Road Structures Design Manual

ROAD STRUCTURES DESIGN MANUAL
DOCUMENT NO: AD-D-06

SIXTH EDITION (DRAFT)
2013

Document No: AD-D-06
Sixth Edition (Draft)
2013
Department of Transport
PO Box 20
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Copyright 2013, by the Department of Transport. All Rights Reserved. This document, or parts
thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without written permission of the publisher.

Page i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents........................................................................................................................... i
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. xi
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... xii
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Overview .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Purpose and Scope .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2.2 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications ............................................................ 2
1.3 Application of this Manual ................................................................................................. 2
1.3.1 Definition of Road Structures ..................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Hierarchy of Priority ................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Design Objectives ............................................................................................................. 3
1.4.1 Serviceability ............................................................................................................. 3
1.4.2 Constructability .......................................................................................................... 3
1.4.3 Maintenance of Traffic ............................................................................................... 3
1.4.4 Sustainability ............................................................................................................. 3
1.4.5 Aesthetics .................................................................................................................. 4
1.5 Design Approval Procedures ............................................................................................ 4
1.5.1 Objectives .................................................................................................................. 4
1.5.2 Reference .................................................................................................................. 4
1.6 Bridge Design Checklists .................................................................................................. 4
2 LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS .......................................................................................... 5
2.1 General ............................................................................................................................. 5
2.1.1 Limit States ................................................................................................................ 5
2.1.2 Load Factors and Combinations ................................................................................ 6
2.2 Permanent Loads ............................................................................................................. 9
2.2.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.2 Downdrag (DD) on Deep Foundations ..................................................................... 10
2.2.3 Differential Settlement (SE) ..................................................................................... 10
2.3 Transient Loads .............................................................................................................. 10
2.3.1 General .................................................................................................................... 10
2.3.2 Abu Dhabi Vehicular Load (ADVL) ........................................................................... 10
2.3.3 Wind Loads (WS and WL) ....................................................................................... 12
2.3.4 Earthquake Effects (EQ) .......................................................................................... 13

Page ii

2.3.5 Uniform Temperature (TU) ....................................................................................... 14
2.3.6 Temperature Gradient (TG) ..................................................................................... 14
2.3.7 Live-Load Surcharge (LS) ........................................................................................ 15
2.3.8 Ground Water Levels ............................................................................................... 15
3 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ............................................................................................... 16
3.1 Acceptable Methods ....................................................................................................... 16
3.1.1 General .................................................................................................................... 16
3.1.2 Exceptions ............................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Static Analysis ................................................................................................................ 16
3.2.1 Refined Analysis ...................................................................................................... 16
3.2.2 Approximate Analysis .............................................................................................. 16
3.2.3 Lateral Wind-Load Distribution in Multi-Beam Bridges ............................................. 19
3.3 Dynamic Analysis ........................................................................................................... 19
3.3.1 Seismic Analysis ...................................................................................................... 19
3.3.2 Wind-Induced Vibration ........................................................................................... 21
4 CONCRETE STRUCTURES ............................................................................................. 22
4.1 Structural Concrete Design ............................................................................................. 22
4.1.1 Member Design Models ........................................................................................... 22
4.1.2 Sectional Design Model ........................................................................................... 22
4.1.3 Strut-and-Tie Model ................................................................................................. 24
4.1.4 Fatigue .................................................................................................................... 25
4.1.5 Torsion .................................................................................................................... 25
4.2 Materials ......................................................................................................................... 26
4.2.1 Structural Concrete .................................................................................................. 26
4.2.2 Reinforcing Steel ..................................................................................................... 26
4.2.3 Prestressing Strand ................................................................................................. 26
4.2.4 Prestressing Bars .................................................................................................... 27
4.3 Reinforcement ................................................................................................................ 27
4.3.1 Reinforcing-Steel Details ......................................................................................... 27
4.3.2 Prestressing Strands and Tendons .......................................................................... 34
4.4 Prestressed Concrete Superstructures ........................................................................... 36
4.4.1 Basic Criteria ........................................................................................................... 36
4.4.2 Post-Tensioned Bridges........................................................................................... 36
4.4.3 Precast, Prestressed Concrete Girders .................................................................... 49
4.4.4 Pretensioned/Post-Tensioned Beams ...................................................................... 55
4.4.5 Camber Diagram ..................................................................................................... 55

Page iii

4.4.6 Responsibilities ........................................................................................................ 55
5 STEEL STRUCTURES ..................................................................................................... 57
5.1 General ........................................................................................................................... 57
5.1.1 Economical Steel Superstructure Design ................................................................. 57
5.1.2 Rolled Beams vs Welded Plate Girders ................................................................... 58
5.1.3 Economical Plate Girder Proportioning .................................................................... 58
5.1.4 Falsework ................................................................................................................ 62
5.2 Materials ......................................................................................................................... 62
5.2.1 Structural Steel ........................................................................................................ 62
5.2.2 Bolts ........................................................................................................................ 64
5.2.3 Splice Plates ............................................................................................................ 65
5.3 Horizontally Curved Members ......................................................................................... 65
5.3.1 General .................................................................................................................... 65
5.3.2 Diaphragms, Bearings, and Field Splices ................................................................ 65
5.4 Fatigue Considerations ................................................................................................... 66
5.4.1 Load-Induced Fatigue .............................................................................................. 66
5.4.2 Other Fatigue Considerations .................................................................................. 67
5.5 General Dimension and Detail Requirements ................................................................. 67
5.5.1 Deck Haunches ....................................................................................................... 67
5.5.2 Sacrificial Metal Thickness ....................................................................................... 67
5.5.3 Minimum Thickness of Steel Plates ......................................................................... 67
5.5.4 Camber .................................................................................................................... 68
5.5.5 Diaphragms and Cross Frames ............................................................................... 68
5.5.6 Jacking .................................................................................................................... 70
5.5.7 Lateral Bracing ........................................................................................................ 73
5.5.8 Inspection Access (Tub Girders) .............................................................................. 73
5.6 I-Sections in Flexure ....................................................................................................... 73
5.6.1 General .................................................................................................................... 73
5.6.2 Shear Connectors .................................................................................................... 74
5.6.3 Stiffeners ................................................................................................................. 74
5.6.4 Deck-Overhang Cantilever Brackets ........................................................................ 76
5.7 Connections and Splices ................................................................................................ 76
5.7.1 Bolted Connections .................................................................................................. 76
5.7.2 Welded Connections ................................................................................................ 77
5.7.3 Splices ..................................................................................................................... 78
6 DECKS AND DECK SYSTEMS ........................................................................................ 80

Page iv

6.1 Concrete Decks .............................................................................................................. 80
6.1.1 Protection of Reinforcing Steel................................................................................. 80
6.1.2 Empirical Design ...................................................................................................... 80
6.1.3 Traditional Design Using the Strip Method............................................................. 80
6.1.4 Precast Concrete Deck Panels ................................................................................ 81
6.2 Metal Decks .................................................................................................................... 81
6.2.1 Grid Decks ............................................................................................................... 81
6.2.2 Orthotropic Steel Decks ........................................................................................... 81
6.3 Design Details for Concrete Bridge Decks ...................................................................... 82
6.3.1 General .................................................................................................................... 82
6.3.2 Detailing Requirements for Concrete-Deck Haunches ............................................. 83
6.3.3 Reinforcing Steel Over Intermediate Piers or Bents ................................................. 84
6.3.4 Minimum Negative Flexure Slab Reinforcement ...................................................... 84
6.3.5 Crack Control in Continuous Decks ......................................................................... 84
6.3.6 Skewed Decks ......................................................................................................... 87
6.3.7 Temperature and Shrinkage Reinforcement ............................................................ 88
6.3.8 Thickened Slab End Requirements .......................................................................... 88
6.3.9 Phase Constructed Decks ....................................................................................... 88
6.3.10 Stay-in-Place Forms ................................................................................................ 89
6.3.11 Concrete Deck Pouring Sequence for Decks Constructed Compositely in Conjunction
with Concrete and Steel Girders .............................................................................. 89
6.3.12 Longitudinal Construction Joints .............................................................................. 90
6.3.13 Longitudinal Concrete Deck Joints ........................................................................... 92
6.3.14 Transverse Edge Beam for Steel Girder Bridges ..................................................... 94
6.3.15 Concrete Deck Overhang/Bridge Rail ...................................................................... 94
6.4 Approach Slabs .............................................................................................................. 96
6.4.1 Usage ...................................................................................................................... 96
6.4.2 Design Criteria ......................................................................................................... 96
7 FOUNDATIONS ................................................................................................................ 97
7.1 General ........................................................................................................................... 97
7.1.1 Scope ...................................................................................................................... 97
7.1.2 Design Methodology ................................................................................................ 97
7.1.3 Bridge Foundation Design Process .......................................................................... 97
7.1.4 Bridge Design/Geotechnical Design Interaction ....................................................... 98
7.2 Spread Footings and Pile Caps .................................................................................... 101
7.2.1 Usage .................................................................................................................... 101

Page v

7.2.2 Dynamic Load Allowance (Impact Modifier, IM) ..................................................... 102
7.2.3 Thickness .............................................................................................................. 102
7.2.4 Depth ..................................................................................................................... 102
7.2.5 Bearing Resistance and Eccentricity ...................................................................... 102
7.2.6 Sliding Resistance ................................................................................................. 102
7.2.7 Differential Settlement ........................................................................................... 103
7.2.8 Reinforcement ....................................................................................................... 104
7.2.9 Miscellaneous ........................................................................................................ 104
7.3 Deep Foundations ........................................................................................................ 105
7.3.1 General .................................................................................................................. 105
7.3.2 Component Spacing .............................................................................................. 105
7.3.3 Drilled Shafts ......................................................................................................... 105
7.3.4 Driven Piles ........................................................................................................... 111
7.3.5 Pile/Shaft Testing................................................................................................... 114
7.4 Modelling for Lateral Loading ........................................................................................ 116
7.5 Mass Concrete ............................................................................................................. 117
8 ABUTMENTS, PIERS, AND WALLS .............................................................................. 118
8.1 Abutments/Wingwalls ................................................................................................... 118
8.1.1 General .................................................................................................................. 118
8.1.2 General Abutment/Wingwall Design and Detailing Criteria ..................................... 119
8.1.3 Seat Abutments ..................................................................................................... 119
8.1.4 Integral Abutments ................................................................................................. 120
8.1.5 Semi-Integral Abutments ....................................................................................... 120
8.1.6 MSE Wall Abutments ............................................................................................. 121
8.1.7 Wingwalls .............................................................................................................. 121
8.1.8 Abutment Construction Joints ................................................................................ 122
8.2 Piers ............................................................................................................................. 122
8.2.1 Design Preferences ............................................................................................... 122
8.2.2 Pier Caps ............................................................................................................... 122
8.2.3 Column Cross Sections ......................................................................................... 123
8.2.4 Column Reinforcement .......................................................................................... 123
8.2.5 Column Construction Joints ................................................................................... 125
8.2.6 Multi-Column Piers ................................................................................................ 125
8.2.7 Single-Column Piers .............................................................................................. 125
8.2.8 Pier Walls .............................................................................................................. 125
8.2.9 Dynamic Load Allowance (DLA) ............................................................................ 125

Page vi

8.2.10 Moment-Magnification ........................................................................................... 125
8.2.11 Crack Control ......................................................................................................... 126
8.3 Walls (Earth Retaining Systems) .................................................................................. 126
8.3.1 General .................................................................................................................. 126
8.3.2 Responsibilities ...................................................................................................... 127
8.3.3 Types of Earth Retaining Systems ......................................................................... 129
8.3.4 Mechanically-Stabilized Earth (MSE) Walls ........................................................... 131
8.4 Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil (GRS) Walls and Abutments .......................................... 139
8.5 Pier, Column, and Footing Design ................................................................................ 140
9 EXPANSION JOINTS ..................................................................................................... 143
9.1 Design Requirements: Movement and Loads ............................................................... 143
9.1.1 General .................................................................................................................. 143
9.1.2 Estimation of General Design Thermal Movement, A
T
........................................... 144
9.1.3 Estimation of Design Movement ............................................................................ 144
9.1.4 Setting Temperature .............................................................................................. 144
9.2 Expansion Joint Selection and Design .......................................................................... 145
9.2.1 General .................................................................................................................. 145
9.2.2 Strip Seal Joint ...................................................................................................... 145
9.2.3 Modular Expansion Joint........................................................................................ 146
9.2.4 Silicone Joint Sealant ............................................................................................ 146
9.2.5 Closed-Cell Compression Seal .............................................................................. 146
9.2.6 Asphaltic Plug Joint ............................................................................................... 146
9.2.7 Steel Finger Joints ................................................................................................. 147
9.2.8 Nosing Joint ........................................................................................................... 147
9.2.9 Expansion Joints for Asphaltic Overlays ................................................................ 147
9.3 Expansion Joints for Post-Tensioned Bridges ............................................................... 147
9.4 Expansion Joint Design ................................................................................................ 148
10 BEARINGS ..................................................................................................................... 149
10.1 General ......................................................................................................................... 149
10.1.1 Movements and Loads .......................................................................................... 149
10.1.2 Effect of Camber and Construction Procedures ..................................................... 149
10.1.3 Design Thermal Movements .................................................................................. 149
10.1.4 Estimation of Total Design Movement .................................................................... 150
10.1.5 Serviceability, Maintenance, and Protection Requirements .................................... 150
10.1.6 Anchor Bolts .......................................................................................................... 150
10.1.7 Bearing Plate Details ............................................................................................. 151

Page vii

10.1.8 Levelling Pad at Integral Abutments ...................................................................... 151
10.1.9 Lateral Restraint .................................................................................................... 151
10.2 Bearing Types and Selection ........................................................................................ 152
10.2.1 General .................................................................................................................. 152
10.2.2 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings .................................................................. 152
10.2.3 Plain Elastomeric Bearing Pads ............................................................................. 153
10.2.4 High-Load, Multi-Rotational (HLMR) Bearings ....................................................... 153
10.2.5 Polytetrafluoroethyl (PTFE) Sliding Surfaces ......................................................... 154
10.2.6 Seismic Isolation Bearings ..................................................................................... 154
10.3 Plain Elastomeric Bearing Pads and Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings ............... 154
10.3.1 General .................................................................................................................. 154
10.3.2 Holes in Elastomer ................................................................................................. 154
10.3.3 Edge Distance ....................................................................................................... 154
10.3.4 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings .................................................................. 155
10.3.5 Design of Plain Elastomeric Bearing Pads ............................................................. 155
10.3.6 Design of Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings .................................................. 155
11 PEDESTRIAN BRIDGES ................................................................................................ 157
11.1 Live Load ...................................................................................................................... 157
11.1.1 Pedestrian Load (PL) ............................................................................................. 157
11.1.2 Vehicle Load (LL) .................................................................................................. 157
11.2 Wind Load (WS) ........................................................................................................... 157
11.3 Vibrations ..................................................................................................................... 157
11.4 Design .......................................................................................................................... 157
11.4.1 General .................................................................................................................. 157
11.4.2 Geometrics ............................................................................................................ 158
11.4.3 Structure Type ....................................................................................................... 158
11.4.4 Seismic .................................................................................................................. 158
11.4.5 Fatigue .................................................................................................................. 158
11.4.6 Design ................................................................................................................... 158
11.4.7 Deflections ............................................................................................................. 159
11.4.8 Steel Connections.................................................................................................. 159
11.4.9 Charpy V-Notch Testing......................................................................................... 159
11.4.10 Painting/Galvanizing .............................................................................................. 160
11.4.11 Erection ................................................................................................................. 160
11.4.12 Railings/Enclosures ............................................................................................... 160
11.4.13 Drainage ................................................................................................................ 161

Page viii

11.4.14 Corrosion Resistant Details ................................................................................... 161
11.4.15 Lighting/Attachments ............................................................................................. 161
11.4.16 Maintenance and Inspection Attachments ............................................................. 161
12 CULVERTS ..................................................................................................................... 162
12.1 Reinforced Concrete Boxes .......................................................................................... 162
12.1.1 General .................................................................................................................. 162
12.1.2 Analysis ................................................................................................................. 162
12.1.3 Span-to-Rise Ratios ............................................................................................... 162
12.1.4 Deformations ......................................................................................................... 163
12.1.5 Design Method ...................................................................................................... 163
12.1.6 Load Modifiers and Load Factors ........................................................................... 163
12.1.7 Dead Loads and Earth Pressure ............................................................................ 163
12.1.8 Live Load ............................................................................................................... 164
12.1.9 Wall Thickness Requirements ............................................................................... 164
12.1.10 Reinforcement Details ........................................................................................... 164
12.1.11 Skewed Culverts .................................................................................................... 164
12.2 Concrete Arch Culverts ................................................................................................. 165
12.3 Concrete Pipe Culverts ................................................................................................. 165
12.3.1 General .................................................................................................................. 165
12.3.2 Materials ................................................................................................................ 165
12.3.3 Design ................................................................................................................... 166
13 SOUND BARRIERS ........................................................................................................ 167
13.1 Sound Barrier Design ................................................................................................... 167
13.1.1 General Features Panel Height and Post Spacing .............................................. 167
13.1.2 Wind Loads............................................................................................................ 167
13.1.3 Lateral Earth Pressure ........................................................................................... 167
14 SIGN AND LUMINAIRE SUPPORTS .............................................................................. 168
14.1 General ......................................................................................................................... 168
14.2 Deformations ................................................................................................................ 168
14.3 Basic Wind Speed ........................................................................................................ 168
14.4 Steel Design ................................................................................................................. 168
14.4.1 Base-Plate Thickness ............................................................................................ 168
14.4.2 Welded Connections .............................................................................................. 168
14.4.3 Bolted Connections ................................................................................................ 169
14.4.4 Anchor Bolt Connections ....................................................................................... 169
14.4.5 Bolt Types ............................................................................................................. 169

Page ix

14.5 Aluminium Design ......................................................................................................... 169
14.6 Prestressed-Concrete Poles ......................................................................................... 169
14.7 Foundation Design ........................................................................................................ 170
14.7.1 Geotechnical Design of Drilled Shaft Foundations ................................................. 170
14.7.2 Structural Design of Drilled Shaft Foundations ....................................................... 170
14.8 Design Loads for Vertical Supports ............................................................................... 170
15 ROAD TUNNELS ............................................................................................................ 171
15.1 General ......................................................................................................................... 171
15.2 Definition of Road Tunnels ............................................................................................ 171
15.3 Geotechnical Site Investigations ................................................................................... 172
15.4 Fire Protection .............................................................................................................. 172
15.5 Constructability ............................................................................................................. 172
15.6 Design Life.................................................................................................................... 172
15.7 Design Considerations .................................................................................................. 173
15.7.1 Design Elements ................................................................................................... 173
15.7.2 Live Load ............................................................................................................... 173
15.7.3 Seismic Considerations ......................................................................................... 174
15.8 Tunnel Types ................................................................................................................ 174
15.8.1 Cut-and-Cover Tunnels ......................................................................................... 174
15.8.2 Mined or Bored Tunnels......................................................................................... 175
15.8.3 Immersed Tunnels ................................................................................................. 176
15.9 Tunnel Lining ................................................................................................................ 176
16 BRIDGE EVALUATION .................................................................................................. 177
16.1 Load Rating .................................................................................................................. 177
16.1.1 General .................................................................................................................. 177
16.1.2 Importance of Load Rating ..................................................................................... 177
16.1.3 Methodology .......................................................................................................... 177
16.1.4 Thresholds for Re-Rating Existing Bridges ............................................................ 177
16.1.5 Limit States for Load Rating ................................................................................... 177
16.1.6 Dimensions ............................................................................................................ 177
16.1.7 The LRFR Load-Rating Equation ........................................................................... 178
16.1.8 Analytical Methods for the Load Rating of Post-Tensioned Box Girder Bridges ..... 179
16.2 Design Load Rating ...................................................................................................... 179
16.3 Legal-Load Rating and Load Posting ............................................................................ 179
16.3.1 Legal-Load Rating ................................................................................................. 179
16.3.2 Load Posting .......................................................................................................... 179

