RF Mixer

RF Mixer Design
Modulation
Why?
Wired: superior shielding of coaxial lines at higher frequencies Wireless: antenna size FCC regulation: communication must occur in certain part of spectrum Allow simpler detection
Modulate?
Converts base-band signal to pass-band counterpart Varies certain parameters of carrier
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Detection
Demodulator
Inefficient under nNoise, nInterference, and nSmall input signal Require in advance nSignal amplification D RF amplifier nSelectivity D band-pass filter
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Detection
Antenna BPF RF amp Demodulator Baseband Output
RF amp requirements
High gain nAmplify signal for reliable processing Low noise nMinimize additional noise contribution High linearity nPrevent distortion or cross modulation Tuned nSelectively receive signals to reduce interference
Receiver Design
RF amp problems
Oscillation n High gain RF amps tend to oscillate Must be tunable n Most receivers are not a fixed-frequency units Must design demodulator over frequency bands
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Detection
Filter
Task nFiltering narrow-band channel centered at high frequency nAlong with large interferers Problem nRequire prohibitively high Q - To provide 60 dB attenuation at 45 kHz nYet low loss filter
Detection
Filter
Trade-off nOut-of-band rejection and nIn-band loss In-band loss being the more critical parameter Practical front-end BPF nCan only select the band of interest nPostpone channel selection to some other point
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Detection
Solution?
Super-heterodyne Concept nTranslate signal band to fixed lower frequencies nProgressively select and amplify - Allow relaxation in the Q of channel-select filter 9Filter Q = fc/f 9For a fixed Q, lower fc lower f nSelect signal with LO nDistribute gains nOperate demodulator at fixed frequency
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Heterodyne Receiver
LNA
Amplify RF signal & reduce mixer noise contribution
Image Reject Filter

Reject undesired out-of-band signals
Mixer
Allow channel selection and gain control at lower frequencies Allow fixed band IF filter nTune the LO frequency instead Dominates system performance nDetermines spec for LNA, LO, RF filter, IR filter, and IF stages
Heterodyne Transceiver
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Mixer
Mixer
Misnomer, no mix rather multiply Perform frequency conversion Need nonlinear circuit component
Multipliers, modulators, and mixers, Multiplies signals

Multiplier nGenerates linear product of two signal w = k x y nHigh noise & low bandwidth Modulator nGenerate one of input multiplied by the sign of the other as an output w = y sign(x) Mixer nModulator, optimized for translation nOptimized for minimal noise and maximum linearity
Mixer Specifications
Noise figure Linearity Conversion gain LO leakage LO input power Port matching Port isolation Power consumption
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Conversion Gain
Downconversion Mixer
Should provide sufficient power gain to compensate for IF filter loss and noise contribution from IF stage Too much gain may saturate mixer output (low IIP3) Gain specified in power nNF is power quantity nEasier to translate NF to IF stage to system NF
Power Gain
VO RS I O RS G= V R = I I L I RL
2 2
VO & VI: input and output voltages IO & II: input and output currents RL & RS: load and source resistance Increase RL two times 6 dB increase in voltage gain, but 3 dB increase in power gain
Port Return Loss

RF and IF port matching
Necessary to avoid signal reflection and Excessive passband ripple in IF filter Typically, require more than 10 dB return loss
RF and LO port
Typically matched to 50 ohm LO port return loss can be relaxed Excessive reflection nSelf-mixing nSource of DC offset
IF port
Matched to that of IF filter
Port Isolation
LO to RF feedthrough
LO signal leaking through antenna Should be small enough to avoid corrupting other RF systems
LNA & Mixer on same package

LO can feedthrough to RF input of LNA by passing RF filter and LNA Poor isolation between LNA out and mixer input makes IR filter useless
LO-to-IF & RF-to-IF isolation

Not important in Rx mixer High Q IF filter rejects it But large LO and RF signals at IF can saturate IF output port leading to poor P1dB
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Mixer Topologies
Mixer topologies
Conversion Gain nActive - Have conversion gain - Reduce IF stage noise contribution nPassive - Diode mixer, passive FET mixer, etc. - Conversion loss, high linearity, high LO power Device nDiode, FET, BJT mixer Frequency Conversion nUp- or down-conversion mixer LO drive nHigh- or low-side drive
Mixer Topologies
Device nDouble-balanced: RF and LO driven differentially - Ring mixer, Gilbert cell mixer nSingle-balanced: RF or LO driven differentially - Dual-long tailed pair mixer nUnbalanced: RF and LO driven single-ended - Dual-gate mixer, exponential mixer, quadratic mixer LO-injection port (unbalanced) nGate mixer nSource mixer nDrain mixer
Ideal Mixer
Fully-Balanced Switching Mixer
Vy = sin RF t
+1 Vy (RF) -1 Sx (LO) SxVy (IF)
S LO =
4 1 1 t t t sin sin 3 sin 5 / + LO LO LO 3 5 2 S IF = {cos( RF + LO )t + cos( RF LO )t 1 1 cos( RF + 3 LO )t cos( RF 3 LO )t 3 3 1 1 + cos( RF + 5 LO )t + cos( RF 5 LO )t/ } 5 5
Up-converter : choose RF + LO as IF Down-converter : choose RF - LO as IF RF > LO : low-side converter RF < LO : high-side converter
Ideal Mixer
Note
Higher order frequency components No LO and RF at the IF
Image response
Even with ideal mixer, receiver suffers from image response Example n fLO = 1 GHz down converts nfRF = 0.9 GHz and fRFI = 1.1 GHz (image frequency) Image degrades the noise figure of the receiver Solutions nImage reject filter ahead of mixer nImage rejection mixer nDirect conversion receiver
Unbalanced Mixer
Simplest
Possible to achieve lowest noise figure No LO and RF isolation at IF need capacitor at IF to bypass them
Low noise implementation

