 450 kWh/day. The model developed is
used for design, analysis and optimizing a hybrid system for this location considering various
parameters of the location.
In the developed model of PV-wind hybrid system the specific data related to the location
Poompuhar (11
o
8N, 79
o
51E) are given as inputs by considering the parameter DPSP of 0.20,
the wind velocity 4.8m/sec at 25m height, solar insolation 5.63 kWh/m
2
, environment
temperature of 32C for a load of 450 kWh/day. Wind system parameters like cut-in-speed of
3m/sec, cut-off-speed of 25m/sec, rated speed of 12m/s, rotor diameter of 25m, hub height of
40m, PV parameters like peak module power of 52 W
p
. It computes the output parameters like
PV capacity, array configuration, number of modules, tilt angle, battery capacity, wind machine
capacity, Life cycle cost and pay back period. The computed output parameters are PV capacity
of 57 kW
p
and 110 modules; 3 days of autonomy tubular stationary batteries, tilt angle 15 and
50 kW wind system. This generates an annual output of 1189159kWh from solar PV system and
43998kWh from wind system with a life cycle cost of Rs.445 lakhs with a pay back period of
11.8 years. The variation of deficiency of power supply probability with respect to solar PV
system capacity is shown in Figure-1. It is seen that 50 kW wind machine with 18 kW
p
solar PV
capacity has 0.5 DPSP. By increasing the solar PV system capacity to 78 kW
p
the DPSP is
reduced to 0.01 and hence the reliability is increased to 99%. Similarly, a two 50 kW wind
machine with 18 kW
p
solar PV system capacity has 0.35 DPSP whereas two 50 kW wind system
with 60 kW
p
PV system capacity has 0.01 DPSP. From the Figure-1, it was found that 50 kW
wind system with 78 kW
p
PV system capacity may satisfy the load requirement for most of the
time during the year. Increasing the solar PV system capacity of above 82 kW
p
with 50 kW wind
system does not improve the reliability of the system.
Figure-2 indicates the variation of levelised energy cost with respect to solar PV system capacity
for variable wind system capacity. It is observed from the Figure-2 that for a 50 kW wind
machine with 3 days of battery autonomy that the levelised energy cost decreases with increase
in solar PV capacity. For the system with a 50 kW wind machine and 43 kW
p
PV module, the
levelised energy cost is as high as Rs.80.00 per kWh whereas by installing two 50 kW wind
machines with 43 kW
p
PV system capacity, the levelised energy cost is Rs.72.00 per kWh.
Increasing the capacity of wind machine can decrease the levelised energy cost. It is also
examined from the above Figure 2 that at larger solar PV capacity, the variation of levelised
energy cost is small. At lower capacity of solar PV the levelised energy cost is high.
Figure-3 shows the variation of DPSP with respect to life cycle cost for standalone photovoltaic,
wind and hybrid system. The life cycle cost decreases with increase in DPSP for standalone and
hybrid systems. For a considered DPSP of 0.2, the life cycle cost of hybrid system is Rs.550
lakhs and for a solar system it is Rs.675 lakhs whereas for wind system it is Rs.750 lakhs. For the
same system life cycle cost, the hybrid system ensures the lowest DPSP values and proves most
optimal in terms of performance cost relationship. It is also observed from the Figure 3 that
37
achieving a further small decrease in DPSP in the lower levels there is a sharp increase in the life
cycle cost for the hybrid and standalone photovoltaic systems.
Figure-4 shows the variation of system capacity with respect to energy to load ratio of solar or
wind for a given DPSP of 0.1 at Poompuhar. The energy to load ratio of solar PV increases from
0 to 1 indicated left to right in the Figure-4, whereas for wind it decreases from 1 to 0 indicated
from right to left in the Figure-4. For example, 0.46 solar or wind refers to 46% solar PV and
54% wind energy generated with respect to load. It is seen from the Figure-4 that the energy to
load ratio of solar PV or wind
increases with increase in capacity of solar PV system or decrease in wind system capacity. The
capacity of the wind and solar system required can be found from the Figure-4 for a given energy
to load ratio. This combination obtained may or may not result in the optimum hybrid system. It
is observed from the Figure-4 that when the energy to load ratio of solar PV or wind is at 0.72,
the system capacity of solar PV and wind system is 50 kW each. It was concluded from the
Figure-4 for a given annual average daily load demand for 450 kWh for the location under
consideration the optimum combination of solar PV wind hybrid system can be obtained at solar
energy to load ratio of 0.72 at 0.1 DPSP. This is a unique value for this selected location.