Page x

16.4 Permitting and Permit-Load Rating ............................................................................... 180
16.4.1 Permitting .............................................................................................................. 180
16.4.2 Permit-Load Rating ................................................................................................ 180
16.5 Load Testing of Bridges ................................................................................................ 180
16.5.1 General .................................................................................................................. 180
16.5.2 Load Testing Calculations ...................................................................................... 181
16.5.3 Load Testing Method Statement ............................................................................ 181
16.5.4 Load Testing Analysis Report ................................................................................ 182
17 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 184
APPENDIX A BRIDGE DESIGN CHECKLIST ........................................................................... 188

Page xi

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Characteristics of the Design Truck ............................................................................. 11
Figure 2.2: Permit Design Live Loads (for P-13 Vehicle) ............................................................... 12
Figure 2.3: Design Response Spectrum........................................................................................ 13
Figure 2.4: Positive Vertical Temperature Gradient in Concrete and Steel Superstructures .......... 15
Figure 3.1: Common Deck Superstructures Covered .................................................................... 18
Figure 4.1: Flowchart for Environmental Classification of Structures ............................................. 28
Figure 4.2: Deviator Diaphragm Detail .......................................................................................... 40
Figure 4.3: Inside Corner Detail at Pier ......................................................................................... 40
Figure 4.4: Details at Expansion Joints ......................................................................................... 40
Figure 5.1: Grouping Flanges for Efficient Fabrication (from the AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge
Collaboration (18)) ........................................................................................................................ 60
Figure 5.2: Flange Width Transition (Plan View) ........................................................................... 61
Figure 5.3: Drip Plate Detail .......................................................................................................... 65
Figure 5.4: Typical Pier and Intermediate Diaphragm Connection (Rolled Beams) ....................... 70
Figure 5.5: Typical Abutment Diaphragm Connection (Skewed Diaphragm with Rolled Beams) .. 71
Figure 5.6: Typical Pier and Intermediate Cross Frames (Plate Girder Web > 1200 mm) ............ 72
Figure 5.7: Typical Abutment Cross Frames (Plate Girder Web > 1200 mm) ................................ 72
Figure 5.8: Schematic of Location for Deck Overhang Bracket ..................................................... 76
Figure 5.9: Typical Welded Splice Details ..................................................................................... 78
Figure 6.1: Haunch Dimension for Steel Plate Girders .................................................................. 85
Figure 6.2: Haunch Dimension for Steel Rolled Beams ................................................................. 85
Figure 6.3: Haunch Dimension for Concrete ................................................................................. 86
Figure 6.4: Skew Angle and Length/Bridge Width Ratios .............................................................. 88
Figure 6.5: Typical Pour Diagram (Continuous Steel and Precast Girders) ................................... 91
Figure 6.6: Support for Finishing Machine ..................................................................................... 93
Figure 6.7: Transverse Edge Beam .............................................................................................. 95
Figure 7.1: Concrete Backfill Under Stepped Footing .................................................................. 105
Figure 7.2: Drilled Shaft Detail (With Permanent Corrugated Metal Pipe for Shafts Larger Than
Columns) .................................................................................................................................... 108
Figure 7.3: Drilled Shaft Detail (For Shafts Larger Than Columns Without Corrugated Metal Pipe)
................................................................................................................................................... 109
Figure 7.4: Drilled Shaft Detail (With Equal Diameter Shaft and Column) .................................. 110
Figure 7.5: Method of Modelling Deep Foundation Stiffness ....................................................... 117
Figure 8.1: Tops of Drop Caps .................................................................................................... 123
Figure 8.2: Design Criteria for Acute Corners of MSE Bin Walls ................................................. 132
Figure 8.3: MSE Wall Minimum Front Face Embedment ............................................................. 133
Figure 8.4: Broken Backfill with Traffic Surcharge ....................................................................... 135
Figure 8.5: Broken Backfill without Traffic Surcharge .................................................................. 135
Figure 8.6: Proprietary Retaining Walls ....................................................................................... 136
Figure 11.1: Tubular Truss Splice Detail ..................................................................................... 160

Page xii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Load Combinations and Load Factors ............................................................................ 6
Table 2.2: Load Factors for Permanent Loads,
p
........................................................................... 8
Table 2.3: Spectral Response Accelerations for the Abu Dhabi Emirate ....................................... 13
Table 2.4: BDS Procedure A Temperature Ranges .................................................................... 14
Table 4.1: Compressive Strength of Concrete............................................................................... 26
Table 4.2: Criteria for Substructure Environmental Classifications ................................................ 29
Table 4.3: Chloride Intrusion Rate/Environmental Classifications .................................................. 30
Table 4.4: Concrete Cover ............................................................................................................ 31
Table 4.5: Minimum Centre-to-Centre Duct Spacing ..................................................................... 38
Table 4.6: Minimum Tendon Radius ............................................................................................. 38
Table 4.7: Minimum Tendons Required for Critical Post-Tensioned Sections .............................. 43
Table 4.8: Minimum Duct Radius .................................................................................................. 43
Table 6.1: Orthotropic-Deck Panel Proportions ............................................................................ 82
Table 7.1: Resistance Factors for Drilled Shafts (Bridge Foundations)........................................ 111
Table 7.2: Driven Pile Selection Guide ........................................................................................ 112
Table 7.3: Table of Additional Sacrificial Steel Thickness Required (mm) ................................... 115
Table 8.1: Required Tendons for Post-Tensioned Substructure Elements .................................. 141
Table 8.2: Minimum Centre-to-Centre Duct Spacing ................................................................... 142
Table 9.1: BDS Procedure A Temperature Changes ................................................................ 143
Table 9.2: Expansion Joint Selection ......................................................................................... 145
Table 10.1: Summary of Bearing Capabilities ............................................................................. 153
Table 15.1: Spectral Response Accelerations Based Upon a 475-Year Return Period for the Abu
Dhabi Emirate ............................................................................................................................. 174

Page 1

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
In 2010, the Abu Dhabi Department of Transport commenced with the Unifying and Standardizing
of Road Engineering Practices Project. The objective of the project was to enhance the
management, planning, design, construction, maintenance and operation of all roads and related
infrastructures in the Emirate and ensure a safe and uniform operational and structural capacity
throughout the road network.
To achieve this objective a set of standards, specifications, guidelines and manuals were
developed in consultation with all relevant authorities in the Abu Dhabi Emirate including the
Department of Municipal Affairs (DMA) and Urban Planning Council (UPC). In the future, all
authorities or agencies involved in roads and road infrastructures in the Emirate shall exercise their
functions and responsibilities in accordance with these documents. The purpose, scope and
applicability of each document are clearly indicated in each document.
It is recognized that there are already published documents with similar objectives and contents
prepared by other authorities. Such related publications are mentioned in each new document and
are being superseded by the publication of the new document, except in cases where previously
published documents are recognized and referenced in the new document.
1.2 Purpose and Scope
1.2.1 General
The basic purpose and scope for the Abu Dhabi Road Structures Design Manual (RSDM, the
Manual) is as follows:
1. Objective. The Manual is an application-oriented document.
2. Theory. The Manual is not a structural design theory resource or a research document. The
Manual provides background information for bridge design criteria and application.
3. Details. Where beneficial, the Manual provides design details for various structural
elements.
4. Coordination with AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (BDS). Chapters 2 through
12 of the Manual are basically a Supplement to the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications, 6
th
Edition, 2012 (1) (BDS) that:
- in general, does not duplicate information in the BDS, unless necessary for clarity;
- elaborates on specific articles of the BDS;
- presents interpretative information and commentary on some provisions, where
required; these texts are shown as highlighted in the RSDM;
- modifies sections from the BDS where required due to local conditions or because the
bridge owner has adopted a different practice;
- indicates owners preference where the BDS presents multiple options; and

Page 2

- indicates bridge design applications presented in the BDS which are not typically used
in the Abu Dhabi Emirate.
In addition, the Manual discusses, for selected applications, the intent of the BDS to assist
the bridge designer in proper application.
The RSDM will be revised periodically as newer editions of the BDS are published. If newer
editions of the BDS (and any Interims) become available before the RSDM is revised, then
the more recent editions of the BDS shall govern.
5. Audience. The primary audience for the Manual is the owners employees, other relevant
authorities, consultants and contractors for the design and construction of road structures in
the Abu Dhabi Emirate.
1.2.2 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
1.2.2.1 General
The BDS establishes minimum requirements that apply to common road bridges and other
structures such as retaining walls and culverts; long-span or unique structures may require design
provisions in addition to those presented in the BDS. AASHTO issues interim revisions annually
and, periodically, AASHTO publishes a completely updated edition. The BDS serves as a standard
for use by bridge designers. Many agencies also have used it for the development of their own
structural specifications.
1.2.2.2 LRFD Methodology
The BDS presents a load-and-resistance-factor design (LRFD) methodology for the structural
design of bridges. Basically, the LRFD methodology requires that bridge components be designed
to satisfy four sets of limit states: Strength, Service, Fatigue-and-Fracture and Extreme-Event.
Through the use of reliability indices derived through statistical analyses, the Strength limit-state
provisions of the BDS reflect a uniform level of safety for all structural elements, components, and
systems.
1.3 Application of this Manual
1.3.1 Definition of Road Structures
Road structures are part of the roadway infrastructure including bridges, culverts, tunnels, and
retaining walls. Road structures also include pedestrian bridges, sound barriers, and structural
supports for signs and luminaires.
1.3.2 Hierarchy of Priority
Where conflicts are observed in publications and documents for structural design, the following
hierarchy of priority should be used to determine the appropriate application:
- Structural Design Memoranda issued by the owner,
- this Manual,
- BDS, and
- all other generally recognised structure-related publications (e.g. research studies).

Page 3

1.4 Design Objectives
Reference: BDS Article 2.5
In addition to the design objectives outlined in the BDS, the following emphasizes objectives of
special importance to the Abu Dhabi Emirate.
1.4.1 Serviceability
1.4.1.1 Durability
Reference: BDS Article 2.5.2.1
Provide special attention to durability issues during design and construction. In consideration of
local conditions, this Manual specifies material and protective measures to enhance the durability
provisions already included in the BDS.
1.4.1.2 Inspectability and Maintainability
Reference: BDS Articles 2.5.2.2 and 2.5.2.3
Provide access to different parts of structures for inspection, maintenance, rehabilitation, and
replacement where and when necessary (e.g. bearings, expansion joints, future post-tensioning
tendons). Provide all required jacking points.
1.4.1.3 Adjacent Structures
As practical, the bridge design should not affect, nor have any negative impact on adjacent existing
buildings and structures (if any) or any planned construction in the area. Therefore, due
consideration shall be given to existing structures during the design process.
1.4.1.4 Utilities
Provide service provisions as required by the interested authorities. Design protection culverts for
oil, water, sewer, and electricity in coordination with the authorities requirements.
1.4.2 Constructability
Reference: BDS Article 2.5.3
1.4.3 Maintenance of Traffic
Minimize the disturbance to traffic flow on the existing roads during construction. (Refer to the
Work Zone Management Manual (under development)).
1.4.4 Sustainability
A sustainable bridge project must satisfy transportation requirements and improve the economy,
environment, and social aspects. Although the concept of sustainable bridge design is still in
development, and clear standards have not been formalized, all bridges in the Abu Dhabi Emirate
shall be designed with sustainability as a major design objective.

Page 4

1.4.5 Aesthetics
Every effort shall be made in the treatment of structures to respect the local aesthetic design and
culture. Design concepts should be easily implementable. Also, construction considerations shall
be considered in the architectural treatment concepts. Architectural elements should be functional,
durable, and easily maintainable. Each structure should have individuality; however, a completely
different aesthetic treatment is not required for every structure. Desirably, maintain a sense of
continuity throughout the entire highway corridor.
Architectural treatment should be continuous throughout an interchange. Underpasses spanning a
given roadway should have a similar treatment to establish continuity. Decorative and median
lighting should be similar on overpasses along a given route, unless special lighting is requested
by the client over the structure.
1.5 Design Approval Procedures
1.5.1 Objectives
The fundamental objectives of the design approval procedures are to provide increased assurance
for the required construction, rehabilitation, or demolition so that the proposed projects are safe to
implement. The procedures also ensure that any new structures are:
- safely serviceable in use,
- constructable,
- durable,
- economic to build and maintain,
- comply with the objectives of sustainability,
- have due regard for the environment, and
- satisfactorily perform their intended functions.
The design check shall also ensure that the road users and others who may be affected are
protected from any adverse effects resulting from any work to the structure, and that there is
always adequate provision for safety.
1.5.2 Reference
The design approval procedures for different types of structures should be according to BD 2/05
Technical Approval of Highway Structures (2).
1.6 Bridge Design Checklists
Check the bridge design documents (calculations and drawings) according to the Bridge Design
Checklists for the various stages of design presented in Appendix 1.

Page 5

2 LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS
Sections 1 and 3 of the BDS discuss various aspects of loads and load factors. Unless noted
otherwise in Chapter 2, the BDS loads and load factors shall be followed.
2.1 General
2.1.1 Limit States
Reference: BDS Articles 1.3.2 and 3.4.1
All of the limit-state load combinations as specified in BDS Table 3.4.1-1 shall be followed, except
as modified herein.
The BDS groups the design criteria together within groups termed as limit states to which
different load combinations are assigned.
2.1.1.1 BDS Total Factored Force Effect Equation
All structure components and connections shall be designed to satisfy the basic BDS equation for
the total factored force effects for all limit states:

Equation 2.1
where:
i
= load factor
Q
i
= load or force effect
= resistance factor
R
n
= nominal resistance

i
= load modifier as defined in BDS Equations 1.3.2.1-2 and 1.3.2.1-3
The left-hand side of BDS Equation 1.3.2.1-1 (Equation 2.1 above) is the sum of the factored load
(force) effects acting on a component; the right-hand side is the factored nominal resistance of the
component. The equation must be considered for all applicable limit state load combinations.
Similarly, the equation is applicable to superstructures, substructures, and foundations.
For the Strength limit states, the BDS is basically a hybrid design code in that the force effect on
the left-hand side of the BDS equation is based upon elastic structural response, while resistance
on the right-hand side of the equation is determined predominantly by applying inelastic response
principles. The BDS has adopted the hybrid nature of strength design on the assumption that the
inelastic component of structural performance will always remain relatively small because of non-
critical redistribution of force effects. This non-criticality is assured by providing adequate
redundancy and ductility of the structures, which is the general policy for the design of bridges.
2.1.1.2 Load Modifier
Use
i
values of 1.00 for all limit states, because bridges designed in accordance with this Manual
will demonstrate traditional levels of redundancy and ductility. Rather than penalize less redundant
or less ductile bridges, such bridges are not encouraged. The designer may on a case-by-case
basis designate a bridge to be of special operational importance and specify an appropriate value
of
i
.
n i i i R Q | s q

Page 6

The load modifier
i
relates to ductility, redundancy, operational importance, and is a function of
the factors
D
,
R
, and
I
. The location of
i
on the load side of Equation 2.1 may appear
counterintuitive because it appears to be more related to resistance than to load.
i
is on the load
side for a logistical reason. When
i
modifies a maximum load factor, it is the product of the factors
as indicated in BDS Equation 1.3.2.1-2; when
i
modifies a minimum load factor, it is the reciprocal
of the product as indicated in BDS Equation 1.3.2.1-3. These factors are somewhat arbitrary; their
significance is in their presence in the BDS and not necessarily in the accuracy of their magnitude.
The BDS factors reflect the desire to promote redundant and ductile bridges.
The load modifier accounting for importance of BDS Article 1.3.5,
I
, should not be confused with
the importance categories for seismic design of BDS Articles 3.10.3 and 4.7.4.3. The importance
load modifier is used in the basic BDS Equation, but the importance categories are used to
determine the minimum seismic analysis requirements.
2.1.2 Load Factors and Combinations
Table 2.1 (BDS Table 3.4.1-1) provides the load factors for all of the load combinations of the BDS.
Table 2.1: Load Combinations and Load Factors
Load Combination
Limit State
DC
DD
DW
EH
EV
ES
EL
PS
CR
SH
LL
IM
CE
BR
PL
LS WA WS WL FR TU TG SE
Use One of These
at a Time
EQ IC CT CV
Strength I (unless noted) p 1.75 1.00 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE
Strength II p 1.35 1.00 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE
Strength III p 1.00 1.40 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE
Strength IV p 1.00 1.00 0.50/1.20
Strength V p 1.35 1.00 0.40 1.0 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE
Extreme Event I p EQ 1.00 1.00 1.00
Extreme Event II p 0.50 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Service I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 1.0 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE
Service II 1.00 1.30 1.00 1.00 1.00/1.20
Service III 1.00 0.80 1.00 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE
Service IV 1.00 1.00 0.70 1.00 1.00/1.20 1.0
Fatigue ILL, IM & CE only 1.50
Fatigue IILL, IM & CE only 0.75
2.1.2.1 Strength Load Combinations
The load factors for the Strength load combinations are calibrated based upon structural reliability
theory and represent the uncertainty of their associated loads. The significance of the Strength
load combinations can be simplified as follows:
1. Strength I Load Combination. This load combination represents random traffic and the
heaviest truck to cross the bridge in its design life. During this live-load event, a significant
wind is not considered probable.
2. Strength II Load Combination. In the BDS, this load combination represents an owner-
specified permit load model. This live-load event has less uncertainty than random traffic