Need LO and RF signal to have small IF noise power Degenerate driver stage with capacitor
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Square-Law Mixer
Gate mixer
vRF vLO vIF
iD =
(Vgs VT ) 2 2
Vgs = vRF cos( RF t ) + vLO cos( LO t ) + VGS

(Vgs VT )2 = (vRF cos( RFt) + vLO cos( LOt) +VGS VT )2 = [vRF cos( RFt) + vLO cos( LOt)]2 + (VGS VT )2
2 2 vRF v + vLO v = + (VGS VT )2 + RF cos( 2RFt) + LO cos( 2LOt) 2 2 2 DC 2-nd harmonic + vRF vLO cos{( RF LO)t}+ vRF vLO cos{( RF +LO)t}
Mixing terms
Gc =
vLO 2
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Single-Balanced Mixer
Compare to DBM
Simple, half the current, more head room Less dependent on LO balance Easy RF port matching Fewer noise contributors
Inductive degeneration
Z in = rb + Z e + 1 sC + T Z e s
Good noise performance Boosts class AB behavior
Common-base driver stage

Tend to be more linear Low power gain (due to no current gain) Higher NF : more noise contribution bySiRACS-sglee switching tr 22
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iO1 iC2 Q2 iC3 Q3 iO2
For ideal switching

iC1 = I C1 + g m vRF cos RF t SC 2 = 1 2 + cos LO t + O(3 LO ) 2 1 2 SC 3 = cos LO t + O(3 LO ) 2 I g v 2I 2g v iO1 = iC1 SC 2 = C1 + m RF cos RF t + C1 cos LO t + m RF cos RF t cos LO t + / 2 2 I g v 2I = C1 + m RF cos RF t + C1 cos LO t 2 2 g v g v + m RF cos( LO RF ) + m RF cos( LO + RF ) + / I g v 2I 2g v iO 2 = iC1 SC 3 = C1 + m RF cos RF t C1 cos LO t m RF cos RF t cos LO t + / 2 2 I g v 2I = C1 + m RF cos RF t C1 cos LO t 2 2 g v g v m RF cos( LO RF ) m RF cos( LO + RF ) + / iO = iO1 iO 2 = 4 I C1 2 2 cos LO t + g m vRF cos( LO RF ) + g m vRF cos( LO + RF ) + /
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VLOcosLOt
VRFcosRFt iC2
iC1 Q1
t iC3 t iC1
IC1 t
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Inherent loss
2/ (~ -3.9 dB) by the frequency conversion RF power converted to IF, RF+IF, and higher order --
No LO & RF isolation at IF
Limits the usage for down-conversion only nIF filter attenuates LO & RF Can saturate IF output can degrade P1dB Parallel capacitors at the IF helps
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Single-ended output
Noise figure degradation nUp to 6.9 dB by the direct feedthrough of driver IF noise nDC component in LO No isolation between RF and IF port at IF frequency IF Inductive degeneration IF noise amplified with higher gain
Differential output
Add IF signal Cancel RF signal (common-mode signal) Add LO signal (diff-mode signal) Cancel IF noise feedthrough from driver stage nSignificant NF reduction nMust be differential
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Double-Balanced Mixer
Q1 & Q2
Diff pair driver stage Amplifies RF signal Reduce noise contribution from switching quad Should be large for small rb: low noise
Q1, Q2, Q3, & Q4 IT

Diff switching quad Should be optimized for noise of Q1 & Q2 Input-referred noise by IC decrease with IT While by IB increase with IT
Ze
Improve linearity, reduce gain L is best for linearity and NF Higher gain minimize quad noise contribution
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iO1 iC3 Q3 vLOcosLOt iC1 Q1 iC2 Q2 iC4 Q4 iC5 Q5 iC6 Q6 iO2
vRFcosRFt
1 1
iC3 = iC6 t iC4 = iC5 t iC1
IC1 iC2 IC2

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t t
g m vRF cos RF t 2 g v g v iC 2 = I C + m RF cos( RF + )t + / = I C m RF cos RF t + / 2 2 1 2 SC 3 = SC 6 = + cos LO t + / 2 1 2 1 2 SC 4 = SC 5 = + cos( LO + )t + / = cos LO t + / 2 2 1 iO1 = iC1S C 3 + iC 2 S C 5 = I C + 2 g m vRF cos RF t cos LO t + / 1 1 = I C + g m vRF cos( LO RF )t + g m vRF cos( LO + RF )t + / 1 iO 2 = iC1S C 4 + iC 2 SC 5 = I C 2 g m vRF cos s t cos ot + / 1 1 = I C g m vRF cos( LO RF )t g m vRF cos( LO + RF )t + / 1 1 iO1 = I C + g m vRF cos( LO RF )t + g m vRF cos( LO + RF )t + / 1 1 iO 2 = I C g m vRF cos( LO RF )t g m vRF cos( LO + RF )t + / 2 2 iO1 iO 2 = g m vRF cos( LO RF )t + g m vRF cos( LO + RF )t + / iC1 = I C +
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RF & LO isolation at IF Require balun for differential LO and RF Same conversion for twice the ICC of SBM
Differential output
Increase output power Cancel DC
Larger LO
Closer to ideal switching nIncrease conversion gain nReduce noise figure Excessive current pumped into quad nGenerate additional IM3 nReduce voltage headroom nIncrease power consumption nBipolar: VLO ~ 300 mV = 0 dBm is used for ideal switching
Linearity
High even-order linearity
Differential LO drive
Transformer nPower loss nExternal component nBulky Active balun nExtra circuitry nAdditional noise: IF noise pumped into quad show up at IF - Capacitive degeneration helps nRequire high power balun for efficient switching Prefer single-ended LO
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Single-ended LO
equivalent representation
VS
VS/2
com. mode diff. mode

RS
VS/2 VS/2
VS/2 RS VS/2 + VS/2 = VS
VS/2 - VS/2 = 0
LO leakage nSerious with up-mixer, must be removed nLeads to additional output buffer Solutions? nCan be related to common-mode gain of switching quad nCascode helps
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2LO harmonics at output
Often serious problem nLarge amplitude saturates switching quad nDetermine by the ratio of load impedance and driver stage output impedance nCascode helps
Input impedance
Z in = 2(rb + Z e + 1 sC + T Z e s )
nHigher input impedance than SBM nCapacitive Ze generates negative resistance

MOSFET Double-Balanced Mixer

Overall
Similar to BJT version Hard to achieve conversion gain
Linearity
Better linearity (?) Higher (VGS - VT) helps driver stage linearity
Switching quad
Need larger LO to switch transistor Need larger LO to minimize noise contribution
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Switching Efficiency of CMOS DBM

Iod
Incomplete switching
ISS
2Vp
Q3 LO
Q4
Q5
Q6
2ISS/ 2ISS/
ISS/2 Vid
Q1 RF
Q2
-ISS
Transfer characteristic of a CMOS differential amplifier

2
(Square IV) 1 (Linear IV)
0 0.1 1 10
aLO/2VP
Switching efficiency dependence on LO amplitude from numerical calculation

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- Quadratic I-V: 1dB loss point compared to large-LO case is at ALO = 2Vp, and 3dB loss point at ALO = 1.4Vp - Linear I-V: 1dB loss point compared to maximum value is at ALO = 4.4Vp,, and 3dB point at ALO = 2.7Vp - For BJT balanced mixer, 1dB loss point compared to large-LO case is at ALO = 100 mV
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x 1/
Noise Figure
SSB noise figure
Applicable to heterodyne receiver Information only on one of sideband
DSB noise figure

Applicable to homodyne receiver Both sideband of LO are converted to baseband
Heterodyne Twice as many noise contributor

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Noise Figure
Noise Figure Meter Noise Figure Meter
Noise Source LO
Noise Source
BPF1
BPF2
LO
BPF2
DSB Measurement
NFDSB NFSSB
SSB Measurement
(1) ( 2)
N a , DSB Si N i Si N i = = = 1+ S o N o 2 S i Ga (2 N i Ga + N a , DSB ) 2Ga N i N a , DSB Si N i Si N i = = = 21 + S o N o S i Ga (2 N i Ga + N a , DSB ) 2Ga N i
Noise less mixer: NFSSB = 3dB and NFDSB = 0dB

Noise Figure
Noise Figure Meter Noise Figure Meter
Noise Source LO
Noise Source
BPF1
BPF2
LO
BPF2
DSB Measurement
NFDSB = NFSSB =
SSB Measurement
(1)
N a , DSB N a , DSB N Si N i Si N i = = 1+ a , DSB S o N o Si (Ga + Gi ) (N i (Ga + Gi ) + N a , DSB ) (Ga + Gi ) N i (Ga + Gi ) N i 2Ga N i N N Si N i Si N i = = 1 + a , DSB a , DSB S o N o S i Ga (N i Ga + N a , DSB ) Ga N i Ga N i ( 2)
The SSB NF is ~ 3dB higher than DSB NF if signal and image

bands experience equal gain The SSB and DSB NF is same for Ga >> Gi; the narrow band mixer
SSB NF Measurement
Noise Figure Meter Noise Source BPF1
LO
BPF2
Calibrate NFM at IF frequency BPF1: need for single-side band meas. BPF2: stop the noise contribution from the LO signal generator Minimize the cable & BPF1 loss, or subtract the loss from the measured NF Check the ENR number Watch for the linear IF amp configuration - need BPF1 Watch for the RF matching effect on the noise figure test with line-stretcher
Mixer Noise
Suffer from high noise figure
Higher than amplifiers Noise transferred from multiple frequency bands to output
Periodically time-varying statistics

Operating point of the devices changes periodically Transfer function for signal and noise change periodically with time Periodic random process is called cyclostationary
Noise figure simulation

Require nonlinear noise simulator Commercial models with high accuracy is not yet available Analytic approach with simplifying assumptions: Terrovits et al., JSCC 1999 / Darabi et al., IEEE SSC 2000
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Noise in SBM
Noise contributors
Driver stage noise, M3 Switching pair thermal noise, M1 & M2 LO signal noise Thermal noise from load resistors 1/f noise: significant in direct conversion mixer
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Noise in SBM
1) Driver stage noise from M3
Cyclostationary due to the switching action of quads
81%
9%
10%
Noise contribution in the ideal switching

Noise in SBM
2) Switching pair thermal noise from M1 & M2
White and cyclostationary Noise contribution from near even LO harmonics Large LO, noise contribution of switching pair is lower than driver stage
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Noise in SBM
3) LO signal noise
Depends on oscillator noise, cyclostationary Bandwidth
4) Thermal noise from load resistors

White and bias independent
5) 1/f noise
Significant in FETs
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Noise in SBM
NFSSB
( 3 + rg 3 g m 3 ) g m 3 + 2 1 G + ( RLO + 2rg1 ) G + 1 / RL = 2+ 3 c c2 gm 3 Rs 2{( 3 + rg 3 g m3 ) g m3 + 2 1 G + ( RLO + 2rg1 ) G } + 1 / RL + 2 3 c c2 gm 3 Rs