The life cycle cost of the hybrid system with respect to energy to load ratio of solar or
wind for a given DPSP is shown in Figure-5. It implies that the life cycle cost of the hybrid
system depends largely on the energy to load ratio. The LCC decreases gradually with increase
in energy to load ratio of solar or wind upto a certain value and then it increases sharply. This is
mainly due to the large storage capacity of battery required when the hybrid system has major
contribution from the solar system. It is noted from the Figure-5 that a minimum cost of energy
to load ratio of solar occurs at a value of 0.72 for 450 kWh/day. The Figure-5 also represents the
minimum cost of each combination of the considered solar PV wind hybrid system and indicates
a minimum life cycle cost of Rs.688 lakhs at 0.72 of energy to load ratio. The comparative cost
of grid line extension energy source with PV wind hybrid system is a vital parameter to decide
the viability of installing a PV wind hybrid system. The break-even point for a grid extension
varies with the load demand. Figure-6 indicates the variation of life cycle cost of PV wind hybrid
system and grid extension systems with respect to energy demand for variable PV life cycle cost.
It is evident from the study that, to meet out the daily energy demand of 75 kWh a fixed life
cycle cost of Rs.150 lakhs is required for a grid line extension of 50 km for 11 kV line.This LCC
does not vary even when the load demand is less than 75 kWh/day for the same grid line
extension. But in the autonomous PV-wind hybrid system LCC is Rs.150 lakhs for a daily
energy demand of 75 kWh, and for a load less than 75 kWh the LCC proportionately reduces.
Similarly, a fixed LCC of Rs.250 lakhs is required to meet out the load demand of 150 kWh per
day or less than that for a grid line extension of 100 km. As in the earlier case here again for PV-
wind hybrid system life cycle cost required for a load demand of 150 kWh per day is Rs.250
lakhs and for load less than 150 kWh, the LCC proportionately reduces. The drop in the slope
refers to the reduction of cost from Rs.160.00 to Rs.100.00 of PV module per peak watt as
indicated in the Figure-6. The amount of drop in the slope meets out an additional energy
demand, which makes the PV wind system economically viable.
It is obvious from the Figure-6 that when the cost of PV module decreases then the viability
range of load demand for PV wind hybrid system increases from 75 kWh to 125 kWh per day for
grid extension distance of 50km. In comparison with the grid extension, it is concluded that the
38
PV wind hybrid has more economical viability when the grid extension distance is longer than
50 km and load demand is lower than 75 kWh/day.
6. RESULTS
Fig. 12 shows the prototype of the whole windPV hybrid generation system. In this
system, the dc motor is fed by a four-quadrant programmable power supply, which can realtime
control the rotor speed and torque in accordance with realistic wind profile characteristics.
Meanwhile, a group of tungsten halogen lamps are controlled by a programmable light dimmer
to emulate various sunlight irradiances.
First, the performances of the wind power generation branch are assessed. Fig. 13 shows
the rectifier output power characteristics under different speeds. It verifies that the characteristics
of the output power versus the output voltage have an obvious maximum power point under each
speed. Also, these maximum power points can be achieved by simply regulating the dc field
current. Moreover, the characteristics of the maximum output power and the combined
generatorrectifier efficiency versus the speed are shown in Fig. 14. It can be observed that both
the maximum power point and efficiency increase with the speed. The maximum power point
increment is simply due to the increase of input wind power. The efficiency increment is due to
the fact that the rated speed of the proposed generator is designed at 600 r/min (corresponding to
the wind speed of 15 m/s). In general, the combined generatorrectifier efficiency of the
conventional wind power generation system is in the range of 50%75% under the wind speed of
412 m/s. For the proposed wind power generation system, it can be seen that its efficiency is
already over 70% when the rotor speed is 300 r/min (corresponding to the wind speed of 9 m/s).