Page 7

and, thus, a lower live-load load factor. This load combination is used for design in
conjunction with the permit live load design vehicle (P-13 load) discussed in Section
2.3.2.2.
3. Strength III Load Combination. This load combination represents the most severe wind
during the bridges design life. During this severe wind event, no significant live load is
assumed to cross the bridge.
4. Strength IV Load Combination. This load combination represents an extra safeguard for
bridge superstructures where the unfactored dead load exceeds seven times the
unfactored live load. Thus, the only significant load factor would be the 1.25 dead-load
maximum load factor. For additional safety, and based solely on engineering judgment, the
BDS has arbitrarily increased the load factor for DC to 1.5. This load combination need not
be considered for any component except a superstructure component, and never where the
unfactored dead-load force effect is less than seven times the unfactored live-load force
effect. This load combination typically governs only for longer spans, approximately greater
than 60 m in length. Thus, this load combination will only be necessary in relatively rare
cases.
5. Strength V Load Combination. This load combination represents the simultaneous
occurrence of a normal live-load event and a wind event with load factors of 1.35 and 0.4,
respectively.
For components not traditionally governed by wind force effects, the Strength III and Strength V
load combinations should not govern. Generally, the Strength I and Strength II load combinations
will govern for a typical multi-girder highway bridge.
2.1.2.2 Service Load Combinations
Unlike the strength load combinations, the service load combinations are material dependent. The
following applies:
1. Service I Load Combination. Apply this load combination to control cracking in reinforced
concrete components and compressive stresses in prestressed concrete components.
Also, use this load combination to calculate deflections and settlements of superstructure
and substructure components.
2. Service II Load Combination. Apply this load combination to control permanent
deformations of compact steel sections and the slip of slip-critical (i.e. friction-type) bolted
steel connections.
3. Service III Load Combination. Apply this load combination to control tensile stresses in
prestressed concrete superstructure components under vehicular traffic loads. The Service
III load combination need not apply to the design permit live load design vehicle.
4. Service IV Load Combination. Apply this load combination to control tensile stresses in
prestressed concrete substructure components under wind loads. For components not
traditionally governed by wind effects, this load combination should not govern.
2.1.2.3 Extreme-Event Load Combinations
The extreme-event limit states differ from the strength limit states, because the event for which the
bridge and its components are designed has a greater return period than the design life of the

Page 8

bridge (or a much lower frequency of occurrence than the loads of the strength limit state). The
following applies:
1. Extreme-Event I Load Combination. This load combination is applied to earthquakes. Use a
load factor of 0.5 for
EQ
for all live-load related forces in BDS Table 3.4.1-1. Earthquakes in
conjunction with scour (which is considered a change in foundation condition, not a load)
can result in a very costly design solution if severe scour is anticipated. In this case, typical
practice is to combine one-half of the total design scour (sum of contraction, local, and
long-term scour) with the full seismic loading.
2. Extreme-Event II Load Combination. This load combination is applied to various types of
collisions (vessel or vehicular) applied individually.
2.1.2.4 Fatigue-and-Fracture Load Combination
The Fatigue-and-Fracture load combination, although strictly applicable to all types of
superstructures, only affects the steel elements, components, and connections of a limited number
of steel superstructures. Chapter 5 discusses fatigue and fracture for steel.
2.1.2.5 Application of Multiple-Valued Load Factors
Maximum and Minimum Permanent-Load Load Factors
In Table 2.1, the variable
P
represents load factors for all of the permanent loads, shown in the
first column of load factors. This variable reflects that the Strength and Extreme-Event limit state
load factors for the various permanent loads are not single constants, but they can have two
extreme values. Table 2.2 (BDS Table 3.4.1-2) provides these two extreme values for the various
permanent load factors, maximum and minimum. Permanent loads are always present on the
bridge, but the nature of uncertainty is that the actual loads may be more or less than the nominal
specified design values. Therefore, maximum and minimum load factors reflect this uncertainty.
Table 2.2: Load Factors for Permanent Loads,
p

Type of Load, Foundation Type, and
Method Used to Calculate Downdrag
Load Factor
Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and attachments
DC: Strength IV only
1.25
1.50
0.90
0.90
DD: Downdrag Piles, o Tomlinson method
Piles, method
Drilled shafts, ONeill and Reese (1999) Method
1.40
1.05
1.25
0.25
0.30
0.35
DW: Wearing surfaces and utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal earth pressure
Active
At-Rest
AEP for anchored walls
1.50
1.35
1.35
0.90
0.90
N/A
EL: Locked-in construction stresses 1.00 1.00
EV: Vertical earth pressure
Overall stability
Retaining walls and abutments
Rigid buried structure
Rigid frames
Flexible buried structures other than metal box culverts
Flexible metal box culverts and structural plate culverts with
deep corrugations
1.00
1.35
1.30
1.35
1.95
1.50
N/A
1.00
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.90
ES: Earth surcharge 1.50 0.75

Page 9

Select the appropriate maximum or minimum permanent-load load factors to produce the more
critical load effect. For example, in continuous superstructures with relatively short end spans,
transient live load in the end span causes the bearing to be more compressed, while transient live
load in the second span causes the bearing to be less compressed and perhaps lift up. To check
the maximum compression force in the bearing, place the live load in the end span and use the
maximum DC load factor of 1.25 for all spans. To check possible uplift of the bearing, place the live
load in the second span and use the minimum DC load factor of 0.90 for all spans.
Superstructure design uses the maximum permanent-load load factors almost exclusively, with the
most common exception being uplift of a bearing as discussed above. The BDS has generalized
load situations such as uplift where a permanent load (in this case a dead load) reduces the overall
force effect (in this case a reaction). Permanent load factors, either maximum or minimum, must be
selected for each load combination to produce extreme force effects.
Substructure design routinely uses the maximum and minimum permanent-load load factors from
Table 2.2. An illustrative yet simple example is a spread footing supporting a cantilever retaining
wall. When checking bearing, the weight of the soil (EV) over the heel is factored up by the
maximum load factor, 1.35, because greater EV increases the bearing pressure, q
ult
, making the
limit state more critical. When checking sliding, EV is factored by the minimum load factor, 1.00,
because lesser EV decreases the resistance to sliding, Q
t
, again making the limit state more
critical. The application of these maximum and minimum load factors is required for foundation and
substructure design; see Chapters 7 and 8.
Load Factors for Superimposed Deformations
The load factors for the superimposed deformations (TU, CR, SH) for the strength limit states also
have two specified values a load factor of 0.5 for the calculation of stress, and a load factor of
1.2 for the calculation of deformation. Use the greater value of 1.2 to calculate unrestrained
deformations (e.g. a simple span expanding freely with rising temperature). The lower value of 0.5
for the elastic calculation of stress reflects the inelastic response of the structure due to restrained
deformations. For example, use one-half of the temperature rise to elastically calculate the
stresses in a constrained structure. Using 1.2 times the temperature rise in an elastic calculation
would overestimate the stresses in the structure. The structure resists the temperature inelastically
through redistribution of the elastic stresses.
2.2 Permanent Loads
2.2.1 General
The BDS specifies seven components of permanent loads, which are either direct gravity loads or
caused by gravity loads. The primary forces from prestressing are considered to be part of the
resistance of a component and has been omitted from the list of permanent loads in Section 3 of
the BDS. However, when designing anchorages for prestressing tendons, the prestressing force is
the only load effect, and it should appear on the load side of Equation 2.1. The permanent load EL
includes secondary forces from pre-tensioning or post-tensioning.
As discussed in Section 2.1.2.5, the permanent force effects in superstructure design are factored
by the maximum permanent-load load factors almost exclusively, with the most common exception
being the check for uplift of a bearing. In substructure design, the permanent force effects are

Page 10

routinely factored by the maximum or minimum permanent-load load factors from BDS Table 3.4.1-
2 as appropriate.
The following lists additional minimum loads that are usually applicable to Abu Dhabi structures:
- Unit weight of reinforced and prestressed concrete: 25 kn/m
3
.
- 110 mm of asphalt wearing course shall be considered. Unit weight of wearing course: 23
kn/m
3
.
- The actual weight and position of all known utilities; otherwise, an additional dead load
(curb to curb) of 0.85 kn/m
2
shall be considered.
2.2.2 Downdrag (DD) on Deep Foundations
Deep foundations (i.e. drilled shafts and driven piles) through unconsolidated soil layers may be
subject to downdrag, DD. Downdrag is a load developed along the vertical sides of a deep-
foundation element tending to drag it downward typically due to consolidation of soft soils
underneath embankments reducing its resistance. Calculate this additional load as a skin-friction
effect. If possible, detail the deep foundation to mitigate the effects of downdrag; otherwise, it is
necessary to design considering downdrag. Chapter 7 discusses mitigation methods.
2.2.3 Differential Settlement (SE)
Differential settlement between adjacent substructure units or transversely across a single
substructure unit induces stresses in continuous structures and deflections in simple structures.
Although most bridges can easily resist these stresses and deflections, consider the potential
effects of differential settlement for all structures. Consider the effects of expected differential
settlement in the longitudinal and transverse direction on a case-by-case basis.
2.3 Transient Loads
2.3.1 General
The BDS recognizes 19 transient loads. Static water pressure, stream pressure, buoyancy, and
wave action are integrated as water load, WA. Creep, settlement, shrinkage, and temperature (CR,
SE, SH, TU, and TG), being superimposed deformations which, if restrained, will result in force
effects, are elevated in importance to loads. For example, restrained strains due to an increase in
uniform-temperature induce compression forces.
2.3.2 Abu Dhabi Vehicular Load (ADVL)
Reference: BDS Articles 3.6.1, 3.6.3, 3.6.4, and 3.11.6.4
Design all bridges and their components for the ADVL notional live-load model. The ADVL
replaces the HL-93 notional live-load model of the BDS. It consists of the HL-93 notional live-load
components the design truck, the design tandem and the design lane loads each multiplied
by 1.5. The dimensions of the vehicles and the lanes remain the same as the HL-93. See Figure
2.1.

Page 11

Figure 2.1: Characteristics of the Design Truck

Multiply all other transient loads associated with vehicular load as defined in the BDS (e.g. CE, BR,
LS, and the fatigue load) by 1.5.
For short and medium span bridges, vehicular live load is the most significant component of load.
Dead loads become more significant for long-span bridges. Long-span bridges are defined as
those governed by the Strength IV load combination where the dead load is seven times or more
greater than the live load.
2.3.2.1 Multiple Presence Factors
The multiple presence factor of 1.0 for two loaded lanes, as given in BDS Table 3.6.1.1.2-1, is the
result of the BDS calibration for the notional load, which has been normalized relative to the
occurrence of two side-by-side, fully correlated, or identical, vehicles. Use the multiple presence
factor of 1.2 for one loaded lane where a single design tandem or single design truck governs,
such as in overhangs, decks, etc. The multiple presence factors of 0.85 and 0.65 for three lanes
and more than three lanes loaded, respectively, may govern for wider bridges.
Do not apply the multiple-presence factors to fatigue loads.
2.3.2.2 Permit Loads for Design (P Load)
Use the Caltrans P-13 Standard Permit Design Vehicle for the design of structures to provide a
minimum permit-load capacity on all highway structures to account for vehicles that exceed the
legal limits and that operate on highways and structures under special transportation permits. See
Figure 2.2. Design all bridges for the Strength II, Service I, and Service II load combinations with
the P load in the exterior right lane and the ADVL in all other lanes.

Page 12

Figure 2.2: Permit Design Live Loads (for P-13 Vehicle)

2.3.3 Wind Loads (WS and WL)
Use a wind velocity at 9 m above low ground or above design water level, V
30
, of 120 km/h. For
signs, luminaires supports, and pedestrian bridges only, use a gust factor of 1.3. For road bridges
with a span length greater than 75 m, use a gust factor of 1.18.
The wind velocity used in the BDS is often referred to as a 3-second gust, which is the highest
sustained gust over a 3-second period having a probability of being exceeded per year of 1 in 50
(ASCE 7-10) (3).

Page 13

2.3.4 Earthquake Effects (EQ)
Reference: AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design (SBD)
Apply the provisions of the SBD (4) to bridges in the Abu Dhabi Emirate. Use the spectral
response accelerations given in Table 2.3 in conjunction with the provisions of the SBD.
Table 2.3: Spectral Response Accelerations for the Abu Dhabi Emirate
Return Period
in Years
Peak Horizontal
Ground Acceleration
Coefficient, PGA
Short-Period
(0.2 sec) Value of
Spectral Acceleration
Coefficient, S
s

Longer-Period
(1 sec) Value of
Coefficient, S
1

475 0.04 0.102 0.039
2475 0.07 0.173 0.068

Design typical bridges to withstand the spectral response accelerations given in Table 2.3 for a
return period of 475 years without damage. After the event characterized by these spectral
response accelerations, the structure should be capable of being placed immediately back into
service after inspection. Permanent repair to reinstate the design resistances for both static and
seismic loading should be feasible.
Also, design typical road tunnels to be usable by emergency traffic, although damage may have
occurred, and some temporary repairs may be required following a higher-level design earthquake
as defined in Table 2.3 for a 475-year return period. After the event characterized by these
accelerations, damage should be minor, and there should be no disruption to traffic.
Critical or essential bridge and tunnel structures should be designed to withstand a higher-level
earthquake with a return period of 2475 years. Guidance for the classification of critical or
essential bridges is given in BDS Article C1.3.5.
The design response spectrum, illustrated in Figure 2.3, is variable and constructed using the
spectral response accelerations specified in Table 2.3 and other characteristics of the structure as
defined in the SBD.
Figure 2.3: Design Response Spectrum

Page 14

The provisions for seismic effects in BDS Article 3.10 do not apply.
The spectral accelerations specified in Table 2.3 are taken from Pascucci, et al. (5) based upon a
2475-year return period. Abu Dhabi has no major faults within its boundaries, and the only faults
that may be associated with future seismicity are:
- Deep faults associated with Jebel Hafit on the Oman border.
- The south western extension of the Dibb Fault, south of Musandam Peninsula.
Abu Dhabi is in the process of implementing a seismological data-collection and monitoring
program that will use five stationary seismic monitoring stations and three mobile stations.
2.3.5 Uniform Temperature (TU)
Use Procedure A of BDS Article 3.12.2.1 to determine the appropriate design thermal range. Use
the minimum and maximum temperatures specified in Table 2.4 as T
MinDesign
and T
MaxDesign
,
respectively, in BDS Equation 3.12.2.3-1.
Assume a construction temperature of 30C.
Table 2.4: BDS Procedure A Temperature Ranges
Concrete Bridges Steel Bridges
0C - 60C 0C - 70C

2.3.6 Temperature Gradient (TG)
Include the effects of TG in the design of all superstructures. The vertical TG should be taken
as shown in Figure 2.4.
Dimension A in Figure 2.4 shall be taken as:
- For concrete superstructures that are 400 mm or more in depth: 300 mm
- For concrete sections shallower than 400 mm: 100 mm less than the actual depth
- For steel superstructures: 300 mm and the distance t shall be taken as the depth of the
concrete deck
Temperature values T
1
and T
2
shall be taken as 30C and 8C, respectively. Temperature value T
3

shall be taken as 0C, unless a site-specific study is made to determine an appropriate value.

Page 15

Figure 2.4: Positive Vertical Temperature Gradient in Concrete and Steel Superstructures

2.3.7 Live-Load Surcharge (LS)
Multiply equivalent heights of soil for vehicular loading on abutments and retaining walls specified
in BDS Tables 3.11.6.4-1 and 3.11.6.4-2, respectively, by 1.5 for use in the Abu Dhabi Emirate.
Retaining walls that retain soil supporting a roadway must be able to resist the lateral pressure due
to the live-load surcharge. See Chapter 8 for retaining walls.
2.3.8 Ground Water Levels
Due care should be taken to ensure that false water table measurements, resulting from a
temporary depression of the water table, because of construction activities, are not used in the
design. The water table should be conservatively estimated taking into account the effects of tidal
and seasonal fluctuations.

Page 16

3 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Section 4 of the BDS (1) discusses the methods of structural analysis for the design and evaluation
of bridge superstructures; Section 4 does not address analysis procedures for substructures.
Section 5 of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design (4) (SBD)
discusses the methods of analysis for seismic design and evaluation of bridges. Chapter 3 of this
Manual provides an elaboration on the provisions of BDS Section 4 and SBD Section 5 to discuss
specific practices on structural analysis. Chapter 7 provides provisions on structural analysis
procedures for foundations. Chapter 8 provides these provisions on piers, abutments, and walls.
3.1 Acceptable Methods
3.1.1 General
Design all bridge superstructures based upon refined analysis employing two-dimensional (2-D) or
three-dimensional (3-D) models (see Section 3.2.1 below).
See Section 3.2.2 for the use of approximate analyses.
3.1.2 Exceptions
Reference: BDS Articles 4.6.1.1, 4.6.1.2.2, and 4.6.1.2.3
With approval of the owner, one-dimensional single-spline beam analysis (i.e. where the single
dimension explicitly modelled represents the span lengths) may be applied to bridges where the
span length of a superstructure with torsionally stiff closed cross sections exceeds 3 times its
width. For mullet-cell boxes, the width is taken as the distance between the outside faces of the
exterior webs.
A single-spline beam is sometimes termed a beam deck.
3.2 Static Analysis
3.2.1 Refined Analysis
See Hambly (6) and OBrien & Keogh (7) for detailed information on 2-D and 3-D modelling. Note
that the term bridge deck in these references refers to the term bridge superstructure in this
Manual.
When a refined method of analysis is used, indicate in design documents the name, version, and
date of the software used.
Refined analyses include both 2-D and 3-D modelling. 2-D models are composed of elements
essentially lying in a single plane with the third dimension represented only through the stiffness
properties of the elements (such as a grillage). 3-D models are composed of elements in all three
dimensions (space truss) or of elements with three dimensions (such as solid elements). BDS
Article 4.6.3 provides general guidance for 2-D and 3-D models in terms of numbers of elements
and aspect ratios.
3.2.2 Approximate Analysis

Page 17

3.2.2.1 General
The bridge designer may use the approximate methods of BDS Article 4.6.2 for preliminary design
and single-spline beam analysis.
3.2.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors
In BDS Article 4.6.2.2.2, extend the Range of Applicability for the referenced bridge types of Figure
3.1 as follows:
1. BDS Table 4.6.2.2.2.b-1. For open prestressed concrete box beam bridges (Type c cross-
section) change the depth parameter range to 450 mm < d < 1800 mm, and the span
length parameter range to 6 m < L < 50 m; for prestressed flat slab bridges (Type f cross-
section) change the width parameter to 750 mm < b < 1550 mm; and for prestressed
concrete I-beam bridges (Type k cross-section) change the longitudinal stiffness
parameter range to 4.0 x 10
9
mm
4
< Kg < 3.324 x 10
12
mm
4
.
2. BDS Table 4.6.2.2.3.a-1. For open prestressed concrete box beam bridges (Type c cross-
section) change the depth parameter range to 450 mm < d < 1800 mm, and the span
length parameter range to 6 m < L < 50 m; and for prestressed flat slab bridges (Type f
cross-section) change the moment of inertia range to 4.0 x 10
9
mm
4
< I < 2.4 x 10
11
mm
4
,
and the width parameter to 750 mm < b < 1550 mm.
3. BDS Table 4.6.2.2.3.b-1. For prestressed flat slab bridges (Type f cross-section) change
the width parameter to 750 mm < b < 1550 mm.
4. BDS Table 4.6.2.2.3.c-1. For open prestressed concrete box bridges (Type c cross-
section) change the depth parameter range to 450 mm < d < 1800 mm and the span length
parameter range to 6 m < L < 50 m; and for prestressed flat slab bridges (Type f cross-
section) change the width parameter to 750 mm < b < 1550 mm.
The BDS distribution factor equations are largely based on work conducted in NCHRP Project 12-
26. When one or more of the parameters are outside the listed range of applicability, the equation
could still remain valid, particularly when the value(s) is (are) only slightly outside the range. The
extended values given herein are considered slightly outside of the BDS range of applicability. If
one or more of the parameters greatly exceed the range of applicability, engineering judgment
needs to be exercised.
The BDS approximate method produces distribution factors that are conservative when compared
to refined analyses even though the beam stiffness and spacings vary significantly.
3.2.2.3 Distribution for Beam-Slab Bridges
Distribute barrier and railing permanent loads in accordance with BDS Article 4.6.2.2.