__ ___ 2
__
___ 2
SBM
NFSSB =
DBM
c: conversion gain efficiency, maximum 2/ : driver stage noise transfer efficiency, maximum 1 i: drain channel noise coef for i-th FET rgi: gate resistance of i-th FET G & G2: time and squared time average of G(t) = 2gm1gm2/(gm1+gm2) Monotonic increasing function of current and LO amplitude Capacitor effects are neglected
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Noise in SBM
Lower noise for ideal switching Strong correlation with conversion gain For same GC , DBM dissipates twice the power of SBM, higher NF
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Image Response
Shift by 90o in time domain: x x-T/4 Shift by 90o in frequency domain: Hilbert transformation
+ j H ( ) = j sign( ) = j for < 0 for > 0
Expressions of sine and cosine
sin(t )
H ( ) = cos(t )
1 j ( e + e + j ) 2 j sin( ) = (e j e + j ) 2 cos( ) =
Shift by 90o in (a) time and (b) frequency domain
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Image Reject Mixer

Hartley architecture
ARF cos( RF t ) + Aim cos( imt )
- Image rejection improves with larger LO - Image rejection depends more strongly on phase mismatch
Image Reject Mixer

Weaver architecture
XA()
- Image rejection improves with larger LO - Image rejection depends more strongly on phase mismatch
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XB( )
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Image Reject Mixer

Newer architecture
No LPF Mismatches self-compensates
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Balun/180-Degree Power Combiner

Out In Out In Out Out
out
out
In
0o
out
in
out
out
in
in
0o
180o
180o
0o
out
In
in
180o
L =
1 = 2R C
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Balun/180-Degree Power Combiner

RF+ R11 RFR12 Q13
Out In
RF_out Q14
In
L i1-i2 C
out
In
In
i1
i2
=
1 C 2L
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Mixer Linearization Technique

Two-Tone 3rd-Order Intercept Point (IP3)
For memoryless system, in/out transfer characteristics is given as
vo (t ) = 1vi (t ) + 2 vi (t ) 2 + 3vi (t ) 3 + O[vi (t ) 4 ]
with
1 LO , 2 LO = RF LO , RF LO + = IF , IF +
vi = vRF sin(1t ) + vRF sin( 2t ) + vLO sin( LO t ) = vRF sin( RF t ) + vRF sin([ RF + ]t ) + vLO sin( LO t )
21 2 LO ,2 2 1 LO = RF LO , RF LO + 2 = IF , IF + 2
4 1 IIP3(dBV ) = 10 LOG10 3 3
4 13 OIP3(dBV ) = 10 LOG10 3 3
Therefore linearization circuit should provide both smaller |3| and no reduction in voltage gain (1).

Nonlinearity of an FET
5 4 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 0 1 2 3 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
ids
vi
V-I Characteristics
Ids gm gm' gm"
ids = g m vi +
g g m 2 vi + m vi3 2! 3!
-3
Gate-to-Source Voltage [V]
- High Vgs D high gm and small |gm| D Linear Amplification - Low Vgs D low gm and large |gm| D Distortion generator
gm' [mA/V2] and gm" [mA/V3]
Ids [mA] and gm [mA/V]

Resistive emitter degeneration
' gm = g m /(1 + )
, where = g m Re
Incremental gain vs. Vin
- Smaller gain and higher order coefficients for larger - Identify the optimum value for the maximum linearity - Not effective for CMOS mixer due to insufficient gm - Inductive/capacitive degeneration for low voltage operation

Inductive emitter degeneration : Fong et al.
- No additional noise by inductor - Class AB operation - More effective for P1dB than IP3 (IP1dB=-1.5 dBm, IIP3=+2.5dBm) - Good for CMOS technology?

Multi-tanh Mixer
- Smaller gain for A not equal to 1 - Identify the optimum A value for the highest linearity - Not effective with CMOS mixer due to insufficient gm (?)

MicroMixer
(a) Incremental gain, (b) RIN, (c) current of Q1 & Q3, (d) input-referred noise
- Q1 can handle unlimited amounts of current during negative vin - Same with Q2, Q3 during positive excursions of vin - No gain compression: rather, the gain increases at high input levels class AB - Good for CMOS

Resistive Mixer
- For FET operated at linear region, channel is a linear voltagecontrolled resistor - Potentiometric mixer, balanced mixer, etc. - Highly linear, but exhibits inherent loss: in case of additional gain block, linearity degraded due to IF or RF gain block
Low-Voltage-Operation Mixer
- Parallel LC resonance at RF frequency - Area occupied by the inductor - Raytheon patent

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- Fraello et al., IEE EL , 1997
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- G. Giustolisi , IEEE , 1998
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real[ Z in ] ~
gm 2C gs CEE
- Razavi, ISSCC 1996 - Capacitive source degeneration for low voltage operation - Stability : possible negative input resistance at RF input ports - Relatively high noise figure(?)
High Conversion-Gain Mixer
- Schmatz et al., GaAs IC Symp. - Current splitting with common-mode feedback
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High Conversion-Gain Mixer
- MacEachern et al., IEEE, 1998 - LC resonance at RF frequency - Charge-injection method with common-mode feedback
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CMOS Mixer
- Jacques C. Rudell , IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Dec. 1997
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CMOS Mixers
Arvin R. Shahani et al., IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Dec. 1997 Double-balanced resistive mixer
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CMOS Mixers
- Andrew N. Karanicolas, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Dec. 1996
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CMOS Mixers
- Seungwook Lee , IEEE, 1997
- Ahmadreza Rofougaran , IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, July 1996
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CMOS Mixers
- Litmanen et al., IEEE, 1998
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MOS SB Down Converter

H. Wang, IEEE ISSCC, Feb. 1998
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MOSFET Mixer
Current-reused bleeding mixer
VDD
VDD
R1 IF+
IBIAS2 IF-
R2
R1
+ I OUT
R2 IF+ IFM2 M4
I OUT ,bld
,bld
LO+
M5
M2
M6
M7
M4
M8
LO+
M3
LO-
LO-
Cbypass
RF+ M1 M3 RF-
RF
M1
IBIAS1
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Mixer Fundamentals & Active Mixer Design

References
x
Keng Leong Fong and R. G. Meyer, Monolothic RF Active Mixer Design, IEEE Trans. Circuits and Systems - II: Analog and Digital Signal Processing, vol. 46, no. 3, March 1999 Mixer Fundamentals and Active Mixer Design, B. Gilbert, EPEL Electronics Laboratories Advanced Engineering Course in RF Design for Wireless Communications Systems, Lausanne, 1996 Communication Circuits: Analysis and Design, K. K. Clarke and D. T. Hess, AddisonWesley, 1971
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Modulation and Detection

s
Reasons for modulation

x x x x
Wired: superior shielding of coaxial lines at higher frequencies Wireless: antenna size FCC regulation: communication must occur in certain part of spectrum Allow simpler detection
Signal
x x
baseband: spectrum near = 0 passband: spectrum near carrier freq. c
Modulation
x x
Converts baseband signal to passband counterpart Varies certain parameters of carrier
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Modulation and Detection

s
Important aspect of modem

x
Quality (e.g., SNR)
Quality depends on the type of modem for a given channel attenuation and transmitted power Limited bandwidth for wireless application Modulation affects required bandwidth Linearity requirement determines the kind of power amplifier Typically, <
Spectral efficiency

Power efficiency

Modem
x
Analog
Process of converting the baseband signal to passband and vice versa Signal processing: channel coding, decoding, spreading, despreading, etc. Represented by similar numerical expression as in analog modem
Baseband

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Wireless Communication Environment

s
Hostile Limited spectrum allocated

Limited rate of information coding, compression, bandwidth efficient modulation
x
RF section
x
Transmitter

Employ narrow-band modulation Amplification Filtering to avoid leakage to adjacent channels Antenna matching Desired channel selection Undesired signal rejection Amplification Demodulation Error detection and/or correction Information conditioning and output
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Receiver

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General Considerations
s
Interference rejection
x
Require extremely high-Q filter to provide 60 dB attenuation at 45 kHz

With simple LC filter require Q ~ 107 Prohibitive Filter For a fixed Q L&C,
higher Q filter, higher-order filter, more L&C, more loss

-order filter cascade of 1st-order filter Trade-off between loss and Q
Typical filters
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General Considerations
x
Choice of BPF filter

Trade-off between out-of-band rejection and in-band loss In-band loss being the more critical parameter Band: entire spectrum of a particular standard Channel: signal bandwidth of only one user
Practical front-end BPF

Can only select the band of interest Postpone channel selection to some other point
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Receivers
Receiver design
Antenna RF amp Demod BB Output
Demodulator
x x x
Inefficient under noise, interference, and small input signal Require signal amplification and selectivity in advance Introduced RF amplifier
RF amplifier Requirements
x x x x
High gain: amplify signal for reliable processing Low noise: minimize additional noise contribution High linearity: prevent distortion or cross modulation Need to be tuned: selectively receive signals to reduce interference
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Receivers
s
Problems
x x
High gain RF amp tends to oscillate Most receivers are not a fixed-frequency units need to tune the high-gain RF amp over wide frequency range Need to design demodulator to have adequate performance over frequency bands
Solution? Superheterodyne Concept

x
x x x
Translate incoming signal to new, fixed intermediate frequency Select signal with LO Distribute gains Operate demod at fixed freq
Antenna
RF amp
Mixer
LO
IF amp
Demod
BB Output
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Heterodyne Receivers
s
Task
x x
Filtering narrow band channel centered at high frequency Along with large interferers Require prohibitively high Q yet low loss filter Translate signal band to lower frequencies And progressively select and amplify Allow relaxation in the of channel-select filter Filter For a fixed , lower lower Mixer: downconversion LPF: remove upconverted signal LNA: precede due to the mixers high NF 0: generated by local oscillator 2: called intermediate frequency (IF)
Problem
x
Solution
x x x
x x x x x
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Heterodyne Receivers
s
Mixer
x
Allow channel selection and gain control at lower frequencies
High Q filters and AGC can be implemented economically Tune the LO frequency instead Its performance dominates system performance Affects performance requirement of LNA, LO, RF filter, IR filter, and IF stages
Allow fixed band IF filter
Very important building block

LNA
x
Amplify RF signal to reduce noise contribution from mixer Reject undesired out-of-band signals
Image Reject Filter

x
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Mixer
s
Mixer
x x x x
Misnomer, no mix rather multiply Circuit element that performs frequency conversion Nonlinear circuit component Tends to dominate receiver performance
Multipliers, Modulators, and Mixers

x x
All of them multiplies signals Multiplier
Generates linear product of two signal = k High noise & low bandwidth Generate one of input multiplied by the sign of the other as an output = sign() Modulator, optimized for translation Optimized for minimal noise and maximum linearity
Modulator
Mixer

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Mixer
s
Mixer topologies
x
Conversion Gain
Active
Have conversion gain Reduce IF stage noise contribution
Passive
Diode mixer, passive FET mixer, etc. Conversion loss, high linearity, high LO power
Topology and Isolation
Double-balanced: RF and LO driven differentially

Ring mixer, Gilbert cell mixer
Single-balanced: RF or LO driven differentially

Dual-long tailed pair mixer
Unbalanced: RF and LO driven single-ended

Dual-gate mixer, exponential mixer, quadratic mixer
Device
Schottky diode, FET, BJT, or CMOS mixer Up- or down-conversion mixer High- or low-side drive
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Frequency Conversion
LO drive
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Ideal Mixer Theory

s
Fully-Balanced Switching Mixer

=
+1 -1
=

+
! = { +
+
+

+ +
+
!}
x x x x
Up-converter : choose + as Down-converter : choose - as : low-side converter : high-side converter
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Ideal Mixer Theory

s
Note
x x
Higher order frequency components No and at the Even with ideal mixer, receiver suffers from image response Example
Image response
x x
Assume = 1 GHz and = 0.9 GHz = - = 1 GHz - 0.9 GHz = 0.1 GHz Another IF = - = 1.1 GHz - 1 GHz = 0.1 GHz : image frequency
x x
Image response degrades the noise figure of the receiver Solutions

Include image reject filter ahead of mixer Design image rejection mixer : requires two mixer cells operating in quadrature
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Receiver Performance Parameters

s
Sensitivity
x x
Smallest received signal receiver needs to achieve a specific bit error rate (BER) Depends on system noise figure and demodulation scheme Ability to detect desired signal and reject undesired signal Includes
Selectiviey
x x
Adjacent channel selectivity,

Depends on IP3 of LNA and Mixer, selectivities of IF and BB filters, LO phase noise
Image rejection,
Depends on selectivities of RF and IR filters
Out-of-band blocker rejection,

Depends on selectivities of RF and IR filters, desensitization effect on LNA and down-conversion mixer by blocker, LO phase noise
Overloading
x x
Largest desired signal receiver can handle while maintaining a specific BER Depends on system P1dB
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Power Consumption: determine the usage time of portable receiver
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Noise Figure
=
+ + + = +
x x
Need sufficient to reduce Low noise mixer is highly desirable to relax
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Single- and Double-Sideband Noise Figure

s
SSB Noise Figure

x x
Applicable to heterodyne receiver Only one of the sideband is converted to IF (image is rejected) Applicable to homodyne (direct conversion) receiver Two sidebands of LO signal are converted to baseband
DSB Noise Figure

x x
Heterodyne
Twice as many noise contributor
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Homodyne
18
Single- and Double-Sideband Noise Figure

DSB Measurement

SSB Measurement

=
= = + +
= = = + +
For >> , is about 3 dB higher than

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NF Measurement
s
Noise Figure(SSB)

x x x
Calibrate NFM at IF frequency BPF1: need for single-side band meas. BPF2: stop the noise contribution from the LO signal generator Minimize the cable & BPF1 loss, or subtract the loss from the measured NF Check the ENR number Watch for the linear IF amp configuration - need BPF1 Watch for the RF matching effect on the noise figure test with line-stretcher
x x x x
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Conversion Gain
s
Downconversion Mixer
x
x x
Should provide sufficient power gain to compensate for IF filter loss and noise contribution from IF stage Too much gain may saturate mixer output (low IIP3) Gain specified in power

NF is power quantity Easier to translate NF to IF stage to system NF
Power Gain
= =
x x x x

& : input and output voltages & : input and output currents
&
: load and source resistance Increase

two times 6 dB increase in voltage gain, but 3 dB increase in power gain
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Gain Compression
>
x x x x x
Desired signal distorted at the mixer output Cause AM to PM modulation No information lost if is frequency modulated If is phase modulated, unwanted phase shift due to AM-to-PM conversion Lead to detection error degradation (BER) Distortion of has no effect on system performance can overload mixer Cause gain compression on the desired signal increase IF noise contribution
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>
x x x
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3rd-Order Intermodulation Distortion
Low
x
IM3 dominated by 3rd-order nonlinearity Higher order nonlinearities become more important Depends on phase relationship among odd-order nonlinearities, IM3 may increase at higher or lower rate than the cube of Coherent addition of IM3 from LNA and mixer:
High
x x
= +
IM3 products add incoherently(out-of-phase):
=
+
IP3: 9.6 dB higher than P1dB at low frequency, higher in many practical design except the class AB mixer
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Power Consumption
s
Optimize mixer power consumption to avoid increase in other building blocks

x x x x x x x
Mixer with high NF Increase gain requirement for LNA Increase power consumption of LNA Increase IP3 requirement for mixer Increase mixer power consumption Require higher LO drive Increase LO buffer bias current
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Port Return Loss

s
RF and IF port matching

x x x
Necessary to avoid signal reflection and Excessive passband ripple in IF filter Typically, require more than 10 dB return loss Typically matched to 50 ohm LO port return loss can be relaxed Excessive reflection

RF and LO port
x x x
Self-mixing Source of DC offset
IF port
x
Matched to that of IF filter
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Port Isolation
s
LO to RF feedthrough
x x
LO signal leaking through antenna Should be small enough to avoid corrupting other RF systems LO can feedthrough to RF input of LNA by passing RF filter and LNA Poor isolation between LNA out and mixer input makes IR filter useless Not important in Rx mixer High Q IF filter rejects it But large LO and RF signals at IF can saturate IF output port leading to poor P1dB
LNA & Mixer on same package

x x
LO-to-IF & RF-to-IF isolation

x x x
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s
& : diff pair driver stage

x x
x
s s
Amplifies RF signal Reduce noise contribution from switching quad Should be large for small : low noise
, , , & : diff switching quad

x x x x x
Improve linearity, reduce gain Can be implemented with , , or & : lower NF L gives best linearity Higher gain minimize quad noise contribution Should be optimized for noise of & Input-referred noise by decrease with While by increase with

x x x
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= + ( + ) + ! = + ! = = + + ! = = + ( + ) + ! = + ! = + = + + ! = + ( ) + ( + ) + ! = + = + ! = ( ) ( + ) + ! = +
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= +
x x x

( ) +
( + ) + ! =
( )
( + ) + !
Assumed ideal instantaneous switching RF & LO isolation at IF Require extra circuitry and supply current for balanced LO and RF drive for balanced operation Converted signal adds Increase output power Cancel the common-mode noise from Cancel DC Due to power lost in (RF + RF) term and other higher frequency terms
Differential output
x x x
1/ factor
x x
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= ( + + + )
x
s
Capacitive generates negative real number Assume const gain and noise power at output of driver Instant switching lead to 3.9 dB increase in NF + noise contribution from switching pairs High side mixing gives better NF than the low side mixing Low NF Excessive current pumped into quad generate additional IM3 Decrease voltage head room Increased power consumption Bipolar: ~ 300 mV = 0 dBm used for low NF Reasonably large for low Too large Cje too much current into quad linearity degradation
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Noise characteristics
x x x
x
Large LO signal
x x x x x
Quad Tr. Size

x x
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FET Double-Balanced Mixer

s
FETs
x
MESFET or MOSFET Similar to the case of BJT version Better linearity (?) Driver stage can be improved by higher (
) Needs larger LO to turn off transistor Need larger LO to minimize noise contribution
Overall
x
Linearity
x x
Switching quad
x x
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s
Compare to DBM
x x x x
Simple, half the current, more head room Performance less dependent on LO balance Easy RF port matching Fewer noise contributers Good noise performance Exhibit class AB behavior High P1dB with low bias current
x x x
= + +driver stage + Common-base

x x x
Tend to be more linear Low power gain (due to no current gain) Higher NF : more noise contribution from quad
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= + + + ! = + ( + ) + ! = + ! = = + + + + ! = + + + ( ) + ( + ) + ! = = + + ! = + ( ) ( + ) + ! =

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x
s
Assumed ideal instantaneous switching No problem, IF filter attenuates them Can saturate IF output can degrade P1dB Parallel capacitors at the IF Increase noise figure by 6.9 dB for constant output noise power of driver stage DC component in LO IF noise from driver stage directly show up at IF With inductive degeneration, IF noise amplified with high gain IF power adds Cancel RF but not the LO Significant NF reduction: has to be differential output for low NF Quad Tr. IF noise mix with RF signal DC Increase noise at the IF port With LO buffer, bandpass or highpass load help reduce the LO noise contribution
No LO & RF isolation at IF
x x x
Single-ended output
x x x
Differential output
x x x
Noise from LO
x x x
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DB Mixer Noise Sources

Noise source from RF transistor
x x
() : have no control () : have no control, unless insert image reject filter between transconductance stage and mixer core () : depends on the way signal applies;

Differential mode: becomes feedthough and cancels out at each IF Common-mode: shows up at IF, cancels when outputs taken differentially
Noise source from current source

x x
() : feedthrough to IF, cancel out if outputs taken differentially () and () : feed to mixer core as common-mode signal, down converts and show up at IF. Can be cancelled out if outputs taken differentially Same as SBM
Noise source from LO transistors

x
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SB Mixer Noise Sources

Noise source from RF transistor
x x
() : unavoidable, determined by device characteristic () : image noise component, possible to stop using band-pass filter or resonance (trap) circuit () : show up at the IF due to the lack of RF-IF isolation. Possible to cancel by differential output or stop before mixer core Problem due to non-ideal switching mixer core becomes differential amplifier multiplier mathematics complicated Solution?: faster switch, higher LO drive LO buffer can also add extra noise Transformer: wide band, bulky, expensive, lossy LC power combining circuit: narrow band, require many passive components Active circuit realization: biasing, extra noise, matching
Noise source from LO transistors

x
x x
s
Differential power combining approach

x x x
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Mixer Linearity Improvement Techniques

s
To Improve linearity
x x x
Higher current and large headroom Distribute voltage to avoid none of the transistors fall to early saturation (or cutoff) Choose the right circuit topology
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Unbalanced Mixer
s
Simplest
x x
Possible to achieve lowest noise figure No LO and RF isolation at IF need capacitor at IF to bypass them Need LO and RF signal to have small IF noise power Degenerate driver stage with capacitor
Low noise implementation

x
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Characterization
s
Matching
x x
Measure s-parameters using VNA with other ports 50 terminated Watch for linear vs. nonlinear s-parameters Typically use spectrum analyzers Voltage vs. power conversion gain

Conversion Gain
x x
RS = RL, same If not, varies (need to calculate)
IP3 and P1dB

x x x
Typically use spectrum analyzers Require 3 signal generators for IP3 Measure IP3 over various two-tone spacing, IP3 tends to varies considerably
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MOS Double Balanced UP Converter (1)

s
Peter R. Kinght , IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Mar. 1997
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MOS Double Balanced UP Converter (2)

s
Marc A. F. Borremans , IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Mar. 1998
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MOS Double Balanced Down Converter (1)

s
G.Giustolisi , IEEE , 1998
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s
Jacques C. Rudell , IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Dec. 1997
Arvin R. Shahani , IEEE J. SolidState Circuits, Dec. 1997
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s
Andrew N. Karanicolas, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Dec. 1996
Jan Crols , IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, July 1995
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s
Seungwook Lee , IEEE, 1997
Ahmadreza Rofougaran , IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, July 1996
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MOS Single Balanced Down Converter

s
H. Wang, IEEE ISSCC, Feb. 1998
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BJT Double Balanced UP Converter(1)

s
W. Durr , Electronics Letters, Oct. 1998 ( : 5.7GHz, : 11.2 GHz )
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s
P. Weger , Electronics Letters, Mar. 1991
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s
Farbod Behbahani , IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Sep. 1997
Kevin J. Negus , IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Sep. 1990
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BJT Double Balanced Down Converter(1)

s
Tsuneo Tsukahara , IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Feb. 1996
Jose A. Macedo , IEEE J. SolidState Circuits, Mar. 1998
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s
Barrie Gilbert, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Sep. 1997
Hiroshi Komurasaki , IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, May 1998
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s
Jeff Durec, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Sep. 1998
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s
John R. Long , IEEE ISSCC, Feb. 1995
Jon Strange , IEEE RF IC Symp. 1997
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s
Robert G. Meyer , IEEE ISSCC, Feb. 1997
Takafumi Yarnaji , IEEE CICC, 1997
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s
Gerhard Schultes , Vehicular Technology Conference Proceedings, May 1990
Jim Wholey , IEEE MTT-S Digest, 1989
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s
Taiwa Lianobu , IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics, Aug. 1992
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s
Hisayasu Sato , IEEE J. SolidState Circuits, Dec. 1996
Geoffrey C. Dawe , IEEE ISSCC, Feb. 1997
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s
Werner Simburger , Reprinted with permission from European Microwave Conference, 1995
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BJT Single Balanced Down Converter(1)

s
Robert G. Meyer , IEEE J. SolidState Circuits, Mar. 1994
Volker Thomas , IEEE ISSCC, Feb. 1994
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BJT Single Balanced Down Converter(2)

s
Keng Leong Fong , IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Aug. 1997
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InP HBT Double Balanced UP Converter

s
Kevin W. Kobayashi , IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Oct. 1994
K.W. Lobayashi , IEEE GaAs IC Symp., 1993
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GaAs UP / Down Converter

s
Yuhki Imai , IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Feb. 1991
- MESFET Unbalanced Down Converter
A. Y. Umeda , IEEE Microwave and Millimeter-wave Monolithic Circuits Symp. 1990

- HBT Double Balanced UP Converter
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RF Mixer

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RF Mixer

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RF Mixer Design

Image Reject Filter

Multipliers, modulators, and mixers, Multiplies signals

Port Return Loss

LNA & Mixer on same package

LO-to-IF & RF-to-IF isolation

Low noise implementation

Vgs = vRF cos( RF t ) + vLO cos( LO t ) + VGS

Common-base driver stage

For ideal switching

Q1, Q2, Q3, & Q4 IT

iC3 = iC6 t iC4 = iC5 t iC1

IC1 iC2 IC2

com. mode diff. mode

VS/2 RS VS/2 + VS/2 = VS

nHigher input impedance than SBM nCapacitive Ze generates negative resistance

MOSFET Double-Balanced Mixer

Switching Efficiency of CMOS DBM

Transfer characteristic of a CMOS differential amplifier

(Square IV) 1 (Linear IV)

Switching efficiency dependence on LO amplitude from numerical calculation

DSB noise figure

Heterodyne Twice as many noise contributor

N a , DSB Si N i Si N i = = = 1+ S o N o 2 S i Ga (2 N i Ga + N a , DSB ) 2Ga N i N a , DSB Si N i Si N i = = = 21 + S o N o S i Ga (2 N i Ga + N a , DSB ) 2Ga N i

Noise less mixer: NFSSB = 3dB and NFDSB = 0dB

The SSB NF is ~ 3dB higher than DSB NF if signal and image

Periodically time-varying statistics

Noise figure simulation

Noise contribution in the ideal switching

4) Thermal noise from load resistors

( 3 + rg 3 g m 3 ) g m 3 + 2 1 G + ( RLO + 2rg1 ) G + 1 / RL = 2+ 3 c c2 gm 3 Rs 2{( 3 + rg 3 g m3 ) g m3 + 2 1 G + ( RLO + 2rg1 ) G } + 1 / RL + 2 3 c c2 gm 3 Rs

Expressions of sine and cosine

Image Reject Mixer

ARF cos( RF t ) + Aim cos( imt )

Image Reject Mixer

Image Reject Mixer

Balun/180-Degree Power Combiner

Balun/180-Degree Power Combiner

Mixer Linearization Technique

Mixer Linearization Technique

Ids gm gm' gm"

Gate-to-Source Voltage [V]

gm' [mA/V2] and gm" [mA/V3]

Ids [mA] and gm [mA/V]

Mixer Linearization Technique

Incremental gain vs. Vin

Mixer Linearization Technique

Mixer Linearization Technique

Incremental gain vs. Vin

Mixer Linearization Technique

Mixer Linearization Technique

- Parallel LC resonance at RF frequency - Area occupied by the inductor - Raytheon patent

- Fraello et al., IEE EL , 1997

- G. Giustolisi , IEEE , 1998

High Conversion-Gain Mixer

- Schmatz et al., GaAs IC Symp. - Current splitting with common-mode feedback

High Conversion-Gain Mixer

MOS SB Down Converter

Mixer Fundamentals & Active Mixer Design

Modulation and Detection

Reasons for modulation

baseband: spectrum near = 0 passband: spectrum near carrier freq. c

Converts baseband signal to passband counterpart Varies certain parameters of carrier

= = + +

= = = + +

For >> , is about 3 dB higher than

= +

+

, , , & : diff switching quad

= + +driver stage + Common-base