CHAPTER 2 COMPACT LINE EXPERIENCE

P. SARMA MARUVADA VERNON L. CHARTIER

Dr. P. Sarma Maruvada has been involved in theoretical and experimental research studies of the corona performance of high-voltage ac and dc transmission lines for over 40 years. He made important contributions to the calculation of conductor surface electric fields, analysis of corona onset phenomena, space charge fields and corona losses of dc transmission lines, analysis and measurement of radio noise and audible noise, and the development of design criteria for radio noise and audible noise of ac and dc transmission lines as well as for electric fields and ion currents in the vicinity of dc lines. He contributed to experimental studies of corona on conductors subject to lightning, switching, and temporary overvoltages and to the modeling and analysis of corona attenuation of overvoltages on transmission lines. Dr. Maruvada presented theoretical and experimental aspects of corona research and analysis, measurement, and design of ac and dc transmission lines in the book Corona Performance of High-Voltage Transmission Lines. He is also the author and co-author of three chapters in the third edition of the EPRI AC Transmission Line Reference Book 200 kV and Above (the Red Book). He served on the Executive Committee of the IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition and as Chairman of CIGR Study Committee 36 on Power System Electromagnetic Compatibility. He is an Honorary Member of CIGR, has been elected Fellow of IEEE, and received the 2003 IEEE Herman Halperin Electric Transmission and Distribution Award. Vernon L. Chartier has conducted pioneering research on all the corona and field effects associated with high-voltage ac and dc transmission lines. At the Westinghouse Electric Corporation from 1963 to 1975, he conducted corona and 60Hz electric field research at the Apple Grove 750-kV Project, which was a joint project of American Electric Power and Westinghouse. During that period, he also conducted research and consulted on corona and electric field phenomena for the electric utility industry. In 1975, he joined the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA), where he was associated with the Lyons 1200-kV Project and managed several high-voltage research projects for BPA to gain a better understanding of the electrical environment

of high-voltage ac and dc lines. When he retired from BPA in 1995 as their Principal Engineer on High Voltage Phenomena, he started a Power System EMC Consulting firm out of his home in Beaverton, Oregon. Over his career Chartier has managed several long-term projects to measure corona and electromagnetic field phenomena on ac lines operating from 12 to 1200 kV and on HVDC lines operating from 400 to 600 kV. His research has been documented in more than 50 technical papers. He is co-author of Chapters 9 (Electromagnetic Interference), 10 (Audible Noise), and 15 (Transmission Lines above 700 kV) of the EPRI AC Transmission Line Reference Book 200 kV and Above, Third Edition (the Red Book). He has played a leading role in the corona and fields work of IEEE, CIGRE, and CISPR. For his contributions, he was elected a Fellow of the IEEE in 1980, received the IEEE Herman Halperin Transmission and Distribution Award in 1995, received the IEEE Third Millennium Medal in 2000, and was inducted into the National Academy of Engineers in 2004.

2.1

INTRODUCTION

Since the publication of the previous edition of the EPRI Blue Book (EPRI 1978), considerable efforts have been dedicated to research studies aimed at obtaining information required for the electrical and mechanical design of compact high-voltage transmission lines. Over the years, a number of new compact lines have been designed and built in different countries around the world, and many existing lines have been upgraded to higher voltages. Section 2.2 summarizes some of the significant research studies carried out in North America and other parts of the world. Section 2.3 describes the experiences of a number of utilities in the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of new as well as upgraded compact transmission lines in the range of 115 to 345 kV. Section 2.4 provides an overview of the various design, operating, and maintenance practices, based on the experiences of the different cases of operating compact lines studied. Finally, Section 2.5 presents highlights of the current status and future needs of research and development as well as of operation of compact transmission lines. 2.2 RESEARCH TO DEVELOP COMPACT DESIGNS

Right-of-way and environmental constraints are probably the main driving forces behind the development of compact overhead high-voltage transmission lines in the range of 110 to 345 kV. Compact line design optimizes the amount of power transmitted in a given corridor while at the same time improving the visual impact. From an electrical point of view, line compaction requires the selection of the shortest air gap clearances and insulator lengths that are consistent with the specified reliability of operation under the expected power frequency, lightning, and switching overvoltages. Available data from air insulation studies may be used to determine the withstand characteristics of phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase air gaps. However, with the introduction of new ceramic and nonceramic insulator technologies, studies are required to evaluate their withstand characteristics under conditions of pollution. Studies may also be necessary to ensure satisfactory corona performance of conductors and hardware at the higher surface gradients caused by reduced clearances. Probably the most important studies required to develop compact line designs are concerned with conductor vibrations and galloping as well as with the mechanical strength and stability of insulator assemblies. In some cases, studies are also required to evaluate the electrical and mechanical strength of interphase insulators used to achieve line compaction. A brief overview is given in this section of the research and development efforts carried out in North America as well as in other parts of the world. 2.2.1 North American Research

The two primary organizations that have conducted compact line research in North America have been Power Technologies, Inc. and Ontario Hydro (now called Hydro One), and their research is discussed below. In addition several utilities have built test and prototype lines for the purpose of studying some of the compactness concepts. The work of Niagara Mohawk (now National Grid) is described here. Power Technologies Inc. (PTI): Malta/Saratoga Test Site In the 1970s, it became apparent that a more concerted effort was warranted to bring extra-high-voltage (EHV) design technology to bear on intermediate-voltage circuits. In 1973, Power Technologies, Inc. (PTI) proposed to an agency of the State of New York
(New York State Atomic and Space Development Authority [ASDA], later renamed the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority) the construction of a half-mile

compact 138-kV transmission line at Saratoga, New York. The line used single wood poles and vertical post insulators and 3-ft phase-to-phase spacing. The line traversed both wooded and open areas, and was as similar in appearance to a distribution line as to a transmission line. The compaction techniques developed and documented in the project illustrated the viability of reducing phase-to-phase spacings in this voltage range. The objective of this project was to investigate all of the things that really limit phase spacing. In the 115-138 kV range, PTI determined that conductor motions due to wind, ice, and fault currents were the most significant. Analytical and experimental studies were conducted to quantify conductor motion as a limiting design variable. Annual reports were written in 1973, 1974, and 1975 (ASDA 1973, 1974, 1975). Two other reports were written by PTI on this project (PTI 1973, 1974). Copies of these reports are available at the New York State Library in Albany. This work became the basis for the EPRI compact line project and the resulting compact line book (EPRI 1978). The 1973 annual report contains the following statement: The choice of 138 kV as the initial design voltage to be explored was considered to be the most significant for New York State. Considerations for the State include areas of dense population, a shortage of rights-of-way, active community interest in ecological and aesthetic problems, and an established distribution network suggesting a potential for uprating to transmission voltages. Community involvement and concern for appearance were already present in 1973. These same conditions apply to many areas in the world beyond New York State. Several unusual (for the time) concepts went into the ASDA study: Wood pole and crossarm construction of an unshielded 138-kV line with post insulators and 3 ft (0.91 m) between phases. Use of a narrow zigzag right-of-way through woods to make the line visually less significant.

PTI constructed a half-mile line to test these concepts. One of the tasks in the 1973 study was a landscaping study and consideration of the narrow right-of-way through a wooded area. The 1974 study continued the discussion of the right-of-way.

By the time EPRI started funding this project and before the publication of the first edition of the EPRI compact line book (EPRI 1978), the narrow right-of-way and zigzag line had ceased to be of interest in favor of designs such as those illustrated in Figure 2.21. A photograph of one of the test lines is given in Figure 2.2-2. The heavy maintenance requirements of the narrow right-of-way and the additional construction and maintenance difficulties of the zigzag line led to their demise. The EPRI compact line research drew heavily on the electrical research previously conducted at EPRI for EHV lines, which was published in the first EPRI reference book on transmission lines (EPRI 1975). Insulation considerations and corona and field effects work were adapted to compact lines and extended as necessary. The greatest area of new research was determined to be in the area of spacing requirements as a consequence of conductor motion resulting from wind, ice, and passage of through fault currents. Consequently the bulk of the experimental compact line research focused on conductor motion. The original compact line book was focused, in a sense, on extreme compactionthat is, what is the smallest line that can be constructed at a given voltage and yet operate satisfactorily. The premise was that the research should explore the limits of compaction and the physical parameters that defined those limits. This approach encouraged subsequent designers to construct high-voltage lines with reduced dimensions compared to those previously used, but not reduced to the extreme envisioned in the book. Subsequent EPRI projects, extended the compact line concept: Project 260-2, Bundled Circuit Design for 115-138 kV Compact Transmission Lines (2 volumes), EPRI EL-1314, February 1980. An appendix to this report contained errata material on the original compact line book. Project 1202-1, Phase-to-Phase Switching Surge Design, Addendum to Transmission Line Reference Book: 115-138 kV Compact Line Design, EPRI EL-1550, Final Report, September 1980. Project 1492, Phase-to-Phase Switching Surge Design, Addendum to Transmission Line Reference Book: 115-138 kV Compact Line Design , EPRI EL-3147, Final Report, June 1983.

With the exception of conductor motion, these reports focused on electrical performance of compact lines rather than mechanical design. Most of the mechanical design considerations, such as structure loading, are the same for all overhead transmission lines and are not unique to compact lines. One of the important features of the compact line research was the emphasis on careful reconsideration of design criteria to ensure adequate performance while not building in excessive conservatism.

Figure 2.2-1 Typical compact configurations.

Figure 2.2-2 Compact 138-kV test line. In 1978, EPRI published the Blue Book using research results from the Malta/Saratoga Project and the most current information available at the time. That book addresses both the electrical and mechanical aspects of compact overhead lines at 115-138 kV and still is the only publication that comprehensively covers the subject of overhead line compaction. Ontario Hydro (now Hydro One) Where the work conducted by PTI covered the voltage range from 115 to138 kV, Ontario Hydro concentrated on compact designs for 230 and 500 kV. In the early 1970s, they recognized that there was a need to cope not only with the problems associated with congested rights-of-way, especially in urban areas, but also with the difficulties in obtaining new rights-of-way. This insight provided the incentive for their compact line research. The objective was to improve the efficiency of land use and to increase the acceptability of overhead lines by reducing their visibility and improving their appearance. Ontario Hydros research emphasized reducing the electrical and galloping clearances and developing aesthetic design concepts for multicircuit lines. The reason for the emphasis on multicircuit lines was to achieve more efficient land use. Ontario Hydro recognized that tower dimensions could be reduced if the spans and conductor tensions were reduced, but at a price. They also recognized that greater compaction could be reached, but there were limits because of insulator requirements and conductor galloping clearances. They estimated that, on a multicircuit 230-kV line with vertical phase arrangement, the vertical interphase spacing could be reduced by more than 50% if galloping could be controlled. And, if the insulator contamination problem could be solved, reductions up to 50% in insulation lengths could be gained. In the fall of 1969, Ontario Hydro set up a special project team to carry out a five-year program of compact line research. For this program, they built special facilities, including: (1) a new high-voltage test station adjacent to Ontario Hydros Kleinburg Transformer Station, (2) a 400-ft (122-m) test line, consisting of one suspension structure and two dead-end structures to test various compact 230- and 500-kV arrangements, (3) a fog and rain chamber for tests of clean and artificially contaminated insulators, and (4) a full-scale outdoor test line to obtain accurate experimental data and to investigate the validity of a new theory on conductor galloping (Nigol et al. 1974a). Photographs of these test facilities can be found in (Cassan and Nigol 1972; Nigol et al. 1974a). Figure 2.2-3 shows a comparison between a conventional Ontario Hydro 230-kV 2circuit structure and conceptual structures that have been reduced in size through control of galloping and through using armless construction and reduced insulation. Ontario Hydro was also considering building compact 230-kV 4-circuit structures (Cassan 1973).

The design with the tapered steel pole has been used by Ontario Hydro and its experience is described in Section 2.3.6.

Figure 2.2-3 Relative sizes of conventional and compact two-circuit 230-kV Structures. A: Conventional lattice structure for 240-m spans; B: Twin steel pole structure for 240-m spans; C. Concrete portal structure for 105-m spans; D: Tapered steel pole structure for 240-m spans. One of the primary techniques that Ontario Hydro considered to reduce insulation was the use of insulators having semiconductive glazes. Researchers believed that, if this technology could be developed, outages due to contamination would essentially disappear, even with reduced insulator-string lengths. They worked with an insulator manufacturer in Ontario to develop an antimony doped, tin oxide semiconductive glaze insulator with deep bell-shaped skirts. Tests conducted at the Kleinburg outdoor site and in a fog chamber in the high-voltage laboratory showed that, for 60-Hz operation, the insulator string length with these semiconductive-glaze bell (SGB) insulators could be reduced to about half the length required for standard insulators (Havard et al. 1991). One of Ontario Hydros major research efforts was aimed at reducing clearances to control galloping. Ontario Hydro conducted experiments on a full-scale test line at Kleinburg, which led to new insights into the fundamental mechanism of galloping conductors, and suggested that under most icing conditions, torsional motion was a key component of the phenomenon. This led to the development of a coulomb friction torsional damper, but the device did not work out due to ingress of dirt into the sliding surfaces. The most promising device that came out of this research was the detuning pendulum, which has been consistently effective. Ontario Hydro has also experimented with using interphase spacers to control galloping (Havard et al. 1991). As part of their compact line research, Ontario Hydro also looked at developing new liveline maintenance techniques to reduce clearance requirements, using armless construction such as horizontal vee insulators, using surge arresters to limit surge voltages, and using trapezoidally stranded conductors to reduce blowout angle and reduce drag coefficients. Niagara Mohawk (now National Grid) As mentioned earlier, some utilities have built test lines to study various compact designs. Three utilities in the United States that built test lines were Puget Power & Light (now called Puget Energy); Otter Tail Power Company; and Niagara Mohawk (now National Grid). The research conducted by Puget Power and Otter Tail resulted in operating lines being built; therefore, the discussion of their work is described later in this chapter in Sections 2.3.1 and 2.3.4. The work conducted by Niagara Mohawk resulted in a few spans being built, but never resulted in full-scale operating lines; therefore, their research is discussed in this section.