Page 18

Figure 3.1: Common Deck Superstructures Covered
Supporting Components Type of Deck Typical Cross Section
Steel beam
Cast-in-situ concrete slab,
precast concrete slab,
steel grid, glued/spiked
panels, stressed wood

Closed steel or precast
concrete boxes
Cast-in-situ concrete slab
Open steel or precast
concrete boxes
Cast-in-situ concrete slab,
precast concrete deck slab

Cast-in-situ concrete
multicell box
Monolithic concrete
Cast-in-situ concrete tee
beam
Monolithic concrete
Precast solid, voided or
cellular concrete boxes with
shear keys
overlay

Precast solid, voided or
cellular concrete box with
shear keys and with or
without transverse post-
tensioning
Integral concrete
Precast concrete channel
sections with shear keys
overlay

Page 19

Figure 3.1: Common Deck Superstructures Covered
(Continued)
Supporting Components Type of Deck Typical Cross Section
Precast concrete double tee
section with shear keys and
with or without transverse
post-tensioning
Integral concrete

Precast concrete tee section
with shear keys and with or
without transverse post-
tensioning
Integral concrete
Precast concrete I or bulb-
tee sections
Cast-in-situ concrete,
precast concrete

Wood beams
Cast-in-situ concrete or
plank, glued/spiked panels
or stressed wood

3.2.2.4 Limit State Checks
Traffic and pedestrian railings and raised sidewalks are not to be included in the stiffness of the
bridge for the determination of deflections or for service or fatigue limit state checks.
3.2.3 Lateral Wind-Load Distribution in Multi-Beam Bridges
Reference: BDS Articles 3.8.1 and 4.6.2.7.1
Assume that typical concrete fascia girders satisfactorily resist transverse wind loads.
BDS Article 4.6.2.7.1 discusses load paths for transferring wind loads transversely applied to the
fascia girder to the bridges bearings. The Commentary to this Article provides guidelines on how
girders resist these wind loads. These provisions are directly applicable to steel girder bridges. In
typical concrete girder bridges, the distribution of wind load becomes insignificant due to their
greater out-of-plane stiffness in comparison with steel girders.
3.3 Dynamic Analysis
3.3.1 Seismic Analysis
Reference: SBD Articles 4.5 and 5.4
No detailed seismic analysis should be required for a single-span bridge or for any bridge in
Seismic Design Category (SDC) A. However, specific detailing requirements are applied for SDC
A.

Page 20

The seismicity of the Abu Dhabi Emirate is relatively low (see Section 2.3.6 of this Manual). SDC A
will be typical for most bridges and, thus, for these bridges, no detailed seismic analysis is
required.
3.3.1.1 Analytical Methods
Chapter 2 of this Manual specifies seismic forces for the Abu Dhabi Emirate for use in the seismic
analysis. See Section 5 of the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Seismic Design
Criteria (8) for more details on the analysis methods presented herein.
The objective of seismic analysis is to assess the force and deformation demands and capacities
on the structural system and its individual components. Some static analysis tools are applied to
model earthquake dynamic effects. Equivalent static analysis (ESA) and linear elastic dynamic
analysis (EDA) are the appropriate analytical tools for estimating the displacement demands for
standard bridges. Inelastic static analysis (ISA) is the appropriate analytical tool to establish the
displacement capacities for special bridges.
Equivalent Static Analysis (ESA)
Reference: SBD Article 5.4.2
Assume that the seismic load is an equivalent static horizontal force applied to individual frames.
The total applied force is equal to the product of the acceleration response spectrum (ARS)
calculated based on natural frequency of the structural system and on the tributary weight. Apply
the horizontal force at the centre of mass (or gravity) of the superstructure and distribute this force
horizontally in proportion to the mass distribution.
ESA can be used to estimate displacement demands for structures where a more sophisticated
dynamic analysis will not provide additional insight into behaviour. ESA is best suited for structures
or individual frames with well-balanced spans and uniformly distributed stiffness where the
response can be captured by a predominant translational mode of vibration.
Elastic Dynamic Analysis (EDA)
Reference: SBD Articles 5.4.3 and 5.5
Use EDA to estimate the displacement demands for structures where ESA cannot provide an
adequate level of sophistication to estimate the dynamic behaviour. Perform a linear elastic multi-
modal spectral analysis using the appropriate response spectrum. Use a sufficient number of
degrees of freedom and number of modes in the analysis to capture at least 90% mass
participation in the longitudinal and transverse directions. The number of elements must be
consistent with the structure type, but use an absolute minimum of three elements per column and
four elements per span in the linear elastic model. Combine EDA modal results using the complete
quadratic combination (CQC) method.
Typically, the entire bridge is modelled. For longer structures, the bridge designer should model a
boundary frame (or abutment, where appropriate) at each end of the frame under investigation as
a minimum.
For multi-frame analysis, include a minimum of two boundary frames or one frame and an
abutment beyond the frame under consideration.
EDA, based on design spectral accelerations, will likely produce stresses in some elements that
exceed their elastic limit. The presence of such stresses indicates nonlinear behaviour. The bridge

Page 21

designer should recognize that forces generated by linear elastic analysis could vary considerably
from the actual force demands on the structure. Sources of nonlinear response that are not
captured by EDA include the effects of the surrounding soil, yielding of structural components,
opening and closing of expansion joints, and nonlinear restrainer and abutment behaviour.
The complete quadratic combination (CQC) method is an improvement on the square root of the
sum of the squares (SRSS) method for closely spaced modes.
Inelastic Static Analysis (ISA)
Use ISA, commonly referred to as push-over analysis, to determine the reliable displacement
capacities of a structure or frame as it reaches its limit of structural stability. Perform ISA using
expected material properties of modelled members.
ISA is an incremental linear analysis, which captures the overall nonlinear behaviour of the
elements, including soil effects, by pushing them laterally to initiate plastic action. Each increment
pushes the frame laterally, through all possible stages, until the potential collapse mechanism is
achieved. Because the analytical model accounts for the redistribution of internal actions as
components respond inelastically, ISA is expected to provide a more realistic measure of
behaviour than can be obtained from elastic analysis procedures.
3.3.1.2 Structural Global Analysis
Use structural global analysis when it is necessary to capture the response of the entire bridge
system.
Bridge systems with irregular geometry (especially those with horizontally curvature, skews,
multiple transverse expansion joints, massive substructure components, and foundations
supported by soft soil) can exhibit dynamic response characteristics that are not necessarily
obvious and may not be captured in a separate subsystem analysis.
3.3.2 Wind-Induced Vibration
Provide special attention to wind-sensitive structures. Analyse these structures for dynamic effects,
such as buffeting by turbulent or gusting winds, and unstable wind-structure interaction, such as
galloping and flutter.

Page 22

4 CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Section 5 of the BDS presents unified design requirements for concrete, both reinforced and
prestressed, in all structural elements. This Chapter presents supplementary information
specifically on the properties of concrete and reinforcing steel and the design of structural concrete
members.
The American Concrete Institute (ACI) similarly uses unified provisions in ACI 318 (9).
4.1 Structural Concrete Design
4.1.1 Member Design Models
Reference: BDS Articles 5.6.3, 5.8.1, 5.8.3, and 5.13.2
Where it is reasonable to assume that planar sections remain planar after loading, the BDS allows
two approaches to the design for concrete members the strut-and-tie model and the traditional
sectional design model. For members in which, planar sections do not remain planar after loading,
only the strut-and-tie model is applicable. The basic application of these models is as follows:
1. Sectional Design Model. The sectional design model is appropriate for the design of typical
bridge girders, slabs, and other regions of components where the assumptions of traditional
girder theory are valid.
This sectional design model assumes that the response at a particular section depends
only on the calculated values of the sectional force effects such as moment, shear, axial
load, and torsion. This model does not consider the specific details of how the force effects
are introduced into the member. BDS Article 5.8.3 discusses the sectional design model.
Subarticles 1 and 2 describe the applicable geometry required to use this technique to
design for shear.
2. Strut-and-Tie Model. Use the strut-and-tie model in regions near discontinuities (e.g. abrupt
changes in cross section, openings, coped (dapped) ends, deep girders, corbels). See BDS
Articles 5.6.3 and 5.13.2.
The strut-and-tie model introduces the manner in which load is introduced into the member
as a part of the analysis.
The following Sections discuss each of these member design approaches.
4.1.2 Sectional Design Model
4.1.2.1 Flexural Resistance
The flexural resistance of a section is typically obtained using the rectangular stress distribution of
BDS Article 5.7.2.2. In lieu of using this simplified, yet accurate approach, use a strain compatibility
approach as outlined in BDS Article 5.7.3.2.5.
The general equation for structural concrete flexural resistance of BDS Article 5.7.3.2.1 is based
upon the rectangular stress block, commonly called the Whitney stress block.

Page 23

4.1.2.2 Limits for Flexural Steel Reinforcement
Maximum Reinforcement
Reference: BDS Articles 5.7.3.3.1 and 5.5.4.2.1
The current BDS provisions eliminate the traditional maximum limit of reinforcement. Instead, a
resistance factor varying linearly between the traditional values for flexure and compression
members represented by BDS Equations 5.5.4.2.1-1 or 5.5.4.2.1-2 is applied to differentiate
between tension- and compression-controlled sections. Compression-controlled sections use a
lower resistance factor to achieve safety comparable to tension-controlled sections.
Minimum Reinforcement
Reference: BDS Articles 5.7.3.3.2 and 5.4.2.6
Provide flexural resistance at least equal to the lesser of:
- 1.2 times the cracking moment of the concrete section, defined by BDS Equation
0.37 5.7.3.3.2-1 and assuming that cracking occurs at the modulus of rupture, taken as
1.0 for normal-weight concrete; or
- 1.33 times the factored moment required by the governing load combination.
4.1.2.3 Distribution of Reinforcement
In addition to the provisions of BDS Article 5.7.3.4, use the following:
1. Negative Moments. For the distribution of negative moment tensile reinforcement
continuous over a support, compute the decks effective tension width separately on each
side of the support in accordance with BDS Article 5.7.3.4. Use the larger of the two
effective widths to determine the width for the uniform distribution of the reinforcement into
both spans.
2. Girders. Within the negative moment regions of continuous cast-in-situ structures, use a
T25 for the top side face bar (skin reinforcement) on each face of the girder web.
3. Integral Pier Caps. For integral pier caps, place reinforcement approximately 75 mm below
the construction joint between the deck and rest the cap beneath it, or lower if necessary to
clear prestressing ducts. Design this reinforcement by taking M
u
as 1.3 times the dead load
negative moment of that portion of the cap and superstructure located beneath the
construction joint and within 3 m of each side face of the cap (in other words, the cap width
plus 6 m). Service limit-state checks and shear design are not required for this condition.
Only include this reinforcement in computing the flexural resistance of the cap if a strain-
compatibility analysis is made to determine the stress in the bars.
4.1.2.4 Crack Control Reinforcement
Distribute the reinforcing bars in all reinforced concrete members in tension to control cracking in
accordance with BDS Article 5.7.3.4. When designing for crack control, use
e
= 0.75 in all cases,
'
c
f
'
c
f

Page 24

except buried structures and bridges in coastal areas within one kilometre of the coast in which
case use
e
= 0.50.
Any concrete cover thickness greater than the minimum required by Table 4.4 in Section 4.3.1.1
may be neglected when calculating dc and h. See Section 7.5 for mass concrete requirements.
Provide additional consideration in the design to limiting cracks due to intrinsic (including early
thermal) effects.
Several smaller reinforcing bars at moderate spacing are more effective in controlling crack widths
than fewer larger bars. The application of exposure conditions lower than those of the BDS provide
additional durability.
4.1.2.5 Shear Resistance
Sectional Design Models
Where the sectional design model is appropriate, use the general procedure of BDS Article
5.8.3.4.2 to determine the shear resistance. When calculating the shear resistance, use the area
of stirrup reinforcement intersected by the distance 0.5d
v
cot u on each side of the design
section, as shown in BDS Figure C5.8.3.2-3.
The simplified procedure for nonprestressed sections of BDS Article 5.8.3.4.1 and the simplified
procedure for prestressed and nonprestressed sections of BDS Article 5.8.3.4.3 are less accurate
methodologies introduced to simplify calculations. The general procedure mandated herein is the
most accurate determination of shear resistance.
Shear Friction
Consider the steel required to comply with the provisions of BDS Article 5.8.4 as additive to the
steel required from other analyses, except as provided for in BDS Article 5.10.11.
4.1.3 Strut-and-Tie Model
The strut-and-tie model is only applicable to the Strength and Extreme-Event limit states because
significant cracking must be present for the model to be valid.
Members, when loaded, indicate the presence of definite stress fields that can individually be
represented by tensile or compressive resultant forces as their vectorial sums. It has been
observed that the load paths taken by these resultants form a truss-like pattern that is optimum
for the given loading and that the resultants are in reasonable equilibrium, especially after
cracking. The designers objective is to conceive this optimum pattern (truss) in developing the
strut-and-tie model. The closer the designers assumption is to this optimum pattern (truss), the
more efficient the use of materials. For relatively poorly conceived strut-and-tie models, the
materials will be used less efficiently, yet the structure will be safe. The compressive concrete
paths are the struts, and the reinforcing steel groups are the ties. The model does not involve
shear or moment because the stresses are modelled as axial loads alone.
The application of the strut-and-tie model encompasses several simple steps:

Page 25

1. The truss model must be envisioned that carries the applied loads to the reactions and,
subsequently, the truss geometry established.
2. The struts are proportioned according to the provisions of BDS Article 5.6.3.3, and the ties
according to BDS Article 5.6.3.4.
3. The nodal regions connecting the truss members are proportioned according to the
provisions of BDS Article 5.6.3.5, wherein concrete compression stresses are limited.
4. Finally, crack control reinforcement is provided according to BDS Article 5.6.3.6 to control
the significant cracking necessary to facilitate the strut-and-tie model.
The strut-and-tie model has significant application to bridge components such as pier caps, girder
ends, post-tensioning anchorage zones, etc. A thorough presentation of the model can be found in:
- NCHRP 20-7, Task 217 Verification and Implementation of Strut-and-Tie Model in BDS
Bridge Design Specifications, November 2007 (10);
- D. Mitchell, M. Collins, S. Bhid and B. Rabbat, AASHTO BDS Strut-and-Tie Model Design
Examples, EB231, Portland Cement Association (PCA) (11);
- Chapter 8 of the PCI Precast Prestressed Concrete Bridge Design Manual (12); and
- J. Schlaich, et al, Towards a Consistent Design of Structural Concrete, PCI Journal, Vol.
32, No. 3, 1987 (13).
Cracking is associated with at least partial debonding and, thus, the bonding capacity of cracked
concrete cannot be considered completely reliable. The BDS generally requires that reinforcing
steel should not be anchored in cracked zones of concrete. Improperly anchored reinforcing steel
is an area that is commonly overlooked.
4.1.4 Fatigue
Reference: BDS Articles 3.4.1, 3.6.1.4, and 5.5.3
Do not consider fatigue for concrete decks nor where the permanent stress f
min
is compressive and
exceeds twice the maximum tensile live load stress. Also, do not consider fatigue for strands in
fully prestressed concrete members.
The fatigue limit state is not normally a critical issue for concrete structures.
4.1.5 Torsion
Where torsion effects are present, design the member in accordance with BDS Articles 5.8.2 and
5.8.3.6.
Torsion is not normally a major consideration in most highway bridges. Situations that may require
a torsion design include:

Page 26

- cantilever brackets connected perpendicular to a concrete girder, especially if a diaphragm
is not located opposite the bracket;
- concrete diaphragms used to make precast girders continuous for live load where the
girders are spaced differently in adjacent spans; and
- abutment caps, if they are unsymmetrically loaded.
4.2 Materials
4.2.1 Structural Concrete
Comply with all structural concrete requirements of the Abu Dhabi Standard Specifications:
Volume 2: Road Structures (Document Reference Number AD-C-01), Chapters 4 and 21.
Table 4.1 presents criteria for the minimum compressive strength of concrete in structural
elements in the Abu Dhabi Emirate.
Table 4.1: Compressive Strength of Concrete
Structural Element
Minimum 28-Day
Compressive Strength
(
c
f ' )
Cube Strength Cylinder Strength
Cast-in-situ post-tensioned concrete 50 MPa 40 MPa
Prestressed, precast concrete in bridge
superstructure
55 MPa 45 MPa
Cast-in-situ reinforced concrete in bridge
superstructure, barriers, and precast panels
45 MPa 35 MPa
Pier shafts, abutments, walls, drilled shafts, and
their caps, approach slab
45 MPa 35 MPa
Non-reinforced concrete 25 MPa 20 MPa

4.2.2 Reinforcing Steel
Comply with all reinforcement requirements of the Abu Dhabi Standard Specifications: Volume 2:
Road Structures (Document Reference Number AD-C-01), Chapter 5.
4.2.3 Prestressing Strand
Comply with prestressing strand requirements of the Abu Dhabi Standard Specifications: Volume
2: Road Structures (Document Reference Number AD-C-01), Chapter 22.

Page 27

4.2.4 Prestressing Bars
Comply with prestressing bar requirements of the Abu Dhabi Standard Specifications: Volume 2:
Road Structures (Document Reference Number AD-C-01), Chapter 22.
4.3 Reinforcement
4.3.1 Reinforcing-Steel Details
4.3.1.1 Concrete Cover (Environmental Classifications)
General
In the bridge plans General Notes, include the environmental classification for both the
superstructure and substructure according to the following classifications:
1. Slightly aggressive
2. Moderately aggressive
3. Extremely aggressive
For the substructure, additional descriptive data supplements the environmental classification.
After the classification, note in parentheses the source and magnitude of the environmental
classification parameters resulting in the classification.
As an example, for a proposed bridge where the substructure is determined to be in an Extremely
Aggressive environment due to low soil pH of 4.5 and the superstructure to be in a Slightly
Aggressive environment, the format on the bridge plans will be:
ENVIRONMENTAL CLASSIFICATION:
Substructure: Extremely Aggressive (Soil pH = 4.5)
Superstructure: Slightly Aggressive
The substructure will not be classified less severely than the superstructure.
Classification Criteria
Bridge substructure and superstructure environments will be classified as Slightly Aggressive,
Moderately Aggressive, or Extremely Aggressive environments according to the following criteria
and as shown in Figure 4.1. The superstructure is defined as all components from the bearings
upward. Conversely, every element below the bearings is classified as substructure.
Marine Structures
Structures located over or within 1 km of a body of water containing chloride above 2000 ppm are
considered to be marine structures, and all other structures will be considered non-marine
structures. Only chloride test results are required to determine if a structure is classified as marine.