Hence, the proposed wind power generation branch can efficiently convert wind energy to
electrical energy over the major speed range. In order to evaluate the validity of MPPT as
compared with the case that adopts a fixed dc field current, the middle value (2 A) of the whole
field current range (04 A) is selected. The use of dc field current that is equal to 2 A almost
corresponds to the maximum power point at 100 r/min. Fig. 15 shows Fig. 15. Wind generator
characteristics of maximum output power and power improvement versus speed with MPPT. Fig.
16. PV panel output power characteristics versus duty cycle under different irradiances. the
characteristics of the maximum output power and power improvement as compared with the case
under a fixed dc field current of 2 A versus the speed under MPPT. It can be seen that the power
improvement is significant, which is about 25% at the rotor speed of 600 r/min. Second, the PV
power generation branch characteristics are analyzed. Fig. 16 shows the characteristics of the PV
output power versus the duty cycle under different irradiances. It verifies that the PV power
generation branch can readily perform the MPPT and achieve the maximum output power at a
given irradiance.
as compared with the case under the fixed dc field current of 2 A and the fixed duty cycle
of 50%. The corresponding power improvement is from 3% to 25.1%. Hence, it verifies that the
proposed system with MPPT can efficiently extract energy from the wind and PV sources. It is
worthy to note that the prototype is mainly used for experimental verification. Thus, it is
designed at low power levels that adversely affect the efficiency. Since some major losses such
as the core loss and the windage and friction losses of the generator are independent of the power
level, it is expected that the efficiency will be much better when the power level is elevated to
the order of kilowatts.
In order to evaluate the validity of MPPT as compared with the case that adopts a fixed
duty cycle, the middle value (50%) of the whole duty cycle range (0%100%) is selected. The
39
use of duty cycle that is equal to 50% almost corresponds to the maximum power point at 100
W/m2. The characteristics of the maximum output power and power improvement versus the
irradiance are shown in Fig. 17. It can be found that the maximum output power increases with
the irradiance, which well agrees with the principle of the PV panels. Also, the power
improvement under MPPT as compared with the case under the fixed duty cycle of 50% is
significant, which is about 30% at the irradiance of 600 W/m2. Such an improvement agrees
with the expectation since the converter operating at a fixed duty cycle cannot perform effective
power transfer. Third, the windPV hybrid generation characteristics are evaluated. Fig. 18
shows the total output power under MPPT
Finally, Fig. 19(a) shows typical daily profiles of wind speed and solar irradiance in October in
Hong Kong. Fig. 19(b) shows the corresponding output powers. It can be seen that the wind is
weak at most daytime and power and PV power are complementary to some extent.
becomes strong at nighttime (particularly at midnight), while sunshine occurs at daytime
and reaches the peak at noon. Hence, it confirms that the wind
40
7.0 CONCLUSIONS
In the present scenario standalone solar photovoltaic and wind systems have been promoted
around the globe on a comparatively larger scale. These independent systems cannot provide
continuous source of energy, as they are seasonal. The solar and wind energies are complement
in nature. By integrating and optimizing the solar photovoltaic and wind systems, the reliability
of the systems can be improved and the unit cost of power can be minimized.
In this paper, a new windPV hybrid generation system has been proposed and implemented.
This stand-alone hybrid generation system can fully utilize the characteristics of the proposed
wind generator and the PV panels to extract the maximum power from the wind and solar energy
sources. Namely, the MPPT of the doubly excited PM brushless generator is achieved by online
tuning its dc field current, while the MPPT Fig. 19. Complementary windPV hybrid generation.
(a) Daily profiles of wind speed and irradiance. (b) Daily profiles of wind power and PV power.
of the PV panels is attained by online tuning the duty cycle of the SEPIC. Also, this hybrid
generation system takes a distinct merit that the wind power and PV power inherently
complement one another to certain extent, hence facilitating continuous output power from day
to night.