In a 1995 paper presented to the ESMO Conference in Columbus, Ohio, Tom Ordon of Niagara Mohawk and Keith Lindsey of Lindsey Manufacturing Co. described a full-scale 115-kV prototype (Ordon and Lindsey 1995). The purpose of that particular paper was to describe efforts by Niagara Mohawk to identify and demonstrate compact designs that would reduce magnetic fields. The concern at that time was that government regulators might impose stringent magnetic field limits, which would restrict power transfer on the companys transmission system and would result in higher costs for wider rights-of-way, or require decreased power ratings for either existing or future lines. They were also concerned about the safety of the work environment for their utility workers; therefore, they were looking for information on field behavior in the vicinity of their transmission facilities and design ideas that would make field management possible. Niagara Mohawk focused on new 115-kV overhead designs that would give much lower ground level fields than the companys conventional horizontal design with a phase spacing of 10.5 ft (3.2 m). The study that was conducted recommended the following design: A compact inverted phase arrangement would be used with a phase-to-phase conductor spacing of 6 ft, 4 in. (1.93 m). Magnetic fields produced by the new design would be 25% of the magnetic fields produced by the standard horizontal design at both normal load and at maximum allowable design load. Radio noise levels generated would be 5 to 10 dB higher than those of the standard design. Audible noise would be negligible. In-span spacers would be used to prevent flashovers due to ice dropping and galloping.

Figure 2.2-4 Proposed Design Compared with Niagara Mohawks Standard Design (Units shown on drawings are English units.) Figure 2.2-4 compares the proposed design with the Niagara Mohawks Standard HFrame Structure. Before a prototype line could be built, Niagara Mohawk determined that this compact line would not lend itself to using standard yoke plates and hardware. A special yoke was designed to accommodate the phase separation. Niagara Mohawk determined that if a line were built using this design, it would be maintained deenergized. But since it was the companys practice to design all new lines for live-line maintenance, holes, notches, or lifting points were built into the yoke plates. Standard suspension insulators were not used for the compact line conductor support assemblies. Instead EHV suspension clamps were used, because they required 30 to 40% less space than the standard assemblies. And, hardware that would permit hot stick maintenance was used. The connecting hardware between the yoke plate and the insulator and between the insulator and the structure depended on the type of insulator being used. Niagara 8

Mohawk chose to use a string of standard clevis-type insulators in each of the three legs of the U string and a composite insulator in each of the two legs of the V string. After Niagara Mohawks Hot Stick Committee reviewed the design, it was recommended that a prototype of the structure should be built. A section of the line consisting of three spans was built at PTIs Schenectady Test Site (see Figures 2.2-5 and 2.2-6). This test line was not energized. After the prototype was built, the Hot Stick Committee determined that personnel should be able to work from the crossarm and that support platforms would make it easier to work from the poles. In order to permit these maintenance procedures and maintain required working clearances, the spacing between the crossarm and the conductor support assembly had to be increased. The pole separation was increased from 16 ft (4.88 m) to 19 ft, 6 in. (5.94 m). The spacing between the crossarm and the conductors was increased from 5 ft (1.52 m) to 11 ft, 2 in. (3.40 m). The prototype at the test site was modified to incorporate these changes. The Hot Stick Committee determined that the insulator assemblies could be replaced using hot-stick techniques. The in-span spacers on this prototype line were three individual polymer interphase spacers. A tool was developed that could be mounted on a hot stick to facilitate its removal and installation. The modified structure was incorporated into a new 115-kV project north of Syracuse, New York; but this design was never used for every structure on any 115-kV line on the Niagara Mohawk system.

Figure 2.2-5 Niagara Mohawk inverted delta structure built at the PTI Schenectady test site. Figure 2.2-6 Close-up of Niagara Mohawk inverted delta structure built at the PTI Schenectady test site.

Before closing this section, it needs to be mentioned that, besides the research previously mentioned, insulator manufacturers in North America were hard at work over the years developing new insulator systems that could be incorporated into compact designs such as nonceramic post and rigid strut insulators (Burnham and Grisham 1994; Sebesta 1978). Also, the electrical and mechanical stresses imposed on composite insulator phase spacers were investigated (Karady et al. 1991). Typical composite insulator phase spacers are shown in Figure 2.2-7. The mechanical strength for these insulators is provided by an epoxy or polyethylene reinforced fiberglass rod, while silicone or EPDM (ethylene propylene diene monomer) rubber weather sheds molded or glued to the rod provide the electrical strength required under conditions of pollution. Special end fittings permit clamping on

to the conductors, and the length of the spacer can be adjusted by an aluminum tube bolted to the insulator. Corona rings are installed at both ends of the spacer to control the electric field distribution. Figure 2.2-7 Composite insulator phase spacer (Karady et al. 1991).

The main conclusions from this study were that wind and ice loading considerations play an important role in selecting the number and type of spacers used in a span and that electrical stresses are significantly higher in phase spacers than in insulators at the tower. Aging of composite insulators is a new problem that may require regular inspection and periodic exchange of phase spacers in polluted environments. 2.2.2 Research Activities in Other Parts of the World

The need for compact transmission lines has been recognized in many countries around the world. Studies required for the development and design of compact lines have been carried out in many European countries and Japan. The emphasis in most of these studies has been on conductor vibrations and galloping as well as on the electrical and mechanical characteristics of insulator assemblies used at the tower and between the phase conductors. At a CIGRE (Conseil International des Grands Rseaux lectriques) Symposium in 1991 (CIGRE 1991),discussions were held on the mechanical aspects of conductors, insulators, and tower structures as well as the electrical and environmental aspects such as air gap clearances, insulators, corona, electric and magnetic fields (EMF), and the visual impact. Although compaction of transmission lines at voltages in the wide range of 66 to 765 kV was considered at the symposium, the emphasis was more on lines in the range of 380 to 500 kV than those at lower voltages. A review of some of the studies on compact lines in the voltage in the range of 110 kV to 345 kV is presented below. Spain In an effort to design a short length (2.34 km) of a 132-kV transmission line, passing through a populated urban area in Spain, with minimum environmental and visual impact and reduced right-of-way width, IBERDUERO, S.A. carried out a study (Albiz et al. 1991) to optimize the line design. Although the electrical design of the line was more or less conventional, some original features were incorporated in the mechanical design of the line: folded-plate type tubular and tapered tower structures; rotary insulating crossheads; and composite insulation. A typical rotary insulating crosshead used on the 132-kV line is shown in Figure 2.2-8. The rotary insulating crosshead is made up of a rigid column insulator placed horizontally working in compression and a tie-bar insulator working in traction, both joined to form an apex, from which the conductor clamp is suspended. The other ends of both insulators are fixed to the support by a universal joint, allowing the crosshead to rotate about an inclined axis. Use of the rotary crosshead contributes to a reduction in the cost of the line.

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Figure 2.2-8

Rotary insulating crosshead (Albiz et al. 1991).

Italy Studies have been carried out at ENEL (Ente Nazionale per l'energia Elettrica), Italy (Giglioli et al. 1991) to determine the limits of compacting transmission lines imposed by conductor movement. Rotating insulating crossarms were used to ensure the maximum effectiveness in compacting. However, the use of such insulating assemblies leads to considerable conductor movements due to wind, unbalanced ice accretion, and shortcircuit stresses, which can cause reduction of phase-to-phase clearances and rotating crossarm instability. Results of these studies were used to determine the reduction of the span length required and conditions under which crossarm instability might occur. Studies have also been carried out (Clerici et al. 1991) to substantially reduce the cost of towers and foundations of compact lines by the use of bidimensional towers having pivoted bases and built with open welded tubes. In an effort to reduce costs, the usual tridimensional fixed tubular poles have been replaced by bidimensional structures that are free to rotate around a transversal axis at the ground level. These structures are capable of withstanding vertical and transversal loads transmitted by the conductors but not the longitudinal loads. The longitudinal loads due to wind, unbalanced ice loads, and broken conductors are transmitted through ground wires to tridimensional towers located at regular intervals (about one in ten towers) and capable of resisting longitudinal loads. France Research studies were carried out in the late 1970s and early 1980s at EDF (lectricit de France), France, to develop methods for the design of compact high-voltage lines at 90 kV (Cochard and Cojan 1981). An experimental line of 1200 m was built to study the feasibility of different techniques for line compaction: the use of prestressed concrete, spun concrete, iron sheet and laminated wood poles, oscillating post insulator crossarms, and insulating spacers. New concepts of compact line design were investigated (Paris et al. 1991) with the efficient use of composite insulators. Good performance of composite insulators under pollution was achieved by providing high leakage path per unit length of insulator, small diameters, and good surface quality. A large variety of high-reliability insulating crossarms was developed for use as line post and horizontal-vee configurations, both rigidly connected to the tower or articulated. Typical configurations of line post and horizontal-vee insulating crossarms are shown in Figure 2.2-9. For both line post and horizontal vee crossarms, the rigid configurations are shown on the left, while the pivoted configurations are shown on the right.

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Figure 2.2-9 Japan

Line post and horizontal vee insulating crossarms (Paris et al. 1991).

Studies have been carried out (Mastuzaki et al. 1991) to investigate galloping of conductors on compact overhead transmission lines and to develop preventive measures. The studies found that phase spacers made of nonceramic insulating material represent the most effective means for dealing with galloping. Because of the inherent flexibility of polymer insulators, vibrations that occur due to galloping are attenuated. Extensive tests were carried out to develop polymeric phase spacers for 66-kV transmission lines. USSR In designing the first 110-kV compact line in the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) (Savvaitov et al. 1991), it was recognized that its reliability greatly depended on taking into account various types of conductor oscillation. Comprehensive studies have, therefore, been carried out on a 110-kV compact line to identify problems of aeolian vibrations and galloping. The results of this study have shown that the line equipped with Stockbridge dampers and interphase insulating spacers is adequately protected against aeolian vibration, conductor swing, and galloping. The line insulation, including suspension and tension strings and inter phase spacers, was made of polymeric materials. 2.3 CASE STUDIES OF COMPACT DESIGN

Economic and aesthetic factors, as well as the possibility of using existing rights-of-way (ROW), are the main driving forces behind the decision to build new and upgraded compact transmission lines. Many transmission lines of compact design in the range of 115 to 345 kV have been built and operated around the world over the past 30 years or so. With the objective of obtaining information on the design and operating experience of compact lines, the authors conducted a preliminary survey of utilities operating compact lines and selected a number of cases for detailed assessment. A survey-type questionnaire (Appendix 2.1) was prepared in order to obtain comprehensive information on all aspects of the selected transmission lines. EPRI solicited participation of the concerned utilities in the survey and distributed the questionnaire to those who agreed to participate. Additional information on the selected lines was obtained through published papers. Information gathered by these different means for the compact or upgraded lines listed below is summarized in this section: Puget Sound Power & Light (now Puget Energy) 230-kV Compact Line Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) 115- to 230-kV Upgrade Utah Power & Light (now part of PacifiCorp) Two New 138kV Compact Lines and Two 230- and 345-kV Upgrades Otter Tail Power Company 41.6- to 115-kV Upgrade Manitoba Hydro 115- to 230-kV Upgrade

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Ontario Hydro (now Hydro One) One New 230-kV Compact Line and One 115- to 230-kV Upgrade Companhia Paranaense de Energia (COPEL) 138- and 230-kV Compact Lines Queensland Electricity Commission (QEC) 275-kV Compact Line Puget Sound Power & Light (now Puget Energy) 230 kV Compact Line

2.3.1

Puget Sound Power & Light (now Puget Energy) was one of the first utilities in North America to take advantage of the research reported in the first edition of the EPRI Blue Book. As described in a paper written by Tom Wale (Wale 1981), Puget Power decided to build two test lines to gain experience with building 115-kV compact lines. Before the test lines were built, a study was conducted to determine the design to be used. The information that made up the basis for the study is shown in Table 2.3-1. Table 2.3-1 Puget Power Design for 115-kV Compact Line Line Length Structures per mile Voltage (Phase to phase) Span Length (Maximum) Conductor Loading Pollution Level Lightning Galloping 5 miles (8.45 km) 17 115 kV 350 ft (107 m) 795 kcmil (45/7) ACSR @ 4500# Design; 1272 kcmil (61) AL @ 5000# design Medium None Not a factor Not a factor

Lightning and galloping were not factors in the 115-kV design because the service area of Puget Power has, on average, fewer than five lightning storm days per year and seldom experiences galloping. The results of their study came up with the criteria shown in Table 2.3-2. Table 2.3-2 Puget Power Criteria for 115-kV Compact Line Insulation Leakage Distance Conductor Clearance Horizontal Phase to ground 18.5-in. (47 cm) Phase to phase 25.5-in. (64.8 cm) Phase to ground 70-in. (177.8 cm) Phase to phase 121-in. (307 cm)

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Vertical

Phase to phase 46.5-in. (118.1 cm)

The study showed that the horizontal post insulator that Puget used at that time with its leakage distance of 68-in. (172.7 cm) was below the 70-in. (177.8 cm) minimum that came from their study (leakage distance of 1 in./kVrms or 2.54 cm/kVrms) The Washington State Code at that time required a phase-to-phase separation of 55 in. (139.7 cm) horizontally and 60 in. (152.4 cm) vertically. Even though this appeared quite large compared to the 25.5 in. (64.8 cm) horizontal and 46.5 in. (118.1 cm) vertical that came from Pugets study, it still allowed significant reduction in Pugets standard spacing. To avoid delays that might occur if variances were requested, Puget decided to build their test lines according to state regulations. About 5300 ft (1616 m) of a 7000 ft (2134 m) line called the Tap to Tillicum Substation was built with the compact structures. Since this is a tap line, a smaller conductor 397.5 ACSR (Chickadee, 0.743-in. (18.9 mm)) was used. The line was built using 55 to 70 ft (16.8 to 21.3 m) poles with a ruling span of 299 ft (91.1 m) and a maximum span of 340 ft (103.6 m) at a design of 3500-lb (1587 kg) medium loading. The 65 and 70 ft (19.8 and 21.3 m) poles had to be used over a treed area, and would not be typical for a compact 115-kV design. The line performed satisfactorily. It did have some radio noise, which was attributed to the smaller conductor. Puget felt the noise was acceptable, but they decided against using conductors smaller than 795 kcmil on subsequent 115-kV compact lines. Figure 2.3-1 shows the horizontal post construction that was used on these lines.