Page 28

Abbreviations:
CL = Chloride
ppm = parts per million
Marine Structure
Start
Is the
structure over or
within 1 km of a body
of water with CL >
2000 ppm?
Non-Marine
Structure
Is the
structure over or
within 1 km of a body
of water with CL >
6000 ppm?
Is the
structure higher
than 3.5 m above
MHW?
Is the
superstructure
within 1 km of
industrial facility?
Is the
structure over water?
Superstructure
Extremely Aggressive
and substructure
Superstructure
Moderately Aggressive
and substructure
Superstructure
Moderately
Aggressive and go to
Table 4.2 for
substructure
classification
Superstructure
Slightly Aggressive
and go to Table 4.2
for substructure
dlassification
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes No
No
No
No
Figure 4.1: Flowchart for Environmental Classification of Structures

Page 29

Classify superstructure and substructure as follows:
1. For structures over or within 1 km of a body of water with chloride concentrations in excess
of 6000 ppm, both superstructure and substructure will be classified as extremely
aggressive.
2. For structures over any water with chloride concentrations of 2000 to 6000 ppm, the
substructure will be classified as Extremely Aggressive. Superstructures located at 3.5 m or
less above the mean high water elevation will be classified as extremely aggressive.
Superstructures located at an elevation greater than 3.5 m above the mean high water
elevation will be classified as Moderately Aggressive.
3. For structures within 1 km of any body of water with a chloride concentration of 2000 to
6000 ppm, but not directly over the body of water, the superstructure will be classified as
Moderately Aggressive. The substructure will follow the non-marine criteria in Table 4.2.
Non-Marine Structures
All structures that do not meet the criteria above are considered non-marine structures.
1. Substructure. Use Table 4.2 to classify all non-marine substructures in contact with water
and/or soil.
2. Superstructure. For any superstructure located within 1 km of any carbon burning industrial
facility, fertilizer plant, or any other similar industry, classify as Moderately Aggressive. For
all others, classify as Slightly Aggressive.

Table 4.2: Criteria for Substructure Environmental Classifications
Classification
Environmental
Condition
Units
Steel Concrete
Water Soil Water Soil
Extremely
Aggressive
(if any of these
conditions exist)
pH < 6.0 < 5.0
CI ppm > 2000 > 2000
SO
4
ppm N/A > 1500 > 2000
Resistivity Ohm-cm < 1000 < 500
Slightly Aggressive
(if all of these
conditions exist)
pH > 7.0 > 6.0
CI ppm < 500 < 500
SO
4
ppm N/A < 150 < 1000
Resistivity Ohm-cm > 5000 > 3000
Moderately
Aggressive
This classification must be used at all sites not meeting requirements for either
Slightly Aggressive or Extremely Aggressive environments.
pH = acidity (-log
10
H
+
; potential of hydrogen)
CI = chloride content
SO
4
= sulphate content

Page 30

Chloride Content
To optimize the materials selection process, the designer and/or materials engineer have the
option of obtaining representative cores to determine chloride intrusion rates for any superstructure
within 1 km of any major body of water containing more than 6000-ppm chlorides. The materials
engineer will take core samples from bridge superstructures in the immediate area of the proposed
superstructure. The materials laboratory will test core samples for chloride content and intrusion
rates.
Generally, all superstructures that are within line-of-sight and within 1 km of the Gulf are subject to
increased chloride intrusion rates of 0.027 kg/m
3
/year at a 50-mm concrete depth. The intrusion
rate decreases rapidly with distance from open waters and/or when obstacles such as rising
terrain, foliage, or buildings alter wind patterns.
After representative samples are taken and tested, use Table 4.3 to correlate the core results (the
chloride intrusion rate in kg/m
3
/year at a depth of 50 mm) with the classification.

Table 4.3: Chloride Intrusion Rate/Environmental Classifications
Chloride Intrusion Rate Classification
0.027 kg/m
3
/year Extremely Aggressive
< 0.027 kg/m
3
/year Moderately Aggressive

See Figure 4.1 for determining environmental classification.
The requirements for concrete cover over any steel are listed in Table 4.4.
When deformed reinforcing bars are in contact with other embedded items (e.g., post-tensioning
ducts), the actual bar diameter, including deformations, must be taken into account in determining
the design dimensions of concrete members and in applying the design covers of Table 4.4.
4.3.1.2 Spacing of Bars for All Members
Use a maximum size of coarse aggregate of 20 mm to determine minimum spacing between
reinforcement bars based upon the criteria of BDS Articles 5.10.3.1.1 and 5.10.3.1.2 for cast-in-situ
and precast members, respectively. In addition, use a clear distance between bars of 40 mm and
30 mm for cast-in-situ and precast members, respectively.
Check the fit and clearance of reinforcing by calculations and large-scale drawings.
Skews will tend to complicate problems with reinforcing fit.
Consider the tolerances normally allowed for cutting, bending, and locating reinforcing. Refer to
ACI 315 (14) for allowed tolerances.

Page 31

Table 4.4: Concrete Cover

Concrete Cover (mm)
S or M E
Superstructure (cast-in-situ)
All external surface (ex. top surfaces) 60
All internal surfaces (ex. top surfaces) 50
Superstructure (precast)
Internal and external surfaces (segmental concrete box and
external surfaces)
50
External surfaces of prestressing beams (except the top
surface)
40
Substructure (precast and cast-in-situ)
External surfaces cast against earth and surfaces in contact
with water
100 115
Exterior formed surfaces, columns, and tops of footings not in
contact with water
80 100
Internal surfaces 75
Girder pedestals 50
Substructure (precast) 50 100
Prestressed piling 75
Drilled shaft 150
Retaining walls (cast-in-situ or precast) 50 75
Culverts (cast-in-situ or precast) 50 75
S = Slightly Aggressive
M = Moderately Aggressive
E = Extremely Aggressive

Some of the common areas of interference are:
- anchor bolts in abutment caps;
- between slab reinforcing and reinforcing in monolithic abutments or piers;
- vertical column bars projecting through main reinforcing in pier caps;
- the areas near expansion devices;
- embedded plates for prestressed concrete girders;
- anchor plates for steel girders;
- at anchorages for a post-tensioned system; and
- between prestressing (pretensioned or post-tensioned) steel and reinforcing steel stirrups,
ties, etc.

Page 32

4.3.1.3 Fabrication Lengths
Use a maximum length of 12 m for detailing reinforcing steel. Longer lengths up to 24 m are
available by special order (check with suppliers).
4.3.1.4 Lateral Confinement Reinforcement
Columns
Lateral reinforcement for compression members should consist of either spiral reinforcement,
welded hoops, or a combination of lateral ties and cross ties. Only use ties when it is not practical
to provide spiral or hoop reinforcement. Where longitudinal bars are required outside the spiral or
hoop reinforcement, provide lateral support with bars spaced and hooked as required for cross
ties. Extend the hooked bars into the core of the spiral or hoop one full development length.
Drilled Shafts
Extend the reinforcing steel cage for drilled shafts the full length of the pile.
Maximize the size of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement to increase the openings between
all reinforcement to allow concrete to pass through the cage during placement. Maintain the
maximum spacing requirements of BDS Article 5.13.6.3d.
Headed Reinforcement
Consider headed reinforcement as an alternative to lateral reinforcing steel when conflicts make
the use of tie reinforcement impractical. Headed reinforcement consisting of friction welded or
internally forged heads should conform to ASTM A970M.
4.3.1.5 Durability Measures
Use the following measures as specified in the Abu Dhabi Standard Specifications: Volume 2:
Road Structures (Document Reference Number AD-C-01), Chapter 4, to enhance the durability of
concrete structures:
- Addition of cementitious materials such as GGBFS, fly ash, and micro silica;
- Special proportioning of aggregates and selection of sources;
- Reduced water-to-cement ratio;
- Increased concrete cover;
- Use of calcium nitrite corrosion inhibitor in some cases;
- Painting (protection coating) of concrete surfaces;
- Use of stainless steel reinforcement in difficult to access areas;
- Protection of the bridge deck top surface against chloride ingress by a system of spray-
applied waterproofing membrane; and
- Use of black steel Type 2 deformed bars to BS 4449 Grade 460 or 500, third-party
inspection and certification of tests, possible future connection to a cathodic protection
system.

Page 33

4.3.1.6 Development of Reinforcement
Develop reinforcement on both sides of a point of maximum stress at any section of a reinforced
concrete member. This requirement is specified in terms of a development length, l
d
.
Development Length in Tension
The development length, l
d
(including all applicable modification factors), must not be less than 300
mm.
The development of bars in tension involves calculating the basic development length, l
db
, which is
modified by factors to reflect bar spacing, cover, enclosing transverse reinforcement, top bar effect,
type of aggregate, and the ratio of required area to provide the area of reinforcement to be
developed.
Development Length in Compression
Do not consider columns as compression members for development length computations. When
designing column bars with hooks to develop the tension, ensure that the straight length is also
adequate to develop the bar in compression because hooks are not considered effective in
developing bars in compression.
This practice ensures that columns in bending will have adequate development in both tension and
compression.
Standard End Hook Development Length in Tension
Refer to the figure in the commentary of BDS Article C5.11.2.4.1 for hooked-bar details for the
development of standard hooks. Use the same figure for both uncoated and coated bars, modified
as appropriate by the factors noted in Section 4.3.1.7.1.
Standard hooks use a 90 and 180 bend to develop bars in tension where space limitations
restrict the use of straight bars. End hooks on compression bars are not effective for development
length purposes.
4.3.1.7 Splices
Types/Usage
The following presents preferred practices on the types of splices and their usage:
1. Lap Splices. Use conventional lap splices whenever practical. Use as a minimum a Class C
splice for T12 through T25 bars and a Class B splice for T32 bars. Where feasible, stagger
lap splices for main-member reinforcement such that no more than 50% are lapped in any
one location. Use a minimum stagger of 60 bar diameters between adjacent centrelines of
splices for individual and bundled bars.

If transverse reinforcing steel in a bridge deck is lapped near a longitudinal construction
joint, place the entire lap splice on the side of the construction joint that will be poured last.

Page 34

2. Mechanical Splices. (Reference: BDS Articles 5.11.5.2.2, 5.11.5.3.2, and 5.11.5.5.2). A
second method of splicing is by mechanical splices, which use proprietary splicing
mechanisms. Mechanical splices are appropriate away from plastic hinges and where
interference problems preclude the use of more conventional lap splices, and in staged
construction. Even with mechanical splices, it is frequently necessary to stagger splices.
The designer must check clearances. In addition, consider fatigue. Mechanical splices must
develop 125% of the bar yield strength for reinforcing steel in non-yielding areas.
Mechanical splices must develop 160% of the bar yield strength for reinforcing steel in
yielding areas not subject to plastic hinging.
3. Welded Splices. Splicing of reinforcing bars by welding, although allowed by the BDS, is
prohibited.
4. Full Mechanical/Welded Splices. See BDS Article 5.11.5.3.2.
Plastic Hinge Regions
In columns and drilled shafts, do not use splices in the longitudinal reinforcing or splicing of spiral
reinforcing within the plastic hinge regions. Clearly identify these regions in the contract
documents.
4.3.1.8 Bundled Bars
Reference: BDS Articles 5.11.2.3 and 5.11.5.2.1
Use two-bundled or three-bundled bars; do not use four-bundled bars.
For the development length of bars within a bundle, use an individual bar as specified in Section
4.3.1.6, increased by 20% for a three-bar bundle.
Determine lap splices of bundled bars based on development lengths as specified above. Do not
lap-splice entire bundles at the same location. Individual bars within a bundle may be lap spliced,
but do not overlap the splices. Check fit and clearance of reinforcing by calculations and large-
scale drawings.
4.3.2 Prestressing Strands and Tendons
4.3.2.1 Pretensioned Girders
Strand Size
Use 15.24 mm or 15.7 mm diameter seven-wire strand.
Strand Spacing
For the minimum spacing of strands, do not use less than 50 mm centre to centre.
Strand Profile
It is acceptable to use either a straight or draped strand profile for precast members. However,
where possible, use draped strand (i.e. deviated, harped, deflected) instead of debonded,
because of the greater shear capacity and reduced number of strands. However, the designer can
use a combination of debonded and draped strands when necessary to satisfy design
requirements.

Page 35

The advantages of straight trajectories include their simplicity of fabrication and greater safety.
Debonded or draped strands are used to control stresses and camber. Debonded strands are
easier to fabricate because a hold-down point is not required in the stressing bed. For debonded
strands, see Section 4.4.4.4.
Draped Strand
The following applies to draped strands in precast, pretensioned girders:
- At ends of girders, maintain a minimum of 100 mm between the top draped strands and
any straight strands that are located directly above the draped strands.
- At each hold-down point, limit the vertical force to a maximum of 215 kN for all draped
strands and 18 kN for each individual draped strand.
- The slope of the draped strands should not exceed 9.
- Where practical, locate hold-down points 1.5 m on each side of the centreline of the girder
(3 m apart).
Strand Patterns
The designer must fully detail the strand pattern showing the total number of strands, layout and
spacing, edge clearances, which strands will be draped and/or debonded, and the layout of all mild
reinforcing steel.
Frequently, precast, pretensioned girders of the same size and similar length in the same bridge or
within bridges on the same project may be designed with a slightly different number of strands. In
this case, the designer should consider using the same number and pattern of strands (including
height of draping) for these girders to facilitate fabrication.
Strand Splicing
Do not splice prestressing strand.
4.3.2.2 Post-Tensioned Members
Strand Size
The preferred diameters of the prestressing strand used for post-tensioning is 15.24 mm or 15.7
mm.
Tendons
Use ducts made of HDPE, unless the tendon profile radius is less than 9 m where corrugated steel
ducts shall be used.
Tendons are proprietary systems that consist of an anchorage, duct, grout injection pipes, and
prestressing strand. Smaller tendons used in decks contain up to four strands. Consult specific
post-tensioning system brochures for the actual size of ducts. Two to five tendons are usually
needed for each girder web to satisfy design requirements. The centre of gravity specified at
anchorages must be consistent with tendon anchorage requirements (e.g. anticipated size(s) of
bearing plates).
For cast-in-situ, post-tensioned box girder bridges, tendons are internal to the girder webs.
Segmental precast bridges can have tendons either external or internal to the girder web.

Page 36

4.4 Prestressed Concrete Superstructures
4.4.1 Basic Criteria
This discussion applies to both pretensioned and post-tensioned concrete members.
4.4.1.1 Concrete Stress Limits
Main members that are designed as prestressed should have zero tension under the Service III
limit state for structures in extremely aggressive environments and 0.175 MPa for structures
in no worse than moderately aggressive environments. Limit the tensile stress limit at transfer
to 0.35 MPa.
4.4.1.2 Concrete Strength at Release
At release of the prestressing force, the minimum compressive concrete strength shall be 60% of
the specified 28-day strength.
4.4.2 Post-Tensioned Bridges
Post-tensioned box-girder bridges are inherently complex to design and build. They require a
coordinated effort between designers and detailers in order to develop integrated plans that
address all design, detailing, and constructability issues. The information contained herein is only
part of the requirements necessary to successfully accomplish this task.
Determine flexural resistance for CIS, P/T concrete bridges using the combined effects of bonded
prestressing and mild reinforcing steel in accordance with BDS Article 5.7.3.2.
4.4.2.2 Shear Resistance
Strength Limit State
Determine the shear resistance of CIS, P/T bridges using the modified compression field theory
(MCFT) sectional model of BDS Article 5.8.3.4.2.
Service Limit State
The principal stress-limit requirements of BDS Article 5.8.5 apply to CIS, P/T bridges at the Service
limit state.
4.4.2.3 Intermediate Diaphragms
Straight CIS concrete box girder bridges and curved CIS concrete box girder bridges with an inside
radius of 250 m or greater do not require intermediate diaphragms. For curved box girder bridges
'
c
f
'
c
f

Page 37

having an inside radius less than 250 m, intermediate diaphragms are required unless shown
otherwise by tests or structural analysis. For such curved box girders, the maximum diaphragm
spacing shall be 15 m for radius 135 m or less and 25 m for radius between 135 m and 250 m.
4.4.2.4 Principal Tensile Stresses
Reference: BDS Articles 5.8.5, 5.9.4.2.2 and 5.14.2.3.3
Use segmental construction without the use of vertical PT bars in the webs. First, reduce high
principal stresses by either extending the section depth and/or thickening the web. When vertical
PT bars are required, limit the placement to the lesser of (1) the first two segments from the pier
segment/table or (2) ten percent of the span length.
Occasionally in cast-in-situ balanced cantilever construction, vertical PT bars supplying a nominal
vertical compression are used at select locations to control web cracking.
4.4.2.5 Creep and Shrinkage
Calculate creep and shrinkage strains and effects using a relative humidity of 60%.
4.4.2.6 Transverse Prestress
Detail all box girder deck slabs to be transversely post-tensioned. Where draped post-tensioning is
used in deck slabs, consideration must be given to the final location of the centre of gravity of the
prestressing steel within the duct. Reduce critical eccentricities over the webs and at the centreline
of box by 6 mm from theoretical to account for construction tolerances.
4.4.2.7 Tendon Profile
Show offset dimensions to post-tensioning duct profiles from fixed surfaces or clearly defined
reference lines. In regions of tight reverse curvature of short sections of tendons, show offsets at
sufficiently frequent intervals to clearly define the reverse curve.
Encase curved ducts that run parallel to each other, ducts in curved girders, ducts in chorded
girders where angle changes occur between segments, or ducts placed around a void or re-entrant
corner in concrete and reinforced as necessary to avoid radial failure (pull-out into the other duct or
void).
For the tendon profile, use the following:
1. Secondary Effects.
- During design of continuous straight and curved structures, account for secondary
effects due to post-tensioning.
- Design curved structures for the lateral forces due to the plan curvature of the tendons.
2. Tendon Geometry. When coordinating design calculations with detail drawings, account for
the fact that the centre of gravity of the duct and the centre of gravity of the prestressing
steel are not necessarily coincidental. See Tables 4.5 and 4.6.
3. Required Prestress. On the drawings, show prestress force values for tendon ends at
anchorages.

Page 38

Table 4.5: Minimum Centre-to-Centre Duct Spacing
Post Tensioned Bridge Type
Minimum Centre-to-Centre
Longitudinal Duct Spacing
1

Precast segmental balanced cantilever
cast-in-situ balanced cantilever
200 mm, two times outer duct diameter or outer
duct diameter plus 115 mm whichever is greater.
Spliced I-girder bridges
100 mm, outer duct diameter plus 1.5 times
maximum aggregate size or outer duct diameter
plus 50 mm, whichever is greater.
Cast-in-situ voided slab bridges
Cast-in-situ multi-cell bridges
When all ducts are in a vertical plan, 100 mm,
outer duct diameter plus 1.5 times maximum
aggregate size or outer duct diameter plus 50 mm
whichever is greater.
2
For two or more ducts set side-by-side, outer duct
diameter plus 75 mm.
1
Bundled tendons are not allowed.
2
The 75-mm measurement must be measured in a horizontal plane.

Table 4.6: Minimum Tendon Radius
Tendon Size Minimum Radius
19 13-mm dia, 12 15-mm dia 2.4 m
31 13-mm dia, 19 15-mm dia 3 m
55 13-mm dia, 37 15-mm dia 4 m

4. Internal/External Tendons. External tendons must remain external to the section without
entering the top or bottom slab.
5. Strand Couplers. Do not use strand couplers as described in BDS Article 5.4.5.
The geometry of a typical tendon profile is predominantly composed of second-degree parabolic
curved segments. The tendons are essentially straight segments near the anchorages. The tendon
group centre of gravity and the bridges neutral axis should coincide at the following locations at
the centrelines of abutments, hinges, and points of dead-load contraflexure.
4.4.2.8 Tendon Jacking
If the distance between anchorages exceeds 90 m, consider jacking at both ends. One-end or two-
end stressing will be determined by design and specified in the contract documents.
Show the values of the wobble and curvature friction coefficients and the anchor set loss assumed
for the design in the contract documents.