A PV wind hybrid systems is designed for rural electrification for the required load at specified
Deficiency of Power Supply Probability (DPSP). A new methodology has been developed to
determine the size of the PV wind hybrid system using site parameters, types of wind systems,
types of solar photovoltaic system, number of days of autonomy of battery and life period of the
system.
A primary model was developed to optimize PV-wind hybrid system for any specific location,
by considering the parameters DPSP and REPG. The developed model processes the input
parameters pertaining to the wind velocity, solar insolation, environment temperature, load
distribution, wind and PV system parameters like cut-in-speed, cut-off-speed, rated speed, rotor
diameter, hub height, peak module power, capacity of the PV panel and wind systems. It
computes the output parameters like PV capacity, array configuration, number of modules, tilt
angle, inverter capacity, battery capacity, charge controller capacity and wind machine capacity.
The optimal size of the hybrid system is determined based on the calculated values of REPG for
a specified DPSP. Thus the model suggests the optimum combination of the capacity of wind,
PV and battery units of a chosen type that can generate power with a minimum REPG by
implementation of iterative technique.
A secondary model developed for optimizing techno economic aspects like LCC, LEC or LUC
considering the parameters like life period of solar system, wind system, battery discount rate,
escalation rate, cost of the module, wind machine, battery, inverter BOS components and CO
2
mitigation cost for solar photovoltaic wind hybrid system.
41
8 APPENDIX A
Fig Flowchart for optimum utilization of PV-Wind Hybrid system
42
APPENDIX B
Table-1. Cost values of the economic parameters and components for
the base case
43
APPENDIX C
Table-2.Comparison of model and real time energy outputs for site Chunnambar, Pondicherry.
Figure-2. Variation of deficiency of power supply probability with respect to solar
PV system capacity at Poompuhar.
44
Figure-3. Variation of levelised energy cost with respect to solar PV system capacity
with variable wind system capacity for 3 days of battery autonomy at Poompuhar.
Figure-4. Variation of deficiency of power supply probability with respect to life cycle cost for
Standalone photovoltaic, wind and hybrid systems at Poompuhar.
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APPENDIX D
Working Procedure:
During day time, DC Power generated by the Solar PV array is stored in the Battery Bank
through a Hybrid Controller, which maximizes charging current and prevents excessive
discharge/overcharge. Wind turbine generator starts generating power when wind speed exceeds
cut-in speed of the Mini Wind Turbine (above 2.7 m/s). Output from the Wind Battery Charger is
also stored in the Battery Bank through Hybrid Controller. During windy periods excess energy
generated by the Wind Battery Charger is dissipated through a progressive heater (Dump Load).
The wind turbine is self-regulated type with protection for Overspeed. Energy stored in the
battery is drawn by electricals loads through the inverter, which converts PC power into AC
power. The inverter has in-built protection for Short-Circuit, Reverse Polarity, Low Battery
Voltage and Over Load. The Batter Bank is designed to feed the loads up to two days, during
Non-Sun/Wind days.
46
SOLAR PV - WIND HYBRID POWER SPECIFICATIONS of 5 10 kW
1) PV Array Power =2100 to 3600 watts
2) Micro Wind turbine/generator =3.5 to 6.5 kW
3) System Voltage =48
4) Battery Bank Capacity, Ah(@C10) Industry Standard
5) Solar PV Module, Model Industry standard
6) No.of Solar PV Modules Industry standard
7) Inverter Rating (VA) 5000
8) Output AC Wave form Sine-wave
9) Output AC Voltage (Vnom), +/-10% =230 V/AC
10) Output Ac Frequency, Hertz, +/-0.5 % =50 Hz.
Additional Specs For Lamination And Mounting Of Solar Panels.
Single crystalline solar cells, which is the industry standard. Solar cells to be laminated between
high transmitivity, impact-resistant glass using ultra violet resistant polymer to provide
environmental protection, reliability and ruggedness. Anodized aluminium frame to facilitate
mounting and installation.
47
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