Figure 2.3-1

115-kV compact design using horizontal post construction.

Another 115-kV test line built by Puget Power was about 1500 ft (457 m) in length and overbuilt an existing 12.5 kV feeder. The spans were relatively short (246 ft or 75 m), and the conductor was 1272 kcmil Aluminum (Narcissus), which was strung at 4500-lb (2041 kg) design at medium loading. The tangent poles were 65 ft (19.8 m), Class 2. The line performed satisfactorily, and Puget was unable to detect any radio interference. In the late 1980s, to ensure reliable service in its Northern Division, Puget Power determined that there was a need for a 230-kV line between its Sedro Woolley and March Point Substations, which are approximately 100 miles (161 km) north of Seattle, Washington. The original plans called for the acquisition of a new overland right-of-way, but the public reaction was such that Puget Power decided to minimize the facilitys impact by upgrading existing facilities along franchise rights-of-way rather than acquiring a new corridor. In this case the franchise rights-of-way were public roads. To minimize the ground level electric and magnetic fields, the compact design in Figure 2.32 was built. This design overbuilt an existing 12.5-kV distribution line. As constructed, the line is approximately 23 miles (37 km), with about 80% of its length having a 12.5kV underbuild.

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Before the operating 230-kV line was built, Puget Power in 1989 built a four-span 230kV compact test line near their Sedro Woolley substation. Nonceramic post insulators were designed to support either a single conductor or a two-conductor bundle using a horizontal line configuration (HPA), as shown in Figure 2.3-2. Figure 2.3-2 has a distribution underbuild, which was not on the test line, but is shown later on the compact 230-kV line that Puget Power eventually built. The conductors were clamped directly to the insulators without corona rings. It was quite apparent that the insulator assembly was unacceptable due to objectionable audible noise (AN) levels and nighttime visible corona on the clamp. This issue resulted in laboratory testing of the insulator assemblies in the High-Voltage Laboratory of the Bonneville Power Administration in Vancouver, Washington (Blair 1988).

Figure 2.3-2

230-kV HPA structure (units in drawing are English).

Because compactness increases the electric field at the surface of the conductors, insulators, and hardware, Puget Power was torn between using a single conductor and a two-conductor bundle for this line, mainly because of the possibility of AN complaints from the public living near this line during the long, rainy periods that occur on the west side of the Cascade Mountains in the northwest part of the United States. At that time there had been no long-term measurements of either AN or radio interference (RI) on compact lines; therefore, there was some concern as to the validity of the existing AN and RI prediction techniques, which had been developed primarily for lines operating at or above 345 kV with multiple subconductors and normal phase spacing. As mentioned earlier, the utility was also concerned about excessive corona on the end of the clamp of the post insulator. At the time that Puget Power was designing this line, there were no standards for corona testing of hardware in high-voltage laboratories. The most commonly used procedure that evolved over the years was to place a single-phase version of the hardware to be tested with its appropriate insulators and conductor(s) 12 ft (3.65 m) above the floor in an HV laboratory. The length of the conductor is around 30 ft (9.1 m), and the test voltage is usually 10 to 20% above the minimum line-to-ground voltage. For some utilities, the hardware passes the test if they are corona free at the test voltage. Other utilities require the insulator assemblies to pass both a radio interference voltage (RIV) test and a visible corona test. Puget Power, working with Bonneville Power Engineers, determined that this test was inadequate for a compact design because if did not properly model the electric field that the surface of the hardware would see on the three-phase compact line. The hardware was tested in the BPA HV laboratory using the procedure described in Appendix 7.1 of Chapter 7. From this test it was determined that a corona ring needed to be added to the line post insulator to prevent excessive corona, along with a trunnion donut washer on the bolt, as can be seen in Figure 2.3-3. Eleven insulators and associated hardware were tested in tangent, angle, and dead end configurations. All samples except on suspension insulator, one suspension clamp, and one line splicemet the

15

required corona inception levels at the required test voltage after additional corona shielding was added (Blair 1988). These solutions have been very effective as the insulator assemblies on the operating line have been very quiet.

Figure 2.3-3

Line post insulator with corona ring and trunnion washer.

Puget Power was required to meet the Washington State Noise Code, which is described in Chapter 7 of this book. That noise code, like most noise codes, has both daytime and nighttime limits. Since transmission lines operate all of the time, and rain can occur any time during a 24-hr. day, utilities in the State of Washington are required to design their lines to meet the nighttime limit during rainy periods. BPA, working with the Department of Ecology, determined that the nighttime limit at the edge of the right-of-way should be 50 dBA. Puget Power, however, chose to design the Sedro Woolley to March Point line to meet the most stringent part of the Washington Noise Code, or 45 dBA at nighttime. This 45 dBA limit is a median value during any one-hour period. These values may be exceeded during the one-hour period for brief periods of time, as shown in Chapter 7. By using the BPA AN formula, Puget Power determined that 45 dBA at the edge of the franchise corridor could be met by using a single Narcissus (1.300-in. or 33 mm) conductor, and that the 40 dBA level could be met by using two Chickadee (0.743-in. or 18.9 mm) conductors. The portion of the line from the Sedro Woolley Switching Station to the Fredonia Generating Station Tap was 16.6 miles (26.7 km) long, and it used two 397.5 ACSR conductors per phase. From the Fredonia tap to the March Point Switching Station, the line is 6.2 miles (9.98 km) long, and it uses one 1272 AAC conductor per phase. Pugets standard minimum clearance for 230-kV lines is 30 ft (9.1 m) minimum at 100C (without underbuild). After the line was built, Puget Power and BPA conducted long-term AN and RI measurements on one span of this compact line that has the single Narcissus conductor. The measured L50 AN level at 14 m from centerline was 45.5 dBA during measurable rain, whereas the predicted AN level was 45.1 dBA according to the BPA formula and 44.5 dBA according to the EPRI formula. However, the measured L 50 RI levels at 15 m from centerline during measurable rain (51.0 dBV/m), and during fair weather (39.0 dBV/m) were 6-10 dB less than the levels predicted by the BPA, EPRI, and Washington State University (WSU) formulas. The reason for this difference is not clear, but it could be due to the fact that only about 6 miles (9.65 km) of the line uses the single conductor. Figure 2.3-4 is a photograph of one of the structures with the single Narcissus conductor. Also shown in this photograph are the loop antenna and all-weather microphone that were used to make the long-term AN and RI measurements. Figure 2.3-5 is a photograph of a section of the line that uses the two-conductor bundle.

Figure 2.3-4

Compact 230-kV structure with single conductor.

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Figure 2.3-5

Compact 230-kV structure with two-conductor bundle.

This line has performed quite well, except for a couple of problems that were easily resolved. Before this line was built, Puget Power had a Narcissus conductor strung on wood poles along one section of the road where part of the 230-kV line was to be built. This conductor had been exposed to the environment without being energized for several years. Puget Power decided to make use of this conductor on the new 230-kV compact line. After the line was energized, the sections of the line that had this particular conductor were audibly noisy. A close investigation of the conductor showed that it was covered with moss that over the years had grown on the unenergized conductor. Over time, the moss would have been burnt off by the corona, but Puget Power chose to replace the conductor. Puget has not received any AN complaints or electromagnetic interference (EMI) complaints caused by the corona from this line. They had a single television interference (TVI) complaint, but that was due to a corona ring being mounted improperly. The corona ring was clamped to the polyethylene portion of the post insulator instead of the metal part. That created a gap discharge between the ring and the metal part of the insulator. This mistake was easily corrected. The line has had a few outages, but none of them was due to lightning or contamination. Some outages were unexplained. Others were caused by windstorms. For example, during one windstorm, the 230-kV line fell into an adjacent 115-kV line. In another case, wind blew limbs into the line, and in another case, severe high winds flipped the underbuilt distribution line into the 230-kV line. Puget is considering removing this underbuild. Puget Power does not use any live-line maintenance techniques to maintain this line. They also have no near future plans to build additional 115- or 230-kV compact lines. 2.3.2 Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) 115- to 230-kV Upgrade

The Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) has a single line that was upgraded from 115 to 230 kV. This line is 26.8 miles (43.1 km) in length and was selected for upgrade because it was less costly than new construction, the right-of-way width was adequate, and it met BPAs schedule. The line was built in a corridor parallel to an existing 230-kV line. The right-of-way width for the entire corridor is 225 ft (68.6 m) with a 100 ft. (30.5 m) edge distance. At the time BPA answered the questionnaire, they said that they had no plans to build any new compact lines or any plans to upgrade any additional existing lines. This line was upgraded in about 1980. The majority of the wood poles for this line are the original 1966 poles from the 115-kV line. The upgrade of this line was pretty straightforward. The original line was a typical Hframe structure using wood poles and I-strings. The line was upgraded to 230 kV by

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changing the six unit (5-3/4 x 10 in., or 14.6 x 25.4 cm ceramic insulators) I-strings on the outside phases to nine units. Based upon the drawing, the contractor was expected to reuse existing material where possible and economically feasible. The center phase was converted from a six unit I-string to a V-string, where each leg of the V-sting has nine units. The V-string prevented conductor movement for the center phase, and strut insulators were added to the I-strings on the outside phases to constrain the conductors. Of course, new hardware had to be used to mount the conductor to the V-string and to the strut insulator. The normal phase spacing for a 230-kV line in a horizontal configuration at BPA is 20 ft (6.1 m). The phase spacing on the original 115-kV structure was 12 ft (3.66 m), which was retained for the upgraded 230-kV structure. Table 2.3-3 shows a comparison of the original 115-kV design with the upgraded design. It is important to note that the right-of-way width, the phase conductor, the overhead ground wire conductor, the phase spacing, and the original structures were all retained. Table 2.3-3 Features of Original 115-kV and Upgraded 230-kV Line Right-of-way width Conductor Conductor diameter Insulators Number of units per sting Structure Phase spacing Overhead ground wire spacing Overhead ground wire* Original 115-kV Line 100 ft (30.5 m) Dove ACSR (557 kcm) 0.927-in.(2.35 cm) I-Strings, all 3 phases 6 (5-3/4 x 10 in. ceramic) (14.6 x 25.4 cm) H-Frame, wood poles 12 ft (3.66 m) 12 ft (3.66 m) Upgraded 230-kV Line 100 ft (30.5 m) Dove ACSR (557 kcm) 0.927-in. (2.35 cm) V-String, Center Phase Strut, Outer Phases 9 (5-3/4 x 10 in. ceramic) (14.6 x 25.4 cm) H-Frame, wood poles 12 ft (3.66 m) 12 ft (3.66 m)

3/8 in. (0.952 cm) HS 3/8 in. (0.952 cm) HS Steel Steel Altitude Sea level to 2000 ft Sea level to 2000 ft Majority between 500 ft Majority between 500 ft (150 (150 m) m) and 700 ft (213 m) and 700 ft (213 m) Isokeraunic level (IKL) 4 4 Length of line 26.8 miles (43.1 km) 26.8 miles (43.1 km) Ground resistance 20 ohms or less, typical 20 ohms or less, typical Terrain Rolling Rolling Weather conditions Rain with some snow Rain with some snow *Because of the low IKL, the overhead ground wires are extended only 0.5 miles (0.804 km) from each substation. The rest of the line has no overhead ground wires. Figure 2.3-6 shows a drawing of the upgraded structure. In designing this line, BPA used standard design considerations to control overvoltages. They did not replace any of the 18

crossarms with insulating crossarms, nor did they use interphase insulators. They also have not used any line arresters. The grounding system consists of structure bonding and counterpoise in the ground-wire sections. Standard design criteria based on soil conditions are used as for other lines of similar voltage. The conductor is somewhat small for this voltage, but BPA has not received any EMI or AN complaints. Ground-level electric and magnetic fields were not an issue in the design of this line. The line has one transposition to allow for proper phasing into an intermediate substation.

Figure 2.3-6 Upgraded 230-kV structure. Conductor motion on this line is controlled using tension limits and vibration damping. BPA uses these standard loading criteria for their wood pole structures: Case A: High Wind and no ice (0-25-0); Case B1: Wind and rime ice (2R-4-0); Case B2: Wind and ice (1-4-0); Case D: NESC (National Electrical Safety Code) Medium (0.25-4-15); Case E: Static residual, broken phase (0-0-30); and Case ED: Every day conditions (0-0-30). A combination of dead end and suspension structures were used, depending upon terrain conditions and economics. The poles had a standard embedment of 10% of the length + 2 ft (0.61 m). BPAs experience with this line has been very good. They have not had any unusual failures with any of the original insulators, hardware, etc. They have had some outages due to lightning strikes and vegetation issues. But none of these outages has been responsible for any redesigns. Because of the compactness, wood pole fires can be a concern due to the high electric fields, but this line has had no wood pole fires.

2.3.3

Utah Power & Light (now part of PacifiCorp) 138-kV Compact Line and 345-kV Upgrade

PacifiCorp submitted the following four designs that they consider compact: 46/138-kV starburst lines: This line is shown on the cover of the original Blue Book. At that time Utah Power & Light (UP&L) (now PacifiCorp) was considering upgrading their subtransmission voltage in the Ogden-Salt Lake CityProvo area from 46 to 138 kV. During this period the supervisor of the utilitys transmission department served on the EPRI Advisory Committee for compact line research. Based on the EPRI research, he decided to implement this design with the belief that it would be more aesthetically acceptable to the community. He also had a desire to implement this research. Some lines were initially operated at 46 kV with plans to later operate them at 138 kV. Other new lines or sections were initially energized at 138 kV. There are 12 line sections for a total of 45.3 circuit miles (72.9 km).

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46/138-kV horizontal post insulator lines: The aesthetics of the starburst design did not offset the disadvantages of using nonstandard hardware/insulators and a reduction in the maximum allowable mechanical loading. Thus, the starburst design was eventually replaced with the more conventional post insulator design. There are three line sections for a total of 2.5 circuit miles (4.0 km). This design is a variation of the Starburst design; however, it is stronger and uses less costly standard hardware. 345-kV line design A: The backbone transmission voltage of Pacificorp was upgraded from 230 to 345 kV; and the utility felt that it was desirable to use the existing structures and right-of-way (ROW) as much as possible. There is one line using this design totaling 115 circuit miles (185 km). The design of this upgrade was based on an insulation study conducted by General Electric and the applicable NESC code at that time. The latest NESC code would not allow these reduced clearances. 345-kV line design B: This is a double-circuit line that was upgraded from 230 to 345 kV in a suburban area by replacing the lattice steel tower top with a design that would handle 345 kV. It was desirable to use the existing structures and ROW as much as possible due to rate base issues as well as permitting issues in a suburban area. There is a single one of these double-circuit lines totaling 45.3 circuit miles (72.9 km). This design was instigated based on detailed structural studies, and it was assumed that if the same insulation clearances were maintained as that used on other existing 345-kV lines, the electrical performance would be acceptable. High-voltage corona test were made on the insulator hardware assemblies, but no conductor corona studies were performed on this design.

138-kV Compact Line The 138-kV Starburst design and the 138-kV Horizontal Post Insulator design can be seen in Figures 2.3-7 and 2.3-8, respectively.

Figure 2.3-7 138-kV Starburst design.

Figure 2.3-8 138-kV Horizontal Post Insulator design with 6-ft vertical phase spacing. Table 2.3-4 compares the Starburst and Horizontal Post Insulator designs. This table shows that the design parameters of the two designs are relatively similar. The main difference is that the Starburst design has the top and bottom phase insulators at an angle, whereas the Horizontal Post Insulator design uses horizontal post insulators on all phases. UP&L felt the aesthetics of these particular compact designs would make them more acceptable to the public. However, since these 138-kV lines were built from 13 to 30

20

years ago when there was less opposition to power lines, no out of the ordinary permitting problems occurred. In the selection of the insulation clearances, conductor motions such as aeolian vibration, ice galloping, ice shedding, differential conductor motion, and magnetic forces were considered, but did not influence the design since the urban/suburban line location limited maximum span lengths to about 300 ft. For the 46/138 kV line designs, the only motion control that was applied was to select conductor tensions to minimize the effects of aeolian vibration. In designing the tower structures for wind and ice loading, UP&L used the NESC medium loading with a 90 mph wind for both designs. Table 2.3-4 Comparison of 138-kV Starburst and Post Insulator Designs Voltage Circuit miles Right-of-way width Phase-to-ground clearance Phase-to-phase clearance Minimum phase wire height Mean phase wire height Conductor Conductor diameter Conductor selection criteria Insulators Insulating cross arms Interphase spacers Structure Foundation Overhead ground wire Overhead ground wire* Altitude Isokeraunic level (IKL) Grounding system Ground resistance Terrain Weather conditions Pollution criteria Lightning outage criteria Starburst 138 kV (Double Circuit) 12 line sections total 45.3 miles (72.9 km) 50 60 ft (15.2 18.2 m) 4.1 ft (1.25 m) 6.0 ft (1.83 m) 25 ft @ 200F** 7.62 m @93.3C 28 ft @ 200F** 8.53 m @93.3C Single Tern ACSR (795 kcm) 1.063-in. (2.70 cm) Thermal OB Polymer Post or Lapp Porcelain Post none none Single wood pole Wood pole Single wire* 3/8 in. (0.95 cm) EHS Steel 4200-4300 ft (1280-1310 m) 25-30 Butt wraps with butt plates 15-20 ohms Urban, generally flat Rocky Mountain weather Light unknown Post Insulator 138 kV (Double Circuit) 3 line sections total 2.5 miles (4.0 km) 50 60 ft (15.2 18.2 m) 4 ft. 6-1/4-in. (1.38 m) 6.0 ft. (1.83 m) 25 ft @ 2000F** 7.62 @93.3C 28 ft @ 200F** 8.53 m @93.3C Single Tern ACSR (795 kcm) 1.063-in. (2.70 cm) Thermal Lapp Porcelain Post none none Single wood pole Wood pole Single wire* 3/8 in. (0.95 cm) EHS Steel 4200-4300 ft (1280-1310 m) 25-30 Butt wraps with butt plates 15-20 ohms Urban, generally flat Rocky Mountain weather Light unknown

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Line surge arresters None Construction method Conventional *Some sections do not have an overhead shield wire ** Heights are higher on structures with distribution underbuild.

None Conventional

UP&Ls experience with these 138-kV compact designs has been good. If the spans are too long, then these designs have experienced some phase-to-phase outages in high winds. As was mentioned before, the Starburst design is not being built anymore, and neither is the Horizontal Post Insulator design because of UP&Ls desire to have greater vertical spacing (10 ft or 3.05 m vertical) to allow for better maintenance flexibility. However, UP&L has plans to operate some of their existing 46-kV lines with these designs at 138 kV by replacing insulators or increasing voltage on the line sections that have existing 138-kV insulators. None of the original insulators or hardware has failed, and no outages have resulted in any redesigns. These lines are protected with standard protection schemes with no single-pole reclosing. UP&L has not received any RI, TVI, AN, or EMF complaints from the public who live near these 138-kV lines, with the possible exception of a few RI/TVI complaints due to loose hardware. Such complaints are resolved by identifying the noise source and correcting it. UP&L inspects these lines on a two-year cycle using ground vehicles or helicopters. Detailed ground inspection is conducted on a five-year cycle. These lines are generally maintained de-energized because there is not enough clearance for all hot stick maintenance procedures, which is the reason why future 138-kV designs using the horizontal post insulators will have 10 ft (3.05 m) vertical clearances. Both of these 138-kV designs use wood poles. UP&L has not experienced any wood pole fires with either line. The wood poles are maintained by using typical methods including MITC (methylisothiocyanate) and butt wrap.

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345-kV Upgrade The 230/345-kV single-circuit wood pole upgraded line is shown in Figure 2.3-9.

Figure 2.3-9

230/345-kV upgraded wood pole line next to conventional 345-kV line.

The double-circuit 230-kV structure prior to and after conversion to 345 kV is shown in Figures 2.3-10 and 2.3-11, respectively.

Figure 2.3-10

230-kV structure prior to conversion.

Figure 2.3-11

345-kV design after conversion from 230 kV.

Table 2.3-5 is a comparison of these two upgraded lines. The design of the 345-kV wood pole line that was upgraded from 230 kV was based on an insulation coordination study conducted by General Electric and the applicable National Electric Safety Code (NESC) at the time that the upgrade was made. Those clearances would not be allowed under the latest NESC code. For the double-circuit 230-kV line that was upgraded to 345 kV, detailed structural studies were done, and it was assumed that, if the same insulation distance was maintained as used on other existing 345 kV lines, the electrical performance would be acceptable. Corona effects studies were conducted on the singlecircuit wood pole design, but not on the double-circuit design. Bundling was used to control corona, and as can be seen in Figures 2.3-9 and 2.3-11, UP&L used a vertical two-conductor bundle rather than a horizontal two-conductor bundle. Unlike the horizontal bundle, the vertical bundle does not require spacers.

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Table 2.3-5 Comparison of Upgraded 230/345-kV Structures Wood Pole Single Circuit 345 kV Modified K Frame (Wood) Single line, 115 miles (185 km) 135 ft (41.1 m) 7 ft 2-1/4 in. (2.19 m) (15 std. insul.) 8 ft 1-3/4 in. (2.48 m) (17 std. insul.) About 23 ft (7.0 m) 30 ft (9.1 m) @ 120F (48.9C) 35 ft (10.7 m) @ 120F (48.9C) 2-1272 Bittern ACSR 2-795 Tern ACSR 1.345-in. (3.42 cm) 1.063-in. (2.70 cm) Thermal & RI/AN 15 or 17 std 5-3/4 x 10 in. (14.6 x 25.4 cm) porcelain (I-string)** No Modified K frame (wood) Wood pole Two wires 3/8 in. (0.95 cm) EHS steel 7 strand 4500-5800 ft (1370-1770 m) 25-30 Butt wraps with butt plates Max. 15 ohms Remote, rural farming, vacant, BLM and Forest Service Land with a few mountain areas Rocky Mountain weather Light Lattice Steel Double Circuit 345 kV Lattice Steel Single line, 45.3 miles (72.9 km) 120 ft (36.6 m) min. 8 ft 7-1/2 in.(2.63 m) (vertical) 10 ft (3.05 m) - (horizontal) 20 ft 7-3/8-in.(6.28 m) (vertical) 32 ft (9.75 m) @ 200F (93.3C) 39 ft (11.9 m) @ 200F (93.3C) 2-1272 Bittern ACSR 1.345-in. (3.42 cm) Thermal & RI/AN Horiz. V with 18 5 x 10 in. (14.6 x 25.4 cm) insulators in tension Yes Lattice steel Concrete pier Two wires 3/8 in. (0.95 cm) EHS Steel 7 strand 4200-4300 ft (1280-1310 m) 25-30 Tower foundation Abt. 5 ohms Urban area, generally flat

Voltage Structure Circuit miles Right-of-way width Phase-to-ground clearance

Phase-to-phase clearance Minimum phase wire height Mean phase wire height Conductor Conductor diameter Conductor selection criteria Insulators Insulating cross arms Structure Foundation Overhead ground wire Overhead ground wire* Altitude Isokeraunic level (IKL) Grounding system Ground resistance Terrain

Weather conditions Pollution criteria

Rocky Mountain weather Light

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Lightning outage criteria 1 per 100 miles (161 km)/yr 1 per 100 miles (161 km)/yr Line surge arresters None None Construction method Conventional Conventional *Some sections do not have an overhead shield wire. ** Line has 800 modified K-frame towers. Each tower has either 15 or 17 insulators randomly distributed along the line in about equal number Line routing was not an issue in the wood pole upgrade, because it was an existing line on an existing right-of-way, and therefore had minimal effects on routing and aesthetics. The double-circuit line was in a suburban area, and it was highly desirable to upgrade an existing line, as obtaining a new line route in this area would have been difficult. The lines could have been totally rebuilt in these same locations, but rate base issues made this unattractive. These lines were built from 13 to 30 years ago when there was less opposition to power lines; therefore, no out of the ordinary permitting problems occurred, and there was not any strong opposition to these lines. To control switching surge overvoltages on these 345-kV lines, pre-insertion resistors were used in the breakers. The wood pole line has a single transposition; however, no attempt was made to balance the line. At that time the company policy was to place a transposition in a line every 50-70 miles (80-113 km). Even though there was a single transposition, this policy was felt to be necessary to manage negative sequence current at the generators. The double-circuit lattice steel line has no transpositions. As can be seen from the photographs, these lines use a two-conductor bundle where the conductors are oriented vertically. Vertical orientation is preferred over horizontal orientation for two reasons. Wake-induced vibration, which has been seen on horizontal orientation, does not exist if the conductors are oriented vertically, and the bundle does not require spacers. To control aeolian vibration on these lines, vibration dampers were used. The wood pole line was designed for NESC heavy loading for 70% of the line routes. Various special ice and wind loadings were also used, depending on the location along the route. Up to an equivalent of 2.2 in. (5.6 cm) of solid radial ice and 12.3 lb (90.7 kg) wind at 0F (-17.8C) was used for line design. The double-circuit steel lattice line was designed for the worst-case NESC heavy or light loading condition. The performance of both of these 345-kV uprated lines has been good. The insulators have had no mechanical failures. As far as outages are concerned, UP&L has not kept track of the individual outages for these lines. In general the outage rate for the wood pole line has been about 1.7 outages/100 miles (161 km)/yr with few storm and explained outages. Figure 2.3-9 shows a steel lattice H-frame 345-kV line parallel to the wood pole line. This line has 18 insulators in each one of the V-strings. In a discussion of an IEEE paper (Jaffa 1984), Kent Jaffa mentioned that this lattice steel line with more insulators at that time had had more outages than the wood pole line. During the first two years of operation, it had 19.9 and 17.3 unexplained outages per 100 miles (161 km)/year. The cause was unknown, but bird excretion appeared to be a logical explanation. During the summer of 1982, bird discouragers were installed on a 5-mile (8.0 km) section of this line, which was near a small reservoir where birds accumulated. In 1983, the unexplained

25

outages dropped to 8.6. At that time it was postulated that V-strings offer a larger target for birds than I-strings. The wood pole 345-kV line is in a generally unoccupied area; therefore, there has been no RI, TVI, AN, or EMF complaints. The double-circuit 345-kV line is in an urban area where radio and TV signal strengths are quite strong, and there have been very few complaints, which is also true for AN. The electric and magnetic fields from the doublecircuit line were kept as low as possible using low-reactance phasing of the conductors. When loose hardware causes RI/TVI problems, a technician is sent out to identify the structures causing the problems, and any loose hardware or ground wire staples are tightened or corrected. These lines are inspected on an annual basis either by helicopter or by vehicle as well as by ground inspection. As far as the maintenance of these two 345-kV lines is concerned, hot stick live-line maintenance is used if the lines cannot be de-energized. UP&L at present does not use bare hand methods on any of their lines. To prevent wood pole fires on the 345-kV wood pole line, UP&L installed an additional ground wire and additional nails and ground wire clips at the time of conversion. The wood poles are maintained using typical methods including MITC and butt wrap. 2.3.4 Otter Tail Power Company 41.6- to 115-kV Upgrade

In a 1981 IEEE paper, the Otter Tail Power Company, whose headquarters are in Fergus Falls, Minnesota, reported on work that they had conducted to determine the feasibility of uprating 41.6-kV subtransmission to 115-kV transmission with minor modifications (Broschat and Clayton 1981). At that time Otter Tail had an extensive 41.6-kV network, which totaled about 4200 miles (6760 km), and many of the lines were becoming overloaded. They determined that their company could save a lot of money if those lines could be uprated to 115 kV with minor modifications rather than overbuild them with new 115 kV lines; and any new 115-kV line would generally follow the same route as some of the existing 41.6-kV lines. To gain operating experience, Otter Tail constructed a test line near Fergus Falls, Minnesota. The test line tapped an existing 115-kV line and was about three-fourths of a mile in length. Figure 2.3-12 shows one of the structures in the test section. The only difference between this 115-kV structure and the 41.6-kV structure on the operating system is that (1) the 35-kV post insulators were replaced by 88-kV vertical post insulators; (2) a heavier pole-top bracket was used on the center phase; and (3) midspan spacers were installed as required. The average pole size was a 40-ft (12.2-m) class 4 wood pole. The single crossarm used on the 41.6-kV structure was also used on the structures on the test line. Its dimensions were 4 in. x 5 in. by 8 ft (10.2 cm x 12.7 cm x 20.4 m). The phase spacing was 7-ft (2.13 m) delta. The test line was energized on October 20, 1976 and was operated for at least four years. The first conductor used on the test line was a 3/0 ACSR 6/1, whose diameter is only 0.502 in. (1.28 cm). Otter Tail had a lot of experience with this conductor and wanted to see how it would perform at 115 kV. To determine if the EMI from this small conductor was excessive, Otter Tail

26

conducted several measurements with the line on and off using a spectrum analyzer. These tests seemed to indicate that the EMI was not excessive; but the high surface gradient on such a small conductor gave them some concern, and they decided to restrict the use of this conductor. Otter Tail had determined that if the conductor on existing 41.6-kV lines did not have to be replaced, the uprating cost would be approximately onethird the cost of building a new 115-kV line on a new right-of-way. If the conductor had to be replaced, the uprating cost obviously would be somewhat higher.

Figure 2.3-12 115-kV uprated structure. Otter Tail has had experience using midspan spacers to control galloping on their 41.6kV system, because galloping conductors have been a major cause of trip-outs and outages on the Otter Tail system during winter months. Two spacer designs were installed for the test line. The first one was an all-epoxy spacer designed for 69 kV. The second was a fiberglass rod with a 35-kV, F-neck, polyethylene, pin-type insulator screwed on each end. These insulators were installed with preformed ties, and both designs were installed on the test line, as seen in Figure 2.3-13. At the time Otter Tail wrote their 1981 paper (Broschat and Clayton 1981), the spacers had performed without any trouble.

Figure 2.3-13 Midspan spacers used on test line. Otter Tail also looked at ground clearances as required by the 1977 Edition of the National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) and determined that 30% of the spans on a typical 41.6-kV line would not have enough clearance if operated at 115 kV with a conductor temperature of 120F (48.9C). They felt that the deficit could be made up by raising the crossarms 2 ft (0.61 m) and compacting the phase spacing. As a part of their compact line research, Otter Tail conducted insulation studies at 60 Hz for contamination, switching surge, and lightning. Figure 2.3-14 shows the four insulation systems that were considered for the compact line. Options 1 and 2 utilized the existing 8-ft (2.44 m) crossarm with midspan spacers. Option 2 is the same as option 1, except the crossarm is raised 2 ft (0.61 m) to accommodate NESC. Options 3 and 4 have 10-ft (3.05 m) crossarms, a shorter pole top bracket and do not use midspan spacers.

Figure 2.3-14 Four optional insulation systems studied by Otter Tail. Otter Tail studied the contamination performance of their existing 41.6-kV and 230-kV lines, which have had very few outages due to contamination. The criterion of performance in the switching surge area was to determine the probability of flashover

27

(PFO) per switching operation. Since there would be no high-speed reclosing on these uprated lines, all operations would be in the energizing mode (no trapped charge). From this reasoning, a PFO of 0.001, or one flashover per 1000 operations, was chosen as the criterion for any uprated lines on the Otter Tail system. A computer program was used to predict the lightning performance of Option 2, which has the lowest insulation level. Using an isokeraunic level of 30, the computer program predicted an outage rate of 11.36 outages/100 miles (161 km) per year, which is greater than the outage rate of 1/100 miles/year assumed for most EHV lines. But, since the Otter Tail 41.6-kV lines have no shield wire, and the plans were not to provide shield wires for the uprated 115-kV lines, a higher outage rate would be expected. Otter Tail felt at that time the higher outage rates were more tolerable on distribution and subtransmission lines than EHV lines. Otter Tail also looked at the audible noise and electrostatic effects of the design used on the test line, but it appears that the company had difficulty making meaningful audible noise measurements because the low levels from the line were masked by background noise. Using the 1975 edition of the EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book (Red Book), Otter Tail determined that, even with the largest vehicle anticipated on a rightof-way for an uprated 115-kV line, the induced short-circuit current would be much less than the 5 mA criteria in the NESC. As a result of their research, Otter Tail uprated about 180 miles (290 km) of their 41.6-kV lines to 115 kV, mostly using Option 3. Table 2.3-6 compares the original 41.6-kV structure with the 115-kV structure most commonly used on this uprated system.

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Table 2.3-6 Comparison of Upgraded 115-kV Line and original 41.6-kV Line Voltage Right-of-way width Structure type Average pole size Single crossarm Phase spacing Conductors Conductor diameter Insulation 115-kV Upgrade 115 kV Built on edge of public road with additional 5 ft (1.5 m) strip Single wood pole 40-ft (12.2 m) class 4 10-ft (3.05 m) crossarm Mostly using spacing shown in Option 3 3/0 ACSR 6/1 to 477 MCM all-alum. 19 strand 0.502-in. (1.28 cm) to 0.793-in. (2.01 cm) 88-kV vertical post insulator; midspan spacers where needed none 300 ft (91.4 m) 20.5 ft (6.25 m) (NESC) 41.6-kV Line 41.6 kV Built on edge of public road with additional 5 ft (1.5 m) strip Single wood pole 40-ft (12.2 m) class 4 8-ft (2.44 m) crossarm 7 ft (2.13 m) delta Range of 1/0 ACSR 6/1 to 477 MCM all-alum.19 strand 0.398-in. (1.01 cm) to 0.793-in. (2.01 cm) 35-kV post-type insulators

Shield wires None Ruling span 300 ft (91.4 m) Minimum phase wire height Altitude 960 1500 ft (293 - 457 m) 960 1500 ft (293 - 457 m) Isokeraunic level (IKL) 30 30 Grounding system None None Ground resistance 20-25 20-25 Terrain Rolling Rolling Weather conditions Upper Midwest weather Upper Midwest weather Pollution criteria Light Light Lightning outage criteria 11.36/100 miles/yr at first* Line surge arresters None at first** None *Based on Option 2. **Line surge arresters were installed on every third pole on the center phase beginning in 1991. As they gained experience with this compact 115-kV design, Otter Tail has had to make many modifications. Eventually, the outages due to lightning became unacceptable to their customers. Based upon breaker operation data, Otter Tail determined that the 180 miles (290 km) of uprated lines had a nine-year average of 20.6 breaker operations or 11.4 operations per 100 miles/yr. These were mostly weather (storms)-related outages and do not include outages due to galloping or equipment failure. To reduce these outages over the years, Otter Tail has added shield wires and line arresters in some sections to improve the outage performance. They also embarked on an aggressive 29

vegetation management program. A bayonet was used to mount the shield wires, as can be seen in Figure 2.3-15. To prevent possible raptor-caused outages, a deterrent device was mounted on the bayonet to discourage perching between the bayonet and the adjacent conductor. The bayonet mounting bolts on the opposite sides of the pole were covered to prevent possible raptor wing-to-wing contact between the conductor and the grounded bolts. The top of the bayonet is 1 ft (0.305 m) off of centerline to limit accumulation of bird droppings on the top phase insulator. A wire-type bird discourager was installed on the top of the bayonet also to limit accumulation of bird droppings. Figure 2.3-16 shows a structure with a line arrester connected to the centerphase (upper phase). This photograph shows insulator/arrester kit assemblies presently installed. During the first attempt to reduce outages, a line arrester was installed on every third pole adjacent to the 88-kV pole top insulators. About the time that the initial round of arresters were installed, Otter Tail joined EPRI, and the EPRI Lightning Protection Design Workstation (LPDW) software was used to study arrester performance on these lines. The results of this study indicated that arresters on every third span were inadequate, and line performance seemed to agree. Otter Tail then started installing arresters and polymer insulators on the upper phase of every pole. As a result of these efforts, the number of breaker operations over the past three years decreased to 12.34 operations per year, which relates to 6.86 operations per 100 miles/yr. To further improve the performance of these lines, Otter tail has been installing vertically framed structures with higher rated insulators whenever a pole replacement is necessary.

Figure 2.3-15

Bayonet installed on 115-kV structure for installation of shield wire.

Figure 2.3-16

115-kV uprated structure with line arrester

When Otter Tail first installed arresters on the pole top phases with the 88-kV insulators, they grounded the base of the insulator to the ground wire that had to be added to the pole. This was done because Otter Tail was concerned that leakage current over the insulator across the pole to the grounded arrester bracket might cause pole fires. (The arrester was longer than the 88-kV insulator.) The 88-kV insulators are about 20 in. (51 cm) or 24 in. (61 cm) tall. One autumn during the bird migration season, two red tail hawks sat on the tops of the poles where these insulator bases were grounded. With the insulator base grounded and with the bird perched on the pole with its feet close to the insulator base and also touching the conductor with its head, a momentary outage occurred. After two of these bird trip-outs, and after about three trip-outs due to wet snow on the insulator during a 4-hour period on a Sunday morning, Otter Tail went back and ungrounded all the insulator bases. Since then, they have not had any more trip-outs due to hawks or snow. They also have not had any pole fires. After further examination, they became convinced that, by having both the arrester and the base of the center phase

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insulator grounded, the discharge voltage of the arrester was the same as the BIL (Basic Insulation Level) of the 88-kV insulator. This has prompted the use of full-rated 115-kV polymer insulators when arresters are added. The midspan spacers have caused a lot of problems, and most of them have been removed. They were initially installed to prevent galloping, but under certain conditions, Otter Tail personnel have seen violent galloping involving all three phases, which ended up tearing off the midspan spacers. As mentioned before, one of the midspan spacers used was a fiberglass rod with a 35-kV, F-neck, polyethylene, pin-type insulator screwed on each end. A few spacers with pin-type porcelain insulators were also tried. Moisture would ingress into the connection between the rod and the insulator on the lower end. In the winter, the moisture would turn to ice and break the porcelain insulator. Also, Otter Tail used refurbished rods that were not immune to ultraviolet light, and over time they deteriorated. Finally, the spacer was attached to the conductor using a single-strand distribution tie wire. Since the wire was too small for the voltage, corona cutting occurred on the neck of the polyethylene insulator. Otter Tail feels that if they had used a double distribution tie that had three strands, the corona cutting would likely have been avoided. To control galloping on lines, Otter Tail has resorted to T2 ACSR conductors between 1/0 and 266.8 MCM for any new conductor installations. The utility believes that the T2 conductors work very well in controlling galloping, but the conductors have experienced severe galloping under very heavy icing with small T2 conductors (not necessarily on uprated lines) where the entire T2 conductor was covered with heavy ice. Otter Tail has also installed the AR Twister damper on some line sections, which seems to work effectively in controlling galloping. Otter Tail did replace some 2/0 copper with 1/0 T2 (each subconductor 1/0 ACSR) on one of these uprated lines. This was due, however, to strength concerns of the aging copper, because the copper had endured several cases of substantial ice loading over the years prior to being uprated. These sections were in rural areas, where radio signals tend to be weaker, but no noise or interference problems occurred with either conductor operating at 115 kV. One other thing that Otter Tail had to do to convert the 41.6-kV line to 115 kV was to mount the 10-ft (3.05 m) crossarm (referred to as a king arm) with the wide side mounted in an upward position rather than a downward (toward pole) position. The sides of the king arm are 4-3/4 in. (12.1 cm) x 5-3/4 in. (14.6 cm). Normally the 5-3/4 in. side would be mounted vertically and the 4-3/4 in. side horizontally, but because of the wider base of the 88-kV post insulator, the 5-3/4-in. side was mounted horizontally to accommodate the large diameter base of the post insulator. For the most part, Otter Tail does not do live line maintenance on these lines. Since they are mostly loop lines, the utility can usually get an outage without interrupting service. The only RI/TVI complaints that Otter Tail has received from residences living near these lines were due to loose hardware rather than corona. Such interference sources were found and corrected.

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Otter Tail has no plans to uprate any more 41.6-kV lines using this design, with the exception of a few spans that might be going down streets in an urban area. In rural areas, the utility would use a single-pole shielded design, where the conductors are supported by polyethylene horizontal post insulators. 2.3.5 Manitoba Hydro 115- to 230-kV Upgrade

Manitoba Hydro, the power utility in the province of Manitoba in Canada upgraded one of its 115-kV H-Frame wood-pole transmission lines to a compact 230-kV line. The total length of the line for this voltage upgrade was 51 km. This is the only compact transmission line operating in their system, and the utility has no plans at this time for any future compact lines. Since this was an upgrade of an existing transmission line, no special consideration was given to aesthetics or line routing. Upgrading the existing 115-kV line to a compact 230-kV line was achieved by making appropriate modifications to the wood-pole structure to allow the air gap clearances necessary for operation at 230 kV. A phase spacing of 3.66 m (12 ft) rather than the conventional 5.49 m (18 ft) and a phase-to-ground clearance of 1.78 m (5 ft, 8 in.), rather than the conventional 2.6 m (8.5 ft) (conductor at rest), were selected based on the existing structure geometry. Two units were added to the existing string of seven 15 kip cap and pin porcelain insulators to provide the insulation required for operation at 230 kV. Since the pollution levels were low, the nine-unit insulator string, having a combined leakage distance of 754.4 cm (297 in.), was found to be adequate. Since the existing line had no lightning-related outages in the past, no lightning problems were anticipated for the upgraded 230-kV line. Two 9-mm steel strand ground wires were used, which is the same as any other 230-kV line. The grounding system for the line consisted of one ground rod driven into the earth, which was the standard design practice. The existing 115-kV line was reconductored by replacing the 336.4 kcmil ACSR conductor with a 795 kcmil ACSR self-damping conductor, mainly to meet the higher ampacity requirements. Corona performance was not a design consideration for this line. Since self-damping conductors were used, no special devices were necessary to control conductor vibrations. The tower structures were designed for combined loads of in. ice/8 psf wind and a wind load without ice of 15 psf. The existing H-Frame wooden structure was modified by raising the crossarms by 0.61 m (2 ft) to increase the phase conductor height, and 1.22 m (4 ft) bayonets were used to increase ground wire height. The existing structures have direct buried poles, and this foundation was considered adequate for the upgraded line. Figure 2.3-17 shows photos of the line before and after it was upgraded.

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Existing 115-kV Line Figure 2.3-17 Manitoba Hydro 230-kV upgrade.

Upgraded 230-kV Line

The upgraded line had good performance over the last 30 years since the conversion. Line inspection consisted of two regular inspections on foot, plus one aerial inspection per year. Only one outage per year on average, due to unknown causes, was reported. This line cannot be maintained live. During its 30-year operation, only two incidents of burnouts on crossarms occurred. A fumigation technique was used to preserve the wood pole structure. 2.3.6 Ontario Hydro (now Hydro One) 230-kV Compact Line

Ontario Hydro (now Hydro One), a large electrical power utility in the Province of Ontario, Canada, carried out research and technology development work (see Section 2.2.1) in order to design and build new compact 230-kV transmission lines as well as to upgrade existing 115-kV lines for operation at 230 kV. The first 230-kV compact line was built in 1975 in order to develop experience with the new technology and compare its performance with conventional-dimension 230-kV lines. The 5.6-km-long doublecircuit line has 26 compact suspension steel poles, including nine subcompact types with slightly shorter values of pole spacing and pole height. In addition, a 115-kV doublecircuit line was upgraded to 230 kV. The design philosophy was a trade-off between reliability from adverse weather outages (contamination) and the known degradation in reliability from lightning. Since it is located in an urban area, the compact 230-kV line was built using tapered steel poles with gull wing arms, in order to make it aesthetically pleasing. For the compact section of the line, the horizontal and vertical phase spacing were 5.4 m (17.72 ft) and 3.66 m (12 ft), respectively, while for the subcompact section, they were 4.18 m (13.71 ft) and 3.05 m (10 ft), respectively. The insulator string consisted of six specially designed and custom-manufactured semiconductive-glaze bell (SGB) insulators with 6in. cap-to-pin spacing. The increased shed-to-shed distance and deep-skirt design offered improved contamination and icing performance compared to standard 5 in. discs (Nigol et al. 1974). The pollution performance criterion for the insulators was based on IEC light-level contamination and clean-fog withstand tests with ESDD of 0.4 mg/cm 2, although the measured pollution levels along the line route ranged only from 0.002 to 0.12 mg/cm2. The lightning incidence experienced by this line corresponds to a ground flash density of 2 per km2 per year, and the ground resistivity is less than 100 -cm. The lightning outage criterion used for the line design was four outages per 100 km per year. Two overhead ground wires were used on the line, and the grounding was provided by the tower anchor bolts bonded to rebar in concrete foundation with separate ground rod.

33

A 1843.2 kcmil Goose conductor with a diameter of 40.6 mm (1.6 in.) was selected for the line, based on ampacity requirement and satisfactory RI performance. Wind-induced galloping played an important role in the selection of insulation clearances, and detuning pendulums were used for galloping control. The line has functioned successfully, except for the expected reduced lightning performance. The line was inspected after every forced outage, and the diagnostics included visual inspection using night vision equipment. Due to the reduced clearances, live line maintenance was not allowed from the tower but was permitted from a bucket truck. Because of this, accessibility was an important consideration. Outages were experienced due to lightning, insulator contamination, broken insulators, and galloping. Three insulator failures have occurred over the last decade, mainly due to the erosion of glaze-to-metal contacts, and the SGB insulators needed refurbishing every five years thereafter. The SGB insulators are, therefore, being replaced with glass insulators, and the line is slated for reconstruction in the summer of 2007. Figure 2.3-18 shows a photograph of the compact 230-kV line running parallel and to the left of the conventional-dimension 230-kV line.

Figure 2.3-18

Ontario Hydros compact and conventional-dimensioned 230-kV lines.

Upgrading an existing double-circuit 115-kV transmission line for operation at 230 kV was accomplished (Havard et al. 1991) by modifying the tower shaft above the bend of the existing lattice steel tower structure, using free-pivoting (in both horizontal and vertical directions) composite horizontal vee insulator assemblies and a 28.1 mm (1.108in.) diameter conductor. Analysis of the tower loads indicated that the loading limits of the steel members below the bend would not be exceeded and that the tower foundations were still adequate. Horizontal and vertical phase spacings of 6.8 m (22.3 ft) and 5 m (16.4 ft), respectively were used for the upgraded line. 2.3.7 Companhia Paranaense de Energia (COPEL) 138- and 230-kV Compact Lines

Companhia Paranaense de Energia (COPEL) is the electric utility in the State of Paran, in the southern part of Brazil, having more than 6000 km (3700 miles) of transmission lines at voltages ranging from 69 to 500 kV. Compact lines, called Urban Transmission Lines (UTL), at 69 and 138 kV have been in operation for about 25 years. Compact designs at 230 kV have also been introduced recently. In general, UTLs have lengths in the range of 1 to 5 km and feed urban substations. Use of these lines improves the voltage regulation of the 13.8-kV distribution circuits. Also, the costs of distribution circuits are reduced by a reduction in the I 2R losses, and in the

34

size of conductors and pole dimensions. Since compact 138- and 230-kV lines are used in urban regions, available space and aesthetics are important factors and, therefore, concrete poles rather than steel towers are used. Although some of the older 69- and 88-kV lines in other regions were upgraded to 138 kV, maintaining the same steel towers, all urban compact lines are new lines with concrete poles. To further improve aesthetics, the pole length is limited to 25 m (82 ft), and base diameter to 0.7 m (2.3 ft). The pole deflection is limited to 2.5% of total pole length, and the poles are located on the sidewalks to make them appear as distribution lines to the population. Although there is no need to cut any trees, construction of UTLs requires approval of the City Hall. Since the lines are located in populated urban areas, special steps are taken to design them to guarantee safety of people against the effects of short-circuit currents injected into the earth and also to reduce the electric and magnetic fields at ground level to acceptable values. By using grounding rods buried deep in the soil and with the rod interconnections placed inside insulated tubes, step voltages are reduced to acceptable values. Three grounding rods (copperweld), each 6 m (19.5 ft) long and 6 m apart, are used with the rod tops located 1.5 m below ground level to control step voltages. Touch voltages are reduced by the application of an asphalt layer (about 10 cm [4 in.] thick) around the transmission poles. Additional grounding rods are used when the required value of less than 20 ground resistance is not reached. In addition to a ground wire placed above the phase conductors for lightning protection, another ground wire is placed below the conductors for mechanical protection against accidental touching by anyone or any device, and also for contributing to a reduction of short-circuit currents and ground level electric fields. The general electrical and mechanical characteristics of the 138- and 230-kV compact lines are summarized in Table 2.3-7. Table 2.3-7 Electrical and Mechanical Characteristics of COPELs 138- and 230-kV Compact Lines 138-kV Line 230-kV Line 636/795 MCM 397 MCM 25.15/28.14 mm dia. 19.88 mm dia. 1 2 4/0 AWG (14.3 mm dia.), plus additional ground wire below conductors 20 kA Usually 20 maximum; Up to 70 in some cases 80/90C 60C 1.7 m (5.58 ft) 3.0 m (9.84 ft)

Conductor Conductors/phase Ground wire Phase-ground Short-circuit current Ground resistance Conductor temperature Phase-to-phase distance

35

RI level AN level Structure Insulators Min. dry arcing distance Min. creepage distance Min creepage distance (sea coast) Isokeraunic level (IKL) Altitude Terrain

Average all-weather level of 42 dB 45, 55, or 60 dB(A), depending on the region of the city Concrete poles Porcelain line-post Silicone rubber Silicone rubber at sea coast Horizontal-V 1.02 m (3.35 ft) 1.8 m (5.91 ft) 250 cm (98.43 in.) 460 cm (181.1 in.) 350 cm (137.8 in.) 60 to 100 0 to 1500 m (not a design factor) Suburban areas

Figures 2.3-19 and 2.3-20 show COPELs 138- and 230-kV compact line configurations. The left-hand side in each of these figures shows the line passing through the urban environment, while the right-hand side shows a close-up of the tower head. Of particular interest is the use of two ground wires, one above and the other below the phase conductors. The close-ups also clearly show the concrete poles, the insulating crossarms, and the single and twin-bundle conductors used on the 138- and 230-kV lines, respectively. Electrical design of the transmission line included limiting the average all-weather RI level to 42 dB at 1 MHz. Limits for AN are regulated by city laws, according to which maximum allowable levels are 45, 55, or 60 dB(A), depending on the region of the city. For the 230-kV compact design, type tests are required for visual corona on the insulator and hardware assemblies. Finally, the compact urban lines are designed to comply with the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) electric and magnetic (EMF) limits. Conductor motions did not play any role in the design of COPELs compact lines, and consequently, no devices were used to control any conductor vibrations. Figure 2.3-19 COPELs 138-kV compact line.

Figure 2.3-20

COPELs 230-kV compact line.

COPELs experience in operating the 138- and 230-kV compact lines has been satisfactory so far. The performance of the porcelain line-post insulators has been acceptable, except in sea coastal areas. Composite insulators used in sea coastal areas performed satisfactorily. It is, therefore, planned to replace all porcelain line-post insulators in sea coastal areas with composite insulators. No outages have been reported so far, and there were no complaints regarding RI, AN, or EMF.

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2.3.8

Queensland Electricity Commission (QEC) 275-kV Compact Line

The Queensland Electricity Commission (QEC) in Australia developed a compact design for a new 275-kV transmission line built to reinforce the network supplying power to the city of Brisbane. The compact design was chosen mainly to overcome difficulties with acquiring new line routes, together with the publics desire for visually appealing structures. The 20-km (12.4-mile) line between Karana Downs and Rocklea consists of two sections: a 7-km (4.3-mile) section from Karana Downs to Moggill Road through a residential area and a 13-km (8-mile) section from Moggill Road to Rocklea with a narrow right-of-way (ROW). Both the 275-kV line sections shared the ROW with conventional linesthe 7-km section with a concrete pole single-circuit 110-kV line, and the 13-km section with a double-circuit 110-kV lattice-steel line. This line was built in 1992. To achieve a larger spanning capability of up to 360 m (1181 ft), compared to 265 m (869 ft) used for the conventional adjacent 110-kV line design, the horizontal vee structure with insulated crossarms was adopted for the 275-kV compact transmission line. The 275-kV tower structures were located directly opposite existing 110-kV towers for improved visual impact. A steel pole structure was used for the 7-km section passing through residential area in order to improve the visual impact of the line, while a steel lattice structure was used for the 13-km section of the line through an industrial area. The pole and tower configurations for the two sections of ROW are shown in Figures 2.3-21 and 2.3-22.

Figure 2.3-21

Karana Downs to Moggill Road section ROW.

Figure 2.3-22

Moggill Road Rocklea section of ROW.

The new compact 275-kV tower was designed to look similar to the existing conventional double-circuit 110-kV lattice steel towers. Compact design of the 275-kV line was achieved through reduced phase spacing compared to traditional lines and through the use of EPDM and silicone nonceramic long rods and post insulators in a pivoting horizontal vee configuration. Although single as well as twin-bundled conductors were used on conventional 275-kV lines, a twin bundle was chosen for the compact line design, mainly from considerations of surface voltage gradient and associated corona effects of audible

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noise, radio noise, and television interference. Also, in order to eliminate wake-induced oscillations and the use of spacers, a vertical bundle configuration was selected (Pokarier and Lee 1992). The possible drawbacks of a vertical bundle, such as the risk of subconductor entanglement caused by differential ice loading on the subconductors or by electromagnetic attractive forces due to heavy load or fault currents, were considered in making this choice. However, due to the lack of ice loading in the region and the possibility of quick recovery of clashing conductors, it was decided to go ahead with a vertical bundle configuration. The line insulation was designed to withstand power frequency (50 Hz) voltage of 1.1 p.u, dynamic overvoltage of 1.4 p.u and switching overvoltage of 2.8 p.u. The line traversed through a region with an isokeraunic level (IKL) of 35 (ground flash density [GFD] of 1.75). The section of the line with lattice steel structures and twin ground wires was designed for a lightning outage rate of 0.3 per 100 km per year, while the section with steel poles and a single ground wire was designed for a rate of 0.7 per 100 km per year. Reduction of ground-level EMFs was achieved, in addition to line compaction, through diagonal phase (low reactance) arrangement. When two double-circuit lines (110 and 275 kV) share the same ROW, further EMF reduction was achieved by keeping diagonal phasing between the two inside circuits. The main features and electrical characteristics of the compact 275-kV line design are summarized in Table 2.3-8.

Table 2.3-8 Queensland Electricity Commission Design for 275-kV Compact Line ROW width Conductor Conductor diameter Insulators 40 m (131 ft) AAAC 1120 Phosphorous conductor twin bundle with 38 cm (15 in.) spacing. 2.63 cm (1.04 in.) Nonceramic; pivoting horizontal vee

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Creepage Structures Phase spacing (compact) Phase spacing (traditional) Minimum conductor height Radio interference Audible noise Ground-level E Ground-level B (@ 945 A) Ground Wire (GW) Number of GW Altitude Isokeraunic level (IKL) Ground flash density Length of line Ground resistance Terrain Weather

Maximum of 3.28 cm/kV (phase to phase) Steel poles; lattice steel structures Vertical 5 m (16.4 ft); Horizontal 6.5 m (21.3 ft) for pole and 6.9 m (22.6 ft) for lattice. Vertical 6 m (19.7 ft); Horizontal 10 m (30.5 ft) 8 m (26.3 ft) 40 dB at the edge of ROW 36.5 dBA at the edge of ROW 2.35 kV/m within ROW; 0.38 kV/m at the edge of ROW 95 mG within ROW; 32 mG at the edge of ROW 7/3.25 SC/AC 1 (pole); 2 (lattice) with 4 m (13.1 ft) spacing Sea Level 35 Thunderstorm days/year 1.75 Ground strikes/sq. m per year 20 km 10 Flat to undulating High intensity thunderstorms

Conductor motions did not play any significant role in selection of insulation clearances. However, Stockbridge dampers were used close to the structures to control conductor motions. The line has been in operation for more than 15 years. Some discoloration of live end sheath of the long rods has been observed, particularly those without corona rings. Some corona rings were installed incorrectly on long rods and did not properly grade the electric field. All insulators met only the absolute minimum specifications, and, consequently, it was difficult to replace them with the subsequently standardized larger insulators that were used on other lines. Since the air gap clearances were very tight, it has been difficult to change the insulators live. Live line maintenance has been carried out using sticks and barehand methods, but no helicopters were used since the line is in a built-up area. It has been found to be very difficult to string the vertical bundle with an even spacing of 38 cm (15 in.). Actual bundle spacing varied from 25 to 50 cm (9.8 to 19.7 in.). As a result of this experience, only horizontal bundles with spacers are used now. Very high strength 850 MPa alloy steel was used for the steel poles, which required special techniques for forming into a circular section. After acid dipping to clean steel before galvanizing, cracks developed in the hazard zone of welds. As a consequence of this experience, lower strength steel that is easier to fabricate is being used for pole structures, but this results in a larger, less aesthetic pole shape.

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Finally, because of the difficulties encountered in live line maintenance on compact lines and the difficulty in obtaining outages for maintenance, it has been decided to minimize the number and length of new compact lines.

2.4

REVIEW OF DESIGN PRACTICES AND OPERATING EXPERIENCE

The cases of 13 compact line designs surveyed in this chapter are from the United States, Canada, Brazil, and Australia and cover a wide range of operating voltages: 115, 138, 230, 275, and 345 kV. Of the 10 compact lines surveyed in the United States and Canada, six were upgrades from lower voltage lines, and four were new compact line designs. All three lines surveyed in Brazil and Australia were new compact line designs. New compact designs were used for lines built to reinforce existing networks supplying power to urban areas, and where visual and aesthetic aspects and public acceptance were important considerations. The main reasons for upgrading existing lower voltage to compact high voltage lines were difficulties in obtaining new ROW, savings in construction costs and schedules, and the need to increase the power transmitted in a given corridor. The maximum length of new compact lines was 23 miles (37 km), while the lengths of upgraded compact lines, mainly in North America, ranged between 27 miles (43 km) and 150 miles (241 km). In urban regions of Brazil, the lines were less than 3.1 miles (5 km) long. Tower structures for compact lines in North America in the range of 115 to 345 kV were usually made up of wood poles, except in the case of Ontario Hydro, which used steel pole structure for a new compact 230-kV line and a modified steel lattice structure for a 115- to 230-kV upgrade. Horizontal phase configurations were commonly used for single-circuit lines, although one case each of horizontal and vertical delta configurations was also used. For compact single-circuit lines in Brazil, a vertical phase configuration has been adopted, mainly for reducing ROW width and improving aesthetic appeal. Double-circuit lines have vertical configurations. One of the criteria for considering a transmission line compact is that the distance between the phase conductors is reduced to values as low as technically feasible. The absolute minimum allowable distance between the phase conductors should be able to withstand the normal power frequency phase voltage of the line. The actual phase spacing of an operating transmission line is generally much higher than this minimum value in order to take due account of wind-induced conductor motion, type of insulator assembly, and the span length. The ratio of the actual to the minimum allowable phase spacing, which may be defined as the phase spacing ratio kp, depends on the nominal rated voltage of the line and the design criteria used. A survey of the operating transmission lines of conventional design has indicated that kp varies (EPRI 1978) between about 10.5 for 138-kV lines and 6.2 for 765-kV lines. The decrease in the value of kp with voltage reflects the increasingly sophisticated design methodologies used to ensure the economic viability of higher voltage transmission lines.

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The phase spacing ratio kp is calculated for 11 of the 13 compact line configurations surveyed, from 115 to 345 kV, and are shown in Figure 2.4-1. Using Aleksandrovs data (Aleksandrov et al. 1962) for the 50% power frequency flashover voltage V50 and assuming standard deviation = 2%, the withstand voltage V w = V50 + 3 may be calculated for a given conductor-to-conductor gap. This method is used actually to calculate the withstand distance dw necessary for a voltage 1.05Vp, where Vp is the nominal phase voltage of the line. Knowing the actual phase spacing d p of the line, the phase spacing ratio kp is then calculated as kp = dp/dw. Since the horizontal phase spacing dph of lines is generally larger than the vertical phase spacing d pv, the corresponding phase spacing ratio kph is also larger than kpv.

Figure 2.4-1

Phase spacing ratio for lines surveyed.

The results of kph and kpv calculated for all 11 lines surveyed are shown in Figure 2.4-1. Since the Pacificorp 345-kV lines are located at an altitude of 4250 ft (1295 m), an altitude correction factor is incorporated in calculating the values of k ph and kpv. The power frequency withstand voltage is assumed to vary inversely as the relative air density. For the purpose of comparison, the results for conventional transmission lines (EPRI 1978) are also included in this figure. The results show that the ratio k p for compact lines is generally lower than that for conventional lines, although the difference varied widely from case to case. The results indicate that the difference in the values of k p between conventional and compact lines varies from about 2.3 for 115-kV lines to about 1.7 for 345-kV lines. Corona was generally not a design consideration for choosing the conductors on 115- and 138-kV lines. Current carrying capacity and economic criteria were used for selecting conductor size. For the Puget Power 230-kV compact line, corona-generated AN was the main criterion for conductor selection. For the compact 230-kV lines of Ontario Hydro, current carrying capacity was the main criterion for conductor selection, although the line design was checked for compatibility with the prevailing RI criteria. For COPELs compact 230-kV transmission lines, calculation and measurement of RI and AN were carried out to ensure that they are within acceptable limits. In the case of QECs 275-kV compact lines, a two-conductor bundle was selected mainly from economic considerations, but corona-generated RI and AN were evaluated to ensure compatibility with existing regulations. Corona was a design consideration in selecting the twoconductor bundle for Pacificorps 345-kV compact lines. Vertical two-conductor bundle configurations were used for QECs 275-kV line as well as Pacificorps 345-kV lines, in order to avoid problems of aeolian vibrations and the use of bundle spacers. For most of the compact lines surveyed, due consideration was given to the design and/or testing of corona-free hardware. Although EMF levels were not a serious design consideration, low-reactance phasing arrangements were used for compact double-circuit lines. In the case of compact 138- and

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230-kV lines in the urban regions of Brazil, a ground wire was placed below the phase conductors, in addition to the overhead ground wire for lightning protection, to reduce the ground-level electric fields. Most of the compact lines in North America used porcelain disc or line post insulators. Ontario Hydro developed semiconductive-glaze bell (SGB) insulators for their new 230kV compact line, which allowed the use of six SGB insulators instead of the nine discs of conventional porcelain insulators. Pivoted composite horizontal vee insulator assemblies were used on Ontario Hydros upgraded 230-kV line. Nonceramic post insulators were used for Puget Powers 230-kV compact line. On one of the 345-kV compact lines of Pacificorp, horizontal vee assemblies consisting of a combination of ceramic and nonceramic insulators were used. Also, on QECs 275-kV compact line, pivoted nonceramic horizontal vee insulators were used. On COPELs 138-kV compact lines, porcelain line post insulators were used, except in coastal areas where silicone rubber insulators were used, while on their 230-kV compact lines, silicone rubber insulators were used everywhere. None of the lines surveyed used interphase spacers. Midspan spacers used on the Otter Tail 115-kV compact line caused a lot of problems during operation and were, therefore, removed. Similarly, none of the lines used line arresters, except the Otter Tail line, on which a line arrester was initially used on the center phase of every third pole; but further investigation indicated that a line arrester was needed on the center phase of every pole. Most of the lines were equipped with either one or two ground wires. The Puget Power 230-kV and the Otter Tail 115-kV compact lines were not equipped with any ground wires, except Otter Tail did experiment with using a bayonet to install a shield wire. Conductor motions did not play any significant role in the design of most of the lines studied. Since phase-to-phase clearances were significantly reduced by using SGB insulators and the line was subject to the risk of galloping, Ontario Hydro used specially developed detuning pendulums for galloping control. In some cases, conductor motions were controlled by using vibration dampers and appropriate choice of conductor tension and span length. In the case of the Otter Tail 115-kV compact line, galloping control was achieved by using T2 conductors and AR twister dampers. The overall operating experience with all the lines surveyed has been generally good. Although some unexplained outages occurred, the total number of outages has been low. Hydro One reported that due to erosion of glaze-to-metal contacts, the SGB insulators required periodic refurbishment, and the utility has, therefore, decided recently to replace all the SGB insulators with glass insulators. There were practically no complaints related to RI, AN, and EMF. Any TVI complaints were traced to defective hardware, and corrective measures were taken immediately. Use of a vertical two-conductor bundle configuration created problems of unequal subconductor spacing on QECs 275-kV compact line, while no problems were reported in the case of Pacificorps 345-kV lines. Regular inspections were carried out on most of the lines. No live line maintenance was carried out on the lower voltage lines, but was done using bucket trucks on Ontario Hydros 230-kV compact line and hot sticks and gloves on Pacificorps 345-kV lines. No

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wood pole fires were reported on any of the lines surveyed. There are indications that because of difficulties with live line maintenance, some of the utilities discontinued the construction of new compact lines. 2.5 HIGHLIGHTS

Current Status of Research and Development Design Data. Experimental data and analytical techniques developed for the electrical design of conventional transmission lines are generally applicable to compact lines also. However, in view of the reduced dimensions of compact lines, particularly the phase spacing, and the use of post insulators and horizontal vee insulator assemblies, additional studies may be required to obtain the necessary design data. Performance Characteristics. Research and development studies carried out so far have dealt with switching surge withstand characteristics of phase-to-phase air insulation, lightning performance of compact line configurations with or without ground wires, and power frequency pollution withstand characteristics of ceramic and nonceramic insulators. Insulators. Several utilities and insulator manufacturers have also carried out studies to develop semiconductive-glaze bell (SGB) insulators for use specifically on compact lines and nonceramic horizontal vee insulator assemblies for possible use on compact lines. Corona Performance. Some studies carried out on the corona performance, mainly RI and AN, of compact line configurations have shown that prediction methods developed for conventional line configurations may also be applicable to compact lines.

Operating Experience Diversity. The survey of 11 compact transmission lines in the range of 115 to 345 kV has revealed considerable diversity in design philosophy and operating experience. Phase Spacing Ratio. The phase spacing ratio, which is indicative of the degree of line compaction, varied over a wide range for the lines surveyed, but the average ratio for compact lines is about 30% less than that for conventional lines. Nonceramic Insulators. Although a wide variety of insulator assemblies were used, there is a tendency favoring the use of nonceramic horizontal vee insulators, particularly for double circuit lines. Ground Wires. Most of the lines were equipped with either one or two ground wires for lightning protection. The Puget Power 230-kV and the Otter Tail 115-kV compact lines were not equipped with any ground wires. None of the lines used line arresters, except the Otter Tail line on which a line arrester was initially used on the center (upper) phase of every third pole; but additional studies indicated that a line arrester ws needed on the center phase of every pole.

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Line Performance. Lightning, corona, and EMF performance of the lines surveyed has been satisfactory and within acceptable limits. Lab Testing. Laboratory testing of hardware to ensure corona-free operation is very important for compact transmission lines. Degree of Line Compaction. Of all the lines surveyed, COPELs 138- and 230-kV lines appear to have been designed with the highest degree of line compaction, with due consideration given to aesthetic appeal and public safety.

Future Needs of Research and Development Additional Research. Based on the review of research and development studies carried out so far, as well as of the operating experience, it may be concluded that there is no immediate need for additional comprehensive research efforts for the electrical design of compact lines. Insulation/Conductor Motion. There may be need for a better coordination between the insulation and conductor motion aspects of compact line design in order to achieve higher degree of line compaction. Development Studies. Development type studies will be required when new materials and designs are introduced for insulators and conductors. RI and AN Measurements. Long-term RI and AN measurements on operating compact lines would be useful in confirming the applicability of existing prediction methods. Live Line Maintenance. Finally, there appears to be a need to develop the tools and techniques required for live line maintenance of compact line configurations.

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APPENDIX 2.1 A. Planning

SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

1. What planning considerations have influenced the choice of compact line design? 2. If this is a new line, what influenced the decision to build it compact rather than conventional? 3. Was this line designed as a compact line or was it upgraded from a lower to a higher voltage? 4. How many sections and circuit-kilometers of this line are in operation? 5. Have compact or voltage-upgraded lines at other voltages in the range 110 kV to 345 kV been in operation in your system? Are there plans to build or upgrade more lines that will be compact? 6. What overall design philosophy was used for this line? 7. What types of relaying and protection schemes were used? Has single-pole reclosing been used? 8. Were any special considerations given to aesthetics and line routing? 9. Have any difficulties been encountered in obtaining permits for the line, and how were they resolved? 10. Was there any public opposition to the line, and how was it resolved? B. Electrical Design

1. Were any measures used to control overvoltages? 2. What were the phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase clearances for this line, and how do they compare with those for a conventional line at the same voltage? On what basis were the clearances selected? 3. Were insulating crossarms used to achieve line compaction? 4. What types of insulators were used? On what basis were the insulators selected? 5. Were any interphase insulators used? If so, what types of insulators were selected; why were they used; and where were they mounted? 6. What pollution performance criteria were used to select the insulators? 7. What lightning outage criteria were used in the line design? 8. Were any surge arresters used? If so, what type of arresters and how many were used? 9. What was the arrester location plan? If disconnectors were used, were there problems with blown disconnecters and/or arrester failures? If gapped arresters were used, were there any problems with gap clearing/failures? 10. Were any ground wires used? If so, how many and what type of wires were used, and what was the basis of selection? 11. What grounding systems are being used, and how were they selected? 12. Was the conductor selection based mainly on economic considerations (capital cost vs cost of losses), or was corona performance (corona loss (CL), radio interference (RI) and audible noise (AN) also an important consideration?

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13. If corona performance was the deciding criterion, what conductor system was chosen? Did the line have to meet either an RI or an AN limit? If so, what were those limits? 14. What prediction methods were used to calculate RI and AN? 15. Were hardware and insulator corona considered in line design? 16. Were ground-level electric and magnetic fields (EMF) a factor in line design? If so, what electric field and/or magnetic field levels did the line have to meet? 17. Were any other electrical design criteria used for this line? 18. Was the line transposed? If so, at what intervals, and what were the main reasons for transposition? If not, what were the reasons? C. Conductors, Towers, Foundations and Construction Methods

1. Did any of the following conductor motions play any role in the selection of insulation clearances: Aeolian vibration, ice galloping, ice shedding, differential conductor motion, and magnetic forces? 2. Were any devices or techniques used to control conductor motions? 3. What wind and ice loading criteria were used to design the tower structures? 4. What tower types have been used, and what was the basis of their selection? 5. What types of foundations have been used, and were any special considerations involved in their selection? 6. What construction methods have been used, and were any special techniques developed for this line? D. Operation and Maintenance

1. What has been the experience so far on the performance of the insulators used? 2. If interphase spacers were used, what has been the experience? 3. How often are the conductors, hardware, insulators, towers, and foundations inspected, and what techniques are used? 4. Have any failures occurred, and have any of the original insulators, hardware, etc. been replaced because of poor performance? 5. What has been the outage experience due to? a. Lightning b. Switching surges c. Insulator contamination d. Other 2. Have any outages been responsible for redesigns? 3. Have there been any complaints from the public regarding: RI, TVI, AN, EMF, visual impact or other? If so, how were they resolved? 4. Have live line maintenance techniques been used on this line? If so, what methods were used? 5. If the line has wood poles, have there been any problems with wood pole fires? 6. If wood poles are used, what maintenance techniques are used to preserve the poles, especially below the ground.

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7. Hardware on wood poles if not properly bonded can get loose and cause gap-type EMI. If this line was built using wood poles, have there been any complaints that were caused by gap-type EMI? If so, how were the complaints resolved? E. 1. 2. 3. 4. Special Design Considerations

At what altitude does the line operate, and was altitude a design consideration? What type of terrain does the line traverse? What IKLs or other lightning incidence indicators are experienced by the line? What types of weather conditions does the line experience? How important was weather in line design? 5. What ground resistances does the line experience? F. Physical Characteristics

1. Please provide drawings and photographs of the line. 2. Please provide the electrical characteristics of the line. 3. Please provide any information that would be useful in the discussion of line routing.

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REFERENCES Albiz, L. B., A. Lopez Suero, and J. A. Sola Liberal. 1991. 132 kV Compacting Overhead Transmission Line. Paper 100-09. CIGRE Symposium on Compacting Overhead Transmission Lines. Aleksandrov, G. N., V. Y. Kizvetter, V. M. Rudakova, and A. N. Tushnov. 1962 The AC Flashover Voltages of Long Air Gaps and Strings of Insulators. Electrichestvo. pp. 27-32. ASDA. 1973, 1974, 1975. New York State Research on Electric Power and the Environment. Blair, D. E. 1988. Puget Power Company 230-kV Transmission Line Insulation and Hardware Corona Test. Bonneville Power Administration Division of Laboratories. Report No. ELE 88-35. June. Broschat, M. and R. Clayton. 1981. Compaction Techniques Applied to Subtransmission Line Uprating 41.6 kV to 115 kV. IEEE PAS-100. pp. 1959-1965. April. Burnham, J. T. and T. M. Grisham. 1994. High Strength Polymer Post Insulators Enable Economical Transmission Lines with Low Environmental Impact. Proceedings of the 1994 IEEE Transmission and Distribution Conference. pp. 494-499. Cassan, J. G. and O. Nigol. 1972. Research on Compact Transmission Lines in Ontario. CIGRE Paper #31-07. Cassan, J. G. 1973. New Technology and Design Criteria for Compact Overhead Lines. Paper #73-TR-226. Presented to the Canadian Electrical Association, Transmission Section. Toronto. March 26-29. Chartier, V. L., D. E. Blair, M. D. Easley, and R. T. Raczkowski. 1995. Corona Performance of a Compact 230-kV Line. IEEE PWDR-10. pp. 410-420. January. CIGRE. 1991. Symposium on Compacting Overhead Transmission Lines. Clerici, A., M. Landonio, and L. Paris. 1991. EHV Compact Lines A New Solution. Paper 100-07. CIGRE Symposium on Compacting Overhead Transmission Lines. Cochard, A. and M. Cojan. 1981. Ligne Encombrement Rduit: Projet LIERE 63/90 kV. Paper 220-03. CIGRE Symposium on Transmission Lines and the Environment. EPRI. 1975. EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book 345 kV and Above . Electric Power Research Institute. Palo Alto, California.

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EPRI. 1978. EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book 115-138 kV Compact Line Design. Electric Power Research Institute. Palo Alto, California. Giglioli, R., P. Pelacchi, P. Nicolini, P. Paoli, B. A. Cauzillo, D. Dellolio. 1991. Limits to the Compacting of EHV Lines Imposed by Conductor Movement. Paper 100-05. CIGRE Symposium on Compacting Overhead Transmission Lines. Havard, D. G., M. S. Nashid, J. R. Meale, and S. M. Foty. 1991. Transmission Line Compaction in Ontario Hydro. Paper 200-05. CIGRE Symposium on Compacting Overhead Transmission Lines. Jaffa, K.C. 1984. Discussion of the paper Transmission Insulation Design at High Altitude by T. H. Frick, J. R. Stewart, A. R. Hileman, C. R. Chowaniec, and T. E. McDermott. IEEE PAS-103. p. 3679. December. Karady, G. G., H. M. Schneider, and J. F. Hall. 1991. Utilization of Composite Insulators for Compacting Transmission Lines. Paper 400-05. CIGRE Symposium on Compacting Overhead Transmission Lines. Mastuzaki, Y., T. Ikeya, R. Kimata, A. Bognar, P. Szaplonczay, and M. Teglas. 1991. Inter Phase Spacer for Overhead Lines. Paper 200-08. CIGRE Symposium on Compacting Overhead Transmission Lines. Nigol, O., P. G. Buchan, N. S. Rau, A. J. Reed, and G. J. Clarke. 1974a. Test Facilities for Development of Compact Transmission Lines. Ontario Hydro Research Quarterly, pp. 7-14, Second Quarter. Nigol, O., J. Reichman, and G. Rosenblatt. 1974b. Development of Semiconductive Glaze Insulators. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems . Vol. PAS-93. No. 2. pp. 614-622. March. Ordon, T. J. F. and K. E. Lindsey. 1995. Consideration in the Design of Three Phase Compact Transmission Lines. ESMO Conference. Columbus, Ohio. Paris, L., L. Pargamin, and R. Parraud. 1991. Application of Composite Insulators for Overhead Compact Lines. Paper 400-04. CIGRE Symposium on Compacting Overhead Transmission Lines. Pokarier, B. R. and C. J. Lee. 1992. Compact Design 275 kV Lines Using Composite Horizontal Vee Insulator Assemblies. Electric Energy. Brisbane, QLD, Australia. pp. 57-63. October 19-21.

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Power Technologies, Inc. 1973. Final Report on a Research and Experimental Program on Right-of-Way Efficiency and Environmental Compatibility of Electric Power Transmission prepared for the New York State Atomic and Space Development Authority. March. Power Technologies, Inc. 1974. Final Report PTI-ASDA Research Program into Compact Transmission Lines and HPOF Cables prepared for the New York State Atomic and Space Development Authority. March 31. Savvaitov, D. S, V. A. Shkaptsov, P. A. Bushuev, I. M. Nosov, K. O. Papailiou, W. F. Buckner, and J. C. Poffenberger. 1991. A 110 kV Overhead Transmission Line of Compact Type: Design, operating Experience, Conductor Oscillation Control. Paper 100-04. CIGRE Symposium on Compacting Overhead Transmission Lines. Sebesta, D. 1978. Insulation Design Aids Line Compaction. Electrical World. No. 15. June. Wale, C. T. 1981. Compact Line Design 115 kV Project. Paper presented to the 58 th Annual Joint Spring Conference of the Northwest Electric Light & Power Association. Red Lion Riverside. Boise, Idaho. April 28.

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