Page 39

There are several types of commercially available anchorages. These anchorages normally consist
of a steel block with holes in which the strands are individually anchored by wedges. In the vicinity
of the anchor block (or coupler), the strands are fanned out to accommodate the anchorage
hardware. The fanned out portion of the tendon is housed in a transition shield, often called a
trumpet, which could be either steel or polyethylene, regardless of the duct material. Trumpets
must have a smooth, tangential transition to the ducts.
4.4.2.9 Anchorage Details
When temporary or permanent post-tensioning anchorages are required in the top or bottom slab
of box girders, design and detail interior blisters, face anchors, or other approved means. Block-
outs that extend to either the interior or exterior surfaces of the slabs are not permitted.
Provide continuous typical longitudinal mild reinforcing through all segment joints for cast-in-situ
segmental construction.
Design and detail so that any future post-tensioning for strengthening utilizes external tendons
(bars or strands). Design future post tensioning so that any one span can be strengthened
independently of adjacent spans. For each future tendon, provide one duct/anchorage location for
expansion joint diaphragms and two duct/anchorage locations for internal pier segment
diaphragms.
Detail anchor blisters so that tendons terminate no closer than 300 mm to a joint between
segments.
Transverse bottom slab ribs are not allowed. Design full height diaphragms directing the deviation
forces directly into the web and slab. See Figure 4.2.
Raised corner recesses in the top corner of pier segments at closure joints are not allowed. The
typical cross section must be continued to the face of the diaphragm. See Figure 4.3. Locate
tendon anchorages to permit jack placement.
Detail all interior blisters set back a minimum of 300 mm from the joint. Provide a V-groove
around the top slab blisters to isolate the anchorage from any free water. See the V-groove detail
of Figure 4.4.
4.4.2.10 Anchor Set
Assume a typical post-tensioning anchor set of 6 mm (to be verified during construction).
4.4.2.11 Detailing Post-Tensioning Systems
Specify tendon duct radius and dimensions to duct PI points on the design plans. For parabolically
curved ducts, show offset dimensions to post-tensioning duct trajectories from fixed surfaces or
clearly defined reference lines at intervals not exceeding 1.5 m. Curved ducts that run parallel to
each other or around a void or re-entrant corner must be sufficiently encased in concrete and
reinforced as necessary to avoid radial failure (pull-out into another duct or void). In the case of
approximately parallel ducts, consider the arrangement, installation, stressing sequence, and
grouting in order to avoid potential problems with cross grouting of ducts.
Detail post-tensioned precast I-girders to utilize round ducts only.
Size ducts for all post-tensioning bars 13 mm larger than the diameter of the bar coupler.

Page 40

Figure 4.2: Deviator Diaphragm Detail

Figure 4.3: Inside Corner Detail at Pier

Figure 4.4: Details at Expansion Joints

Page 41

Internal post-tensioning ducts must be positively sealed with a segmental duct coupler or O-ring at
all segment joints. Design and detail all internal tendon segmental duct couplers with maximum
deflection of 6 degrees at the segment joint as shown below. Segmental duct couplers or O-ring
hardware are to be mounted perpendicular to bulkhead at the segment joints. Use only approved
PT systems which contain segmental duct couplers. See tendon alignment schematic on the next
page. Require cast-in-situ closure joints to be minimum 450-mm wide.

Segmental duct couplers should be made normal to joints to allow stripping of the bulkhead forms.
Theoretically, the tendon must pass through the coupler without touching the duct or coupler.
Over-sizing couplers allows for standardized bulkheads and avoids curved tendons.
To allow room for the installation of duct couplers, detail all external tendons with an additional
cover of 10 mm above that specified based upon environmental exposure.
Where external tendons pass through deviation saddles, design the tendons to be contained in
grouted steel pipes, cast into the deviation saddle concrete.
All anchorages must remain accessible but protected after construction. Strand anchorages cast
into concrete structures are not allowed.
Diablos are preferred at deviation saddles as they are less susceptible to installation errors.
Instead of using steel pipes at the deviators, continuously curved voids (diablos) are cast in the
deviation diaphragm to allow larger deviations from the theoretical tendon profile.
For external tendons, use steel pipe ducts for curved portions of the tendon profile in the
diaphragm. Plastic duct is allowed for straight portions of tendon profile in the diaphragm.
See Table 4.7 for the minimum tendons required. All balanced cantilever bridges must utilize a
minimum of four positive moment external draped continuity tendons (two per web) that extend to
adjacent pier diaphragms.

Page 42

Page 43

Table 4.7: Minimum Tendons Required for Critical Post-Tensioned Sections
Post-Tensioned Bridge Element Minimum Number of Tendons
Mid span closure pour
Cast-in-situ and precast balanced cantilever
bridges
Bottom slab two tendons per web
Top slab one tendon per web
(4 15-mm dia. min )
Span by span segmental bridges Four tendons per web
Cast-in-situ multi-cell bridges Three tendons per web
Spliced I-girder bridges
1
Three tendons per girder
Unit end spans
Cast-in-situ and precast balanced cantilever
bridges
Three tendons per web
Diaphragms vertically post-tensioned
Six tendons; if strength is provided by P.T.
only
Four tendons; if strength is provided by
combination of P.T. and mild reinforcing
Diaphragms Vertically post-tensioned Four bars per face per cell
Segment Vertically post-tensioned Two bars per web
1
3 girders minimum per span.

4.4.2.12 Ducts
In post-tensioned construction, ducts are cast into the concrete to permit placement and stressing
of the tendons. Always use high-density polyethylene ducts at all locations in the deck section.
Girder ducts are typically galvanized corrugated steel (semi-rigid). For external tendons on
segmental bridges, use smooth polyethylene. The contract documents must designate the type of
duct material to be used.
The duct-wall thickness must be no less than 0.40 mm. Use prebending of ducts for bend radii less
than 9 m. Avoid radii that require prebending whenever possible. Use Table 4.8 to tabulate the
minimum bend radius of ducts. The bending radius of polyethylene or polypropylene ducts must
not be less than 9 m. For a radius less than 9 m, use galvanized corrugated steel ducts.
Table 4.8: Minimum Duct Radius
Tendon Size Minimum Radius

12 15.24-mm dia 5.0 m
19 15.24-mm dia 6.0 m
37 15.24-mm dia 8.0 m

Page 44

If the bridge is constructed by post-tensioning precast components together longitudinally and/or
transversely by use of a cast-in-situ concrete joint, then extend the end of the duct beyond the
concrete interface by not less than 75 mm and not more than 150 mm to facilitate joining the ducts.
If necessary, the extension could be in a local blockout at the concrete interface. Joints between
sections of ducts must be positive metallic connections, which do not result in angle changes at the
joints. Use waterproof tape at all connections.
For multiple-strand tendons, the outside diameter of the duct must be no more than 40% of the
least gross concrete thickness at the location of the duct. During design, the bridge designer must
lay out an acceptable duct arrangement that matches the post-tensioning centre of gravity to
determine if a wider web is needed. The internal free area of the duct must be at least 2.5 times
the net area of the prestressing steel. See BDS Article 5.4.6.2.
4.4.2.13 Grouting
Detail all post-tensioned bridges including the following corrosion protection strategies:
- Enhanced post-tensioned systems,
- Fully grouted tendons,
- Multi-level anchor protection,
- Bridges with no or watertight deck joints, and
- Multiple tendon paths.
Enhanced post-tensioning systems require three levels of protection for strand and four levels for
anchorages. (Deck overlays are not considered a level of protection for strands or anchorages):
1. Within the segment or concrete element:
a. Internal Tendons
- Concrete cover
- Plastic duct
- Complete filling of the duct with approved grout
b. External Tendons
- Hollow box structure itself
- Plastic duct
- Complete filling of the duct with approved grout
2. At the segment face or construction joint (internal and external tendons):
a. Epoxy seal (precast construction) or wet cast joint (cast-in-situ construction)
b. Continuity of the plastic duct
c. Complete filling of the duct with approved grout
The required four levels of protection for anchorages on interior surfaces (e.g. interior diaphragms)
are:
1. Grout
2. Permanent grout cap

Page 45

3. Elastomeric seal coat
4. Concrete box structure
The required four levels of protection for anchorages on exterior surfaces (e.g. pier caps,
expansion joints, diaphragms) are:
1. Grout
2. Permanent grout cap
3. Encapsulating pour-back
4. Seal coat (elastomeric/methyl methacrylate on riding surface)
Internal post-tensioning bars used for erection with acceptable ducts, grout, and cover may remain
in the structure with no additional protection required. Do not incorporate the force from these bars
in the service stress or strength calculations for the structure.
The strength of the grout should be comparable to that of the girder concrete but is not specified
due to the high strengths that typically result from tendon grouts.
Use pre-approved bagged grout for tendon grouting. Multiple injection and bleed ports are required
at the ends of the tendons and at all low and high points. Flushing of tendons due to blockage is
discouraged but not disallowed using vacuum grouting as a consideration for repairs.
4.4.2.14 Transverse Deck Loading, Analysis, and Design
Reference: BDS Articles 3.6.1.2.2 and 3.6.1.2.3
Limit the loading for the transverse design of box girders to axle loads without the corresponding
lane loads. Axle loads should be those that produce the maximum effect from either the ADVL (i.e.
1.5 HL-93) design truck or the design tandem axles (BDS Articles 3.6.1.2.2 and 3.6.1.2.3,
respectively). The Multiple Presence Factors (BDS Article 3.6.1.1.2) should also be included in the
transverse design. The Tire Contact Area (BDS Article 3.6.1.2.5) should not be included in the
transverse design of new bridges when using influence surface analysis methods to calculate
fixed-end moments.
Design the prestressed concrete deck for Strength I and Service I Load Combination excluding all
wind effects. All analyses will be performed assuming no benefit from the stiffening effects of any
traffic railing barrier.
The Tire Contact Area (BDS Article 3.6.1.2.5) may be used when evaluating the transverse
operating rating of existing prestressed concrete box girder decks.
4.4.2.15 Integrated Drawings
Show congested areas of post-tensioned concrete structures on integrated drawings with an
assumed post-tensioning system. Such areas include anchorage zones, areas containing
embedded items for the assumed post-tensioning system, areas where post-tensioning ducts
deviate both in the vertical and transverse directions, and other highly congested areas.
For all post-tensioned structures, evaluate and accommodate possible conflicts between webs and
external tendons. Check for conflicts between future post-tensioning tendons and permanent
tendons.

Page 46

Select the assumed post-tensioning system, embedded items, etc., in a manner that will
accommodate competitive systems using standard anchorages of 4, 7, 12, 15, 19, or 27 15-mm
dia. strands Integrated drawings utilizing the assumed system must be detailed to a scale and
quality required to show double-line reinforcing and post-tensioning steel in two-dimension (2-D)
and, when necessary, in complete three-dimension (3-D) drawings and details.
Verify that the post tensioning in the structure can be accommodated by the anchorages listed in
the specifications and has been sized according to the approved post-tensioning systems.
Space post tensioning anchorages to accommodate spirals based on the anchorage size and not
on the number of strands in that anchorage.
Check required clearances for stressing jacks. Do not detail structures or provide construction
sequences that require curved stressing noses for jacks.
4.4.2.16 Erection Schedule and Construction System
Include a description of the construction method upon which the design is based.
Include in the design documents, in outlined, schematic form, a typical erection schedule and
anticipated construction system.
State in the plans, the assumed erection loads, along with times of application and removal of each
of the erection loads.
Temporary load conditions often control the design and detailing of segmental and spliced girder
structures. Ensure the structure components have been sized for the temporary and final condition
and loadings of the bridge.
For large projects, more than one method of construction may be necessary based on project
specific site constraints.
4.4.2.17 Falsework
Cast-in-situ, post-tensioned bridges must be supported during their construction. They cannot
support even their own dead load until post-tensioning is complete. The temporary supports used
are either earth fills, if traffic does not have to be maintained, or falsework. Earth fills must be
compacted sufficiently to keep settlement to a minimum. Falsework usually consists of a
combination of timber and steel structural components. The falsework is designed to carry the
entire dead load of the bridge and construction loads. The falsework shall be checked and
approved by a specialized engineer with adequate related experience approved by the client.
4.4.2.18 Deck Slabs on CIS, P/T Box Girders
The following applies:
- Where draped post-tensioning is used in deck slabs, consider the final location of the
centre of gravity of the prestressing steel within the duct.
- Reduce critical eccentricities over the webs and at the centreline of box by 5 mm from
theoretical to account for construction tolerances.
4.4.2.19 Access and Maintenance

Page 47

During preliminary engineering and when determining structure configuration, give utmost
consideration to accessibility and to the safety of bridge inspectors and maintenance:
1. Height. For maintenance and inspection, the minimum interior, clear height of box girders
shall be 1.8 m.
2. Electrical. Show interior lighting and electrical outlets at the following locations:
- all ingress/egress access openings
- both sides of diaphragms where girder is continuous
- at the inside face of diaphragms where the girder is discontinuous, e.g. at end bents
and expansion joints.
- spaced between the above locations at approximately equal intervals not to exceed
15 m.
3. Access. The following applies:
- Design box sections with ingress/egress access openings located at maximum 60
m spacing. Space ingress/egress access openings such that the distance from any
location within the box to the nearest opening is 30 m or less. Provide a minimum of
two ingress/egress access openings per box girder line. Locate one ingress/egress
access opening near each end bent and provide additional ingress/egress access
doors along the length of the box girder as required to meet the maximum spacing
requirement.
- Design doors in diaphragms with in-swinging, hinged, 6-mm mesh, steel screen
doors. Equip all doors at abutments and entrances with a lock and hasp.
- Provide an access opening through all interior diaphragms. If the bottom of the
diaphragm access opening is not flush with the bottom flange, provide concrete
ramps to facilitate equipment movement.
- The minimum diaphragm access opening is 800 mm wide 1050 mm, or 900 mm
diameter. Indicate on plans that diaphragm access openings are to remain clear
and are not to be used for utilities, drain pipes, conduits, or other attachments. If
these items are required, provide additional areas or openings. In all other areas of
the box, provide a minimum continuous maintenance/inspection access envelope of
2-m high 1-m along the length of the box. The 2-m height dimension of the
envelope is measured from the bottom slab of the box, should clear all tendon
ducts, anchorages, blisters, deviation saddles, etc.
- Analyse access opening sizes and bottom flange locations for structural effects on
the girder. Generally, do not place ingress/egress access openings in zones of high
compression.
- Avoid ingress/egress access opening locations over traffic lanes that will require
extensive maintenance of traffic operations and other locations such as over sloped
embankments, over water or locations that would otherwise impact the safety of
inspectors or the travelling public. Whenever feasible and in areas not deemed

Page 48

problematic from vagrant access, place access opening near the abutment where
no additional equipment will be required for access.
4. Other Exterior Openings. Design each box girder with minimum 50-mm diameter ventilation
or drain holes located in the bottom flange on both sides of the box spaced at
approximately 15-m or as needed to provide proper drainage. Place additional drains at all
low points against internal barriers. Locate drains to accommodate bridge grade.
Provide drains to prevent water (including condensation) from ponding near post-tensioning
components, face of diaphragms, blisters, ribs, and other obstructions. Show details in the
plans. Include the following:
- Specify a 50-mm diameter permanent plastic pipe (PVC with UV inhibitor) set flush
with the top of the bottom slab.
- A drip recess, 13 mm by 13 mm around bottom of pipe insert.
- Drains at all low points against internal barriers, blisters, etc.
- Drains on both sides of box, regardless of cross slope (to avoid confusion).
- Vermin guards for all drains and holes.
- A note stating, Install similar drains at all low spots made by barriers introduced to
accommodate means and methods of construction, including additional blocks or
blisters.
Require 6-mm screen on all exterior openings not covered by a door. This includes holes in
webs through which drain pipes pass, ventilation holes, drain holes, etc.
Design flexible barriers to seal openings between expansion joint segments of adjacent end
units to prevent birds from roosting on the box end ledges. Barriers should be UV and
weather resistant and easily replaceable.
5. Other Box Sections. Provide accessibility to box sections (e.g. precast hollow pier
segments) in a manner similar to that for box girders, particularly concerning the safety of
bridge inspectors and maintenance personnel. During preliminary engineering and when
determining structure configuration, give consideration to box girder accessibility and the
safety of bridge inspectors and maintenance personnel.
4.4.2.20 Expansion Joint Details
At expansion joints, provide a recess and continuous expansion joint device seat to receive the
assembly, anchor bolts, and frames of the expansion joint; i.e. a finger or modular type joint. Lower
the upper tendon anchors and re-arrange the anchor layout as necessary to provide access for the
stressing jacks.
At all expansion joints, protect anchors from dripping water by means of skirts, baffles, V-grooves,
or drip flanges. Ensure that drip flanges are of adequate size and shape to maintain structural
integrity during form removal and erection.

Page 49

4.4.3 Precast, Prestressed Concrete Girders
4.4.3.1 Precast I-Girder Sections
The type of girder used in the superstructure is selected based upon geometric restraints,
economy, and appearance. This Manual has not adopted standard precast concrete I-girder
sections. AASHTO and PCI have developed standard sections that are used in most locations
throughout the world; however, these sections and the design aids associated with them are not
appropriate for the Abu Dhabi Emirate as they do not have the required increased cover.
To ensure that the structural system has an adequate level of redundancy, use a minimum of four
girder lines on new bridges.
4.4.3.2 General
This Section addresses the general design theory and procedure for precast, prestressed (pre-
tensioned) concrete girders. For design examples, consult the PCI Bridge Design Manual, Chapter
9 (17).
Design bridges consisting of simple-span precast concrete girders and cast-in-situ concrete slabs
to be continuous for live load and superimposed dead loads by using a cast-in-situ closure
diaphragm at piers whenever possible. Other design options, including providing a compressible
spacer at debonded strand ends, are permissible.
The design of the girders for continuous structures is similar to the design for simple spans except
that, in the area of negative moments, the member is treated as an ordinary reinforced concrete
section, and the bottom flanges of adjoining girders are connected at the interior supports by
reinforcement projecting from girder ends into a common diaphragm. The members should be
assumed to be fully continuous with a constant moment of inertia when determining both the
positive and negative moments due to loads applied after continuity is established.
The resistance factor (BDS Article 5.5.4) for flexure is 1.0, except for the design of the
negative-moment steel in the deck for structures made continuous for composite loads only. See
the Abu Dhabi Standard Drawings for Road Projects (Document Reference Number AD-D-14) for
continuous details. For this case, the resistance factor is the 0.90 value for reinforced concrete
members in flexure.
Use ASTM A416 (A416M), Grade 1860, low-relaxation, prestressing strands for the design of
prestressed beams. Do not use stress-relieved strands. Use straight-strand configurations (where
feasible) instead of draped strand configurations. The following requirements apply to simply
supported, fully pretensioned beams, whether of straight or depressed (draped) strand profile,
except where specifically noted otherwise.
Bridges with varying span lengths, skew angles, beam spacing, beam loads, or other design
criteria may result in very similar individual designs. Consider the individual beam designs as a first
trial subject to modifications by combining similar designs into groups of common materials and
stranding based upon the following priorities:
1. 28-day compressive concrete strength ( c f ' )
2. Strands (size, number, location)

Page 50

3. Compressive concrete strength at release ( ci f ' )
4. Full length shielding (debonding) of prestressing strands is prohibited
Grouping beam designs in accordance with the priority list maximizes casting bed usage and
minimizes variations in materials and stranding.
In order to achieve uniformity and consistency in designing beams, the following parameters apply:
1. Provide a strand pattern that is symmetrical about the centreline of the beam.
2. Distribute debonded strands evenly throughout strand pattern. Whenever possible,
separate debonded strands in all directions by at least one fully bonded strand.
3. When analysing stresses of simple span beams, limit stresses in accordance with BDS
Table 5.9.4.1.2-1 with the exception that for the outer 15 percent of the design span, tensile
stress at the top of beam may not exceed 12 ci f ' at release. For transient loads during
construction, the tensile stress limit may be taken as 6 c f ' . It is not necessary to check
tensile stresses in the top of simple span beams in the final condition.
4. The minimum compressive concrete strength at release will be the greater of 28 MPa or 0.6
c f ' . Higher release strengths may be used on a case by case basis but must not exceed the
lesser of 0.8 c f ' or 42 MPa.
5. When calculating the Service Limit State capacity for pretensioned concrete flat slabs and
girders, use the transformed section properties as follows: at strand transfer; for calculation
of prestress losses; for live load application. For precast, pretensioned, normal weight
concrete members designed as simply supported beams, use BDS Article 5.9.5.3,
Approximate Estimate of Time-Dependent Losses. For all other members use BDS Article
5.9.5.4 with a 180-day differential between girder concrete casting and placement of the
deck concrete.
Controlling the Contractors construction sequence and materials for simple span precast,
prestressed beams is challenging. To benefit from the use of refined time-dependent analysis,
literally every prestressed beam design would have to be re-analysed using the proper
construction times, temperature, humidity, material properties, etc., of both the beam and the yet-
to-be-cast composite slab.
1. Stress and camber calculations for the design of simple span, pretensioned components
must be based upon the use of transformed section properties.
2. When wide-top beams such as I- and bulb-tees are used in conjunction with stay-in-place
metal forms, evaluate the edges of flanges of those beams to safely and adequately
support the self-weight of the forms, concrete, and construction load.
3. Provide the design thickness of the composite slab from the top of the stay-in-place metal
form to the finished slab surface, and the superstructure concrete quantity will not include
the concrete required to fill the form flutes.
For non-standard single web prestressed beam designs, modify the requirements of BDS Article
5.10.10.1 to provide vertical reinforcement in the ends of pretensioned beams with the following
splitting resistance:

Page 51

- 3% P
u
from the end of the beam to h/8, but not less than 250 mm;
- 5% P
u
from the end of the beam to h/4, but not less than 250 mm;
- 6% P
u
from the end of the beam to 3h/8, but not less than 250 mm.
Do not apply losses to the calculated prestressing force (P
u
). The minimum length of debonding
from the ends of the beams is half the depth of the beam.
Provide embedded bearing plates in all prestressed I-girder beams deeper than 1500 mm. Provide
embedded bearing plates for all I beams. For all beam designs where the beam grade exceeds
2%, include bevelled bearing plates.
Bearing plates add strength to the ends of the concrete beams to resist the temporary loadings
created in the bearing area by the release of prestressing forces and subsequent camber and
elastic shortening.
Analyse spans subject to significant lateral loads to determine if diaphragms are needed.
When investigating the effect of significant lateral loads such as vessel collision or wave loads,
check the stresses at the interface of the beam top flange and the beam web, from each end of the
beam to a longitudinal distance approximately equivalent to the beam height.
4.4.3.3 Girder Transportation
The bridge designer is also responsible for investigating the feasibility of transportation of heavy,
long and/or deep girders. In general, the bridge designer should consider the following during the
design phase:
- whether or not multiple routes exist between the bridge site and a major transportation
facility, and
- shorter and/or lighter girders may be required if access to the bridge site is limited by
roadway(s) with sharp horizontal curvature or weight restrictions.
Investigate routes for obstructions for girder depths exceeding 3 m, or if posted height restrictions
exist on the route.
Length of travel significantly increases the difficulty to transport girders. Alternative transportation
should be considered as well for heavy, long and/or deep girders. The transportation of girders
weighing more than 72500 kg may require analysis by a specialist, bridge strengthening, or other
unique measures.
When the use of heavy, long and/or deep girders is being evaluated and transportation of the
girders over land is required, contact at least one prestressed girder manufacturer and ask for their
input regarding girder transportation. At least one combination of viable casting location and
transportation route is required.
4.4.3.4 Stage Loading
There are four loading conditions that must be considered in the design of a precast, prestressed
girder:
1. The first loading condition is when the strands are tensioned in the bed prior to placement
of the concrete. Seating losses, relaxation of the strand, and temperature changes affect

Page 52

the stress in the strand prior to placement of the concrete. It is the fabricators responsibility
to consider these factors during the fabrication of the girder and to make adjustments to the
initial strand tension to ensure that the tension prior to release meets the design
requirements for the project. The prestressing shop drawings should present a discussion
on the fabricators proposed methods to compensate for seating losses, relaxation, and
temperature changes.
2. The second loading condition is when the strands are released and the force is transferred
to the concrete. After release, the girder will camber up and be supported at the girder ends
only. Therefore, the region near the end of the member is not subject to bending stresses
due to the dead load of the girder and may develop tensile stresses in the top of the girder
large enough to crack the concrete. The critical sections for computing the critical
temporary stresses in the top of the girder should be near the end and at all debonding
points. If the designer considers the transfer length of the strands at the end of the girder
and at the debonding points, then assume that the stress in the strands is zero at the end
of the girder or debonding point and vary linearly to the full transfer of force to the concrete
at the end of the strand transfer length.
Use the level of effective prestress immediately after release of the strands, which includes
the effects of elastic shortening and the initial strand relaxation loss, to compute the
concrete stresses at this stage.
There are several methods to relieve excessive tensile stresses near the ends of the girder:
- Debonding, where the strands remain straight but wrapped in plastic over a
predetermined distance to prevent the transfer of prestress to the concrete through
bonding;
- Adding additional strands in the top of the girder that are bonded at the ends but are
debonded in the centre portion of the girder. These strands are typically detensioned
after the girder is erected; or
- Deviating some of the strands to reduce the strand eccentricity at the end of the girder.
3. The third loading condition occurs several weeks to several months after strand release
when the girder is erected and the composite deck is cast. Camber growth and prestress
losses are design factors at this stage. If a cast-in-situ composite deck is placed, field
adjustments to the haunch thickness are usually needed to provide the proper vertical
grade on the top of deck and to keep the deck thickness uniform. Use reliable estimates of
deflection and camber to prevent excessive haunch thickness or to avoid significant
encroachment of the top of girder into the bottom of the concrete deck. Stresses at this
stage are usually not critical.
See Section 8.7 of the PCI Bridge Design Manual (17) for determining the girder camber at
erection.
4. The fourth loading condition is after an extended period of time during which all prestress
losses have occurred and loads are at their maximum. This is often referred to as the
maximum service load, minimum prestress stage. The tensile stress in the bottom fibres
of the girder at mid-span generally controls the design.

Page 53

c
f '
4.4.3.5 Debonded Strands
Debond strands at the ends of precast, pretensioned concrete girders with the following
restrictions:
1. Debond a maximum of 25% of the total number of prestressing strands to satisfy the
allowable stress limits. In any row, do not allow debonded strands to exceed 40% of the
total strands in that row.
2. Terminate not more than 40% of the debonded strands or four strands, whichever is
greater, at any section.
3. Debond strands in a pattern that is symmetrical about the vertical axis of the girder.
4. Round off the theoretical number of debonded strands to the closest even number (pairs) of
strands, except do not allow debonded strands in rows containing three strands or less.
5. Fully bond all exterior strands (including the entire bottom row).
6. At each end of a girder, the maximum length for debonding is 15% of the entire girder
length.
In analysing stresses and/or determining the required length of debonding, limit stresses to the
values in BDS Article 5.9.4, except that tension is limited to 0.0948 for all exposure conditions.
The design of prestressed concrete members in flexure normally begins with the determination of
the required prestressing level to satisfy service conditions. Consider all load stages that may be
critical during the life of the structure from the time prestressing is first applied. This is then
followed by a strength check of the entire member under the influence of factored loads. The
strength check seldom requires additional strands or other design changes.
For checking the stresses in the girder at the Service limit state, use the following basic
assumptions:
1. Planar sections remain plane, and strains vary linearly over the entire member depth.
Therefore, adequately connect composite members consisting of precast concrete girders
and cast-in-situ decks so that this assumption is valid and all elements respond to
superimposed loads as one unit. Transform deck concrete to girder concrete when
computing section properties by multiplying the effective deck width by the ratio of the deck
concrete modulus of elasticity to the girder concrete modulus of elasticity. Use the gross
concrete section properties (i.e. do not transform the area of prestressing strands and
reinforcing steel).
2. Assume that the girder is uncracked at the Service limit state.
3. Do not check stress limits for the deck concrete in the negative-moment region because the
deck concrete is not prestressed.
4.4.3.7 Minimum Reinforcement Requirements
Reference: BDS Article 5.7.3.3.2

Page 54

V
ui
= 12 V
u1
/d
v
V
ui
s | V
ni
Apply the minimum reinforcement requirements of BDS Article 5.7.3.3.2 to all sections being
analysed except at the ends of simply supported bridge girders.
The length of the girder from the simply supported end for which the minimum reinforcement
generally does not need to be checked is defined below:
1. Do not check the minimum reinforcing for prestressing concrete girders for a distance equal
to the bonded development length (e.g. for 1900 MPa strand with f
pe
= 1100 MPa, a 13-mm
dia. strand yields 4 m and a 15-mm dia. yields 4 m from the ends of the simply supported
girder.
2. Do not check the minimum reinforcing for reinforced concrete girders for a distance equal
to 2.5 times the superstructure depth from the centreline of bearing of the simply supported
end.
For span lengths less than 8 m for simple span bridges, check the minimum reinforcement at mid-
span.
The use of a minimum reinforcement check was developed to ensure a ductile failure mode for
lightly reinforced deep beams. Bridge girders are slender and do not generally meet the definition
of a deep beam. Deep beams are defined as members having a clear span less than 4 times the
overall depth (as defined by ACI 318). The use of the minimum reinforcing check has evolved in
the specifications from checking the critical section to checking every section. This evaluation at
every section is justified in buildings where heavy concentrated loads may be present near
supports. In bridges, this condition does not exist and the critical section for bending is not near the
support for simply supported bridge beams. The ends of simply supported bridge girders are
dominated by shear, not bending moment. At these locations, it is unnecessary to check minimum
reinforcing for bending in an area dominated by shear.
4.4.3.8 Interface Shear
Cast-in-situ concrete decks designed to act compositely with precast concrete girders must be able
to resist the interface shearing forces between the two elements. Use the following formula,
substituting BDS Equation 5.8.4.2-2 into BDS Equation 5.8.4.2-1, to determine the factored
interface shear stress, V
vi
:

Equation 4.1
The factored interface shear force must be less than or equal to the factored nominal interface
shear resistance; i.e.:

Equation 4.2
where: V
ni
= cA
cv

(A
vf
f
y
+ P
c
) (BDS Eq. 5.8.4.1-3)
Neglect the permanent net force normal to the interface, P
c
, if it is compressive.

Page 55

4.4.3.9 Diaphragms
For precast, prestressed girder spans, use cast-in-situ concrete diaphragms at all supports with the
girders embedded a minimum of 150 mm into the diaphragm.
For continuous precast, prestressed girder spans, ensure that the closure diaphragms at the piers
are cast with a horizontal construction joint between the diaphragm and the deck slab. For integral
abutments, also ensure that the end diaphragms are similarly cast.
4.4.3.10 Sole Plates
For an instantaneous slope at the bottom of the girder greater than or equal to 2%, use bevelled
sole plates to allow for level girder seats.
4.4.4 Pretensioned/Post-Tensioned Beams
In the design of pretensioned beams made continuous by field-applied post-tensioning, the
pretensioning should be designed such that, as a minimum, the following conditions are satisfied:
1. The pretensioning should meet the minimum steel provisions of BDS Article 5.7.3.3.2.
2. The pretensioning should be capable of resisting all loads applied prior to post-tensioning,
including a superimposed dead load equal to 50% of the uniform weight of the beam,
without exceeding the stress limitations for pretensioned concrete construction.
3. The pretensioning force should be of such magnitude that the initial midspan camber at
release, including the effect of the dead load of the beam, is at least 13 mm.
4. Anchorage zones of post-tensioning ducts, and beam lengths in which ducts deviate both
horizontally and vertically, require integrated drawings in accordance with Section 4.4.3.7.
5. The limitation on the percentage of debonded strands of the pretensioned strand group at
the ends of beams may be increased to 37.5% provided post-tensioning is applied to the
beams prior to casting the deck concrete and provided that the total number of debonded
strands is equal to or less than 25% of the total area of pretensioned and post-tensioned
strands at the time of placement of the deck concrete.
Full depth diaphragms are required at all splice (closure pour) and anchorage locations. At closure
pour locations, cast intermediate diaphragms with the closure pours. Design diaphragms for out-of-
plane loads for chorded girders on a horizontal curve.
4.4.5 Camber Diagram
The designer must prepare a camber diagram that shows the amount of camber needed to
counteract the dead load and superimposed dead-load (if any) deflection. Determine the
calculation of the dead-load camber based on the gross section properties and BDS Article 5.7.3.6.
4.4.6 Responsibilities
4.4.6.1 Designer
The bridge designer is responsible for ensuring that the proposed design will serve the purpose.
The designer will choose a cross section with a centre of gravity (force and location) and provide a

Page 56

strand/tendon size and pattern to achieve the required allowable Service limit state stresses and
factored flexural resistance. The contract documents will specify the exact value with respect
to that the contractor must reach at release and at 28-days. See Section 4.4.2.1. The designer is
also responsible for a preliminary investigation of shipping and handling issues where larger or
long precast girders are used or where unusual site access conditions are encountered.
4.4.6.2 Contractor
In general, the contractor is responsible for implementing the prestressed concrete design
according to the bridge designers specifications. The contractor will provide shop drawings
showing all calculations. In addition, for precast girders, the contractor is responsible for
investigating stresses in the components during proposed handling, transportation, and erection.
The contractor may propose changes to the cross sectional shape of the girder. In these cases,
the contractor must redesign the girder to meet all requirements of the project. The Contractor
shall also prepare the As Built drawings.

c
f '

Page 57

5 STEEL STRUCTURES
This Chapter discusses structural steel provisions in Section 6 of the BDS that require amplification
or clarification for users of this Manual.
5.1 General
5.1.1 Economical Steel Superstructure Design
5.1.1.1 General
Factors that influence the initial cost of a steel bridge include, but are not limited to, detailing
practices, the number of girders (for a girder bridge), the grade of steel, type and number of
substructure units (i.e. span lengths), steel weight, fabrication, transportation, and erection. The
cost associated with these factors changes periodically based upon economic issues in addition to
the cost relationship among them.
Based upon market factors, the availability of steel may be an issue in meeting the construction
schedule. The bridge designer must verify the availability of the specified steel and beam section.
Contact producers and fabricators to ensure the availability of plates and rolled beams. For more
detailed information on availability, see Section 1.4 of the AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge
Collaborations Guidelines for Design for Constructibility, G12.1-2003 (18).
5.1.1.2 Exterior Girders
The location of the exterior girder with respect to the overhang is controlled by these factors:
- Locate the exterior girder to limit the dead load and live load on the exterior girder such that
the exterior girder does not control the design (i.e. the interior and exterior girders are as
identical as possible).
- Consider the minimum and maximum overhang widths that are specified in Chapter 6.
- The space required for deck drains may have an effect on the location of the exterior girder
lines.
5.1.1.3 Fracture-Critical Members (FCMs)
Avoid bridges with fracture-critical members, which are members without a redundant load path
whose failure in tension would result in the collapse of the bridge.
5.1.1.4 Span Arrangements
Where pier locations are flexible, optimize the span arrangement. Consider the cost of the
superstructure, substructure, foundations, and approaches together as a total system.
To provide a balanced span arrangement for continuous steel bridges, design the end spans to be
approximately 80% of the length of interior spans. Avoid end spans less than 50% of the interior
span lengths to mitigate uplift concerns.
End spans approximately 80% of the length of interior spans result in the largest possible negative
moments at the piers and smaller resulting positive moments and girder deflections. As a result,
the optimum proportions of the girder in all spans will be nearly the same, resulting in an efficient
design.

Page 58

5.1.2 Rolled Beams vs Welded Plate Girders
5.1.2.1 General
Use rolled beams for spans up to approximately 25 m. Use welded plate girders for spans from
approximately 25 m to 120 m. When rolled beams are specified, ensure that the selected sections
are available consistent with the construction schedule.
For more detailed information, see Section 1.1 of the AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaborations
Guidelines for Design for Constructibility, G12.1-2003 (18).
5.1.2.2 Welded Plate Girders
Design welded steel plate girders to optimize total cost including material costs while also
considering fabrication and erection costs. Top flanges of composite plate girders are typically
smaller than their bottom flanges. Vary the flange section along the length of the bridge generally
following the moment envelope to save cost by offsetting the increased fabrication costs of welded
flange transitions with larger savings in material costs. Typically, vary only flange thicknesses, not
widths, within a field section to reduce fabrication costs. The webs of plate girders are typically
deeper and thinner than the webs of rolled beams. To save in total costs, increase minimum web
thicknesses to minimize the use of stiffeners.
Due to buckling considerations, address the stability of the compression flange (i.e. the top flange
in positive-moment regions and the bottom flange in negative-moment regions) by providing
lateral-brace locations based upon BDS Equation 6.10.8.2.3 instead of the traditional 7.5 m
maximum diaphragm spacing.
On straight bridges (skewed or non-skewed), detail diaphragms as secondary members. On
horizontally curved bridges, design diaphragms as primary members.
The traditional 7.5 m maximum diaphragm spacing provides a good average preliminary value.
Horizontally curved girders transfer a significant amount of load between girders through the
diaphragms.
5.1.2.3 Rolled Beams
Rolled steel beams are available in depths up to 900 mm, with beams 600 mm and greater rolled
less frequently. Before beginning final design, verify with one or more potential fabricators and/or
producers that the section size is available. Most rolled beams used in the Abu Dhabi Emirate are
imported from Europe.
Rolled steel beams are characterized by doubly symmetrical, as-rolled cross sections with equal-
dimensioned top and bottom flanges and relatively thick webs. Thus, rolled steel beams are not
optimized cross sections for weight savings (as is a plate girder), but they are cost effective due to
lower fabrication and erection costs. The relatively thick webs preclude the need for web stiffeners.
Unless difficult geometrics or limited vertical clearances control, rolled steel beam superstructures
are more cost effective in relatively shorter spans.
5.1.3 Economical Plate Girder Proportioning
The AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration has published the Guidelines for Design for
Constructibility, G12.1-2003 (18). This document presents cost-effective details for steel bridges
from the perspective of the steel fabricator. The following Section presents information from the
AASHTO/NSBA Guidelines that is of particular interest.

Page 59

5.1.3.1 General
Design plate girders and rolled beams composite with the concrete bridge deck through shear
studs and continuous over interior supports where possible. To achieve economy in the fabrication
shop, design all girders in a multi-girder bridge to be identical where possible. When using plate
girders, use a minimum number of plate sizes.
5.1.3.2 Haunched Girders
When practical, use girders with constant web depths. Haunched girders are generally
uneconomical for spans less than 90 m. Use parabolic haunched girders for aesthetics or other
special circumstances, but constant-depth girders will generally be more cost effective.
5.1.3.3 Flange Plate Sizes
The minimum flange plate size for plate girders is 300 mm 25 mm to avoid cupping of the flanges
due to distortion from welding. Use as wide a flange plate as practical, consistent with stress and
b/t (flange width/thickness ratio) requirements. As a guide, flange width should be approximately
20% to 25% of web depth. Do not size flange widths in any set increments; base the width on mill
plate widths minus the waste from torch cutting. Limit the maximum flange thickness to 75 mm to
ensure more uniform through-thickness properties.
A wider flange contributes to girder stability during handling and in-service, and it reduces the
number of passes and weld volume at flange butt welds. Thicker plates demonstrate relatively poor
material properties near mid-thickness.
Within a single field section (i.e. an individual shipping piece), design the flanges to be of constant
width. A design using multiple identical girders with constant-width flanges minimizes fabrication
costs.
Proportion flanges so that the fabricator can economically cut them from steel plates between 1500
mm and 3000 mm wide. The most economical mill widths are 1800 mm, 2100 mm, 2400 mm, and
3000 mm. Allow 6 mm for internal torch cutting lines and 13 mm for exterior torch cutting lines; see
Figure 5.1. Group flanges to provide an efficient use of the plates.
Because structural steel plate is most economically purchased in these widths, it is advantageous
to repeat plate thicknesses as much as practical. Many of the plates of like width can be grouped
by thickness to meet the minimum width purchasing requirement, but this economical purchasing
strategy may not be possible for thicker, less-used plates.

Page 60

Figure 5.1: Grouping Flanges for Efficient Fabrication
(from the AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration (18))

The most efficient method to fabricate flanges is to groove-weld together several wide plates of
varying thicknesses received from the mill. After welding and non-destructive testing, the individual
flanges are stripped from the full plate. This method of fabrication reduces the number of welds,
individual runoff tabs for both start and stop welds, the amount of material waste, and the number
of X-rays for non-destructive testing. The objective, therefore, is for flange widths to remain
constant within an individual shipping length by varying material thickness as required. Figure 5.1
illustrates one example of an efficient fabrication for girders.
A constant flange width within a field section may not always be practical in girder spans over 90 m
where a flange width transition may be required in the negative bending regions. Though not
preferred, if a transition in width must be provided, shift the butt splice a minimum of 75 mm from
the transition into the narrower flange plate. See Figure 5.2.
This 75-mm shift makes it simpler to fit run-off tabs, weld and test the splice, and then grind off the
run-off tabs. For additional information on sizing flange plates, see Section 1.5 of the
AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaborations Guidelines for Design for Constructibility, G12.1-2003
(18).
5.1.3.4 Field Splices
Use bolted field splices to reduce shipping lengths, but minimize their number. The preferred
maximum length of a field section is 35 m; however, the bridge designer may use lengths up to 45
m, but does not use field sections greater than 35 m without considering shipping, erection, and
site constraints. Welded field splices are prohibited.

Page 61

Figure 5.2: Flange Width Transition (Plan View)

As a general rule, the unsupported length in compression of the shipping piece divided by the
minimum width of the flange in compression in that piece should be less than approximately 85.
Good design practice is to reduce the flange cross sectional area by no more than approximately
25% of the area of the heavier flange plate at field splices to reduce the build-up of stress at the
transition. For continuous spans, the field sections over a pier should be of constant length to
simplify erection.
5.1.3.5 Shop Splices
Include no more than two shop flange splices in the top or bottom flange within a single field
section. Maintain constant flange widths within a field section for economy of fabrication as
specified in Section 5.1.3.3. In determining where changes in plate thickness occur within a field
section, compare the cost of groove-welded splices to the extra plate area.
Table 1.5.2.A of the AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaborations Guidelines for Design for
Constructibility, G12.1-2003 (18), provides guidelines for weight savings for Grade 345 steel
required to justify a flange shop splice. In many cases, it may be advantageous to continue the
thicker plate beyond the theoretical step-down point to avoid the cost of the groove-welded splice.
To facilitate testing of the weld, locate flange shop splices at least 600 mm away from web splices,
and locate flange and web shop splices at least 150 mm from transverse stiffeners.
Section 1.5 of the AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaborations Guidelines for Design for
Constructibility, G12.1-2003 (18), provides additional guidance on shop splices.
5.1.3.6 Web Plates
Where there are no depth restrictions, optimize the web depth. The minimum web thickness is 14
mm. Do not change the web thickness at any splice less than 3 mm. Maintain symmetry by
aligning the centrelines of the webs at splices.
Web design can have a significant impact on the overall cost of a plate girder. Considering material
costs alone, it is desirable to make girder webs as thin as design considerations will permit.
However, this practice will not always produce the greatest economy because fabricating and
installing transverse stiffeners is one of the most labour-intensive of shop operations.

Page 62

The following guidelines apply to the use of transverse stiffeners:
1. Unstiffened webs are generally more economical for web depths approximately 1200 mm
or less.
2. Between 1200-mm and 1800-mm depths, consider options for a partially stiffened and
unstiffened web, with unstiffened webs preferred.
A partially stiffened web is defined as one whose thickness is 1.5 mm less than that
allowed by specification for an unstiffened web at a given depth and where stiffeners are
required only in areas of higher shear.
3. Above 1800 mm, consider options for partially stiffened or fully stiffened webs, with partially
stiffened webs preferred.
A fully stiffened web is defined as one where stiffeners are present throughout the span.
5.1.3.7 Transverse Stiffeners
Proportion stiffeners that are intended to be fabricated from bars in 6-mm increments in width and
in 3-mm increments in thickness. Consult a fabricator for available flat sizes.
Flat bars (i.e. bar stock rolled to widths up to 200 mm at the mill) are typically more economical
than plates for stiffeners. The stiffeners can be fabricated by merely shearing flat bars of the
specified width to length.
5.1.3.8 Longitudinally Stiffened Webs
Do not use longitudinally stiffened webs.
In addition to being considered uneconomical, the ends of longitudinal stiffeners are fatigue
sensitive if subject to applied tensile stresses. Therefore, where used, they must be ended in
zones of little or no applied tensile stresses.
5.1.4 Falsework
Design steel superstructures without intermediate falsework during the placing and curing of the
concrete deck slab.
5.2 Materials
5.2.1 Structural Steel
The following presents typical practices for the material type selection for structural steel members.
Typically, steel for bridge construction in the Abu Dhabi Emirate is imported from Europe.
5.2.1.1 Grade 250
Use Grade 250 steel only for the following structural members:

Page 63

- transverse stiffeners,
- diaphragms, and
- bearing plates.

Grade 250 steel is becoming less used and, thus, less available at times. Generally, there is little
or no cost difference between Grade 345 and Grade 250 steel.
5.2.1.2 Grade 345
Use Grade 345 steel for the following structural members:
- rolled beams,
- plate girders,
- splice plates,
- diaphragms,
- steel piles, and
- bearing plates.
5.2.1.3 High-Performance Steel
Grade HPS485W
For some plate-girder bridges, a good choice of steel may be Grade HPS485W. In addition to
increased strength, the high-performance steels exhibit enhanced weathering, toughness and
weldability properties. A savings in weight offsets the premium on material costs. The most cost-
effective design solutions tend to be hybrid girders with Grade 345 webs with HPS485W tension
and compression flanges in the negative-moment regions and tension flanges only in the positive-
moment regions.
HPS485W may be painted for aesthetic reasons.
Grade HPS700W
Do not use Grade HPS700W except for special applications.
High-performance steel with a minimum specified yield strength of 700 MPa is available. It has yet
to be proven cost-effective for girder bridge applications.
5.2.1.4 Unpainted Weathering Steel
General
Unpainted weathering steel is the more cost-effective choice for structural steel superstructures.
Do not use weathering steel where the following conditions exist:
1. Environment. Do not use unpainted weathering steel in industrial areas where concentrated
chemical fumes may drift onto the structure or where the nature of the environment is
questionable. Do not use weathering steel in coastal regions where airborne salt may drift
onto the structure.
2. Water Crossings. Do not use unpainted weathering steel over bodies of water where the
clearance over the ordinary high water is 3.5 m or less.

Page 64

The initial cost advantage of unpainted weathering steel when compared to painted steel can
range up to 15%. When future repainting costs are considered, the cost advantage is more
substantial. This reflects, for example, environmental considerations in the removal of paint, which
significantly increases the life-cycle cost of painted steel. FHWA Technical Advisory T5140.22
Uncoated Weathering Steel in Structures, October 3, 1989 (19) discusses in-depth the
application of weathering steel and its potential problems. In addition, the proceedings of the
Weathering Steel Forum, July 1989 (20), are available from the FHWA Office of Implementation,
HRT-10.
Despite its cost advantage, the use of unpainted weathering steel is not appropriate in all
environments and at all locations. For additional guidance on the appropriate application of
unpainted weathering steel, see the AISI publication Performance of Weathering Steel in Highway
Bridges: A Third Phase Report (21).
5.2.1.4.1 Design Details for Weathering Steel
Where weathering steel girders are used, use the same steel for the bearing plates as the girders
they support. Use Type 3 for the bolts, nuts, washers, and Direct Tension Indicators (DTIs), as
specified in ASTM A325M/ASTM A563M and ASTM F959M.
Paint weathering steel at the ends of girders, at expansion joints, and over piers for a distance of 3
m or 1.5 times the web depth, whichever is greater. Use only the prime coat of the approved bridge
paint systems.
When using unpainted weathering steel, incorporate the following drainage treatments:
1. Minimize the number of bridge deck drains and extend the drainage outlets below the steel
bottom flange.
2. Eliminate details that serve as water and debris traps. Seal or paint overlapping surfaces
exposed to water. This sealing or painting applies to non-slip-critical bolted joints. Slip-
critical bolted joints or splices should not produce rust-pack when the bolts are spaced
according to the BDS and, therefore, do not require special protection.
3. Place a drip plate or other material transverse across the top of the bottom flange in front of
the substructure elements to prevent water from running off the flange onto the concrete.
Ensure that these attachments meet all fatigue requirements. Figure 5.3 shows a typical
drip plate detail.
5.2.1.5 Charpy V-Notch Fracture Toughness
The temperature zone appropriate for using BDS Table 6.6.2-1 for Abu Dhabi is Temperature Zone
1.
5.2.2 Bolts

Page 65

Figure 5.3: Drip Plate Detail

5.2.2.1 Type
For normal construction, high-strength bolts are:
1. Painted Steel: Use 22-mm A325M (Type 1).
2. Weathering Steel: Use 22-mm A325M (Type 3).
5.2.2.2 Hole Size
Do not use oversized or slotted holes; use these only in unusual circumstances with approval.
5.2.3 Splice Plates
In all cases, use the same material for the steel for all splice and filler plates as used in the web
and flanges of plate girders.
5.3 Horizontally Curved Members
Reference: BDS Articles 6.10 and 6.11
5.3.1 General
Use a curved girder on curved alignments, unless otherwise approved.
The BDS includes horizontally curved girders as a part of the provisions for proportioning I-shaped
and tub girders at both the Strength and Service limit states. In addition, the BDS specifies
analysis methodologies that detail various required levels of analysis.
5.3.2 Diaphragms, Bearings, and Field Splices
Use diaphragms for all curved steel simple-span and continuous-span bridges directed radially
except end diaphragms, which are parallel to the centreline of bearings.
Cross frames and diaphragms are primary members. However, due to the difficulty of obtaining a
Charpy specimen from a rolled shape such as an angle, Charpy V-notch impact-energy testing of
the cross frames is not required.

Page 66

Design all diaphragms, including their connections to the girders, to carry the total load to be
transferred at each diaphragm location. Cross frames and diaphragms should be as close as
practical to the full depth of the girders. Design cross frame and diaphragm connections for the
75% and average load provisions of BDS Article 6.13.1, unless actual forces in the connections
are determined from an appropriate structural model.
Using the provisions of BDS Article 6.13.1 may result in very large connections that are difficult to
detail.
For typical bridges that are long in relationship to their width, ignore the transverse expansion. For
ordinary geometric configurations where the bridge length is long relative to the bridge width (say,
2 times the width) and the rate of curvature is moderate (those satisfying the requirements of
BDS Article 4.6.1.2.4b), no additional consideration is necessary for the unique expansion
characteristics of horizontally curved structures. Wide, sharply curved or long-span structures may
require the use of high-load multi-rotational bearings. See Chapter 10. Consider providing restraint
either radially and/or tangentially to accommodate the transfer of seismic forces and the thermal
movement of the structure because the bridge tries to expand in all directions.
Design the splices in flanges of curved girders to carry flange bending or lateral bending stresses
and vertical bending stresses in the flanges.
5.4 Fatigue Considerations
BDS Article 6.6.1 categorizes fatigue as either load induced or distortion induced. Load
induced is a direct cause of loading. Distortion induced is an indirect cause in which the force
effect, normally transmitted by a secondary member, may tend to change the shape of or distort
the cross section of a primary member.
5.4.1 Load-Induced Fatigue
5.4.1.1 General
For new steel bridges, design for infinite life. In addition, for all details, provide a fatigue resistance
greater than or equal to Detail Category C (i.e. Detail Categories A, B, B', C, and C').
5.4.1.2 Fatigue Stress Range
1. Range. If a refined analysis method is used, position the fatigue design truck to maximize
the stress in the detail under consideration. The fatigue design truck should have a
constant 9-m spacing between the rear (1.5 140)-kN axles. The dynamic load allowance
is 0.15. See Chapter 2 for the definition of the fatigue design truck within the context of the
ADVL.
The fatigue stress range is the difference between the maximum and minimum stresses at
a structural detail subject to a net tensile stress. The stress range is caused by a single
design truck that can be placed anywhere on the deck within the boundaries of a design
lane.

Page 67

2. Analysis. Unless a refined analysis method is used, use the single design lane load
distribution factor in BDS Article 4.6.2.2 to determine fatigue stresses.

These tabularized distribution-factor equations incorporate a multiple presence factor of 1.2
that should be removed by dividing either the distribution factor or the resulting fatigue
stresses by 1.2. This division does not apply to distribution factors determined using the
lever rule.
5.4.1.3 Fatigue Resistance
Fatigue resistance is independent of the steel strength. The application of higher-grade steels
causes the fatigue stress range to increase, but the fatigue resistance remains the same. This
independence implies that fatigue may become more of a controlling factor where higher strength
steels are used.
5.4.2 Other Fatigue Considerations
Reference: Various BDS Articles
The bridge designer is responsible for ensuring compliance with fatigue requirements for all
structural details (e.g. stiffeners, connection plates, lateral bracing) shown in the contract
documents. In addition to the considerations in Section 5.4.1, investigate the fatigue provisions in
other Articles of Chapter 6 of the BDS. These include:
- Fatigue due to out-of-plane flexing in webs of plate girders BDS Article 6.10.6.
- Fatigue at shear connectors BDS Articles 6.10.10.1.2 and 6.10.10.2.
- Bolts subject to axial-tensile fatigue BDS Article 6.13.2.10.3.
5.5 General Dimension and Detail Requirements
5.5.1 Deck Haunches
Detail the haunch at the centreline of bearing. It can vary in the span, if necessary, to
accommodate variations in camber, superelevation ordinate, and vertical curve ordinate. The
maximum positive camber allowed in excess of that specified at mid-span is 20 mm for spans less
than 30 m and 40 mm for spans more than 30 m. Use a 50-mm haunch for spans of less than
30 m and a 75-mm haunch for spans of more than 30 m. Neglect the haunch when determining the
resistance of the section.
A deck haunch is an additional thickness of concrete between the top of the girder and the bottom
of the deck to provide adjustability between the top of the cambered girder and the roadway profile.
5.5.2 Sacrificial Metal Thickness
Add a sacrificial metal thickness of 4 mm to 6 mm to the calculated thicknesses (round to practical
total thicknesses) to compensate for members subject to future corrosion.
5.5.3 Minimum Thickness of Steel Plates
For welded plate girder fabrication, minimum thickness requirements reduce deformations and
defects due to welding. Use the following for the minimum thickness of steel elements:

Page 68

- Plate girder webs: 14 mm
- Stiffeners, connection plates: 12 mm; 14 mm preferred
- Plate girder flanges: 25 mm
- Bearing stiffener plates: 25 mm
- Gusset plates: 12 mm
- Angles/channels: 10 mm

For more detailed information, see Section 1.3 of the AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaborations
Guidelines for Design for Constructibility, G12.1-2003 (18).
5.5.4 Camber
Camber the entire girder length as required by the loading and profile grade. The loading includes
the consideration for shrinkage of the concrete deck. In addition, where dead load deflection and
vertical curve offset are greater than 6 mm, provide a compensating camber. Calculate camber to
the nearest 3 mm, with ordinates at 0.1 points throughout the length of the girder. Show the
required camber values from a chord line that extends from point of support to point of support.
The camber should be parabolic.
Provide a camber diagram in all contract documents with structural steel girders.
5.5.5 Diaphragms and Cross Frames
Reference: BDS Articles 6.7.4 and 6.6.1.3.1
Determine the spacing of diaphragms and cross frames based upon the provisions of BDS Article
6.7.4.1. The design of the spacing of diaphragms and cross frames is iterative. A good starting
point is the traditional maximum diaphragm and cross frame spacing of 7.5 m.
Most economical steel girder designs will use spacings typically greater than 7.5 m in the positive-
moment regions. Diaphragms on rolled-beam bridges and cross frames on plate-girder bridges are
vitally important in steel girder superstructures. They stabilize the girders in the positive-moment
regions during construction and in the negative-moment regions after construction. Cross frames
also serve to distribute gravitational, centrifugal, and wind loads.
5.5.5.1 General
The following applies to diaphragms and cross frames:
1. Location. Place diaphragms or cross frames at each support and throughout the span at an
appropriate spacing. Plan the location of the field splices to avoid conflict between the
connection plates of the diaphragms or cross frames and any part of the splice material.
2. Skew. Regardless of the angle of skew, place all intermediate diaphragms and cross
frames perpendicular to the girders.
Locating cross frames near girder supports on bridges with high skews requires careful
consideration. When locating a cross frame between two girders, the relative stiffness of
the two girders must be similar. Otherwise, the cross frame will act as a primary member
supporting the more flexible girder. This may be unavoidable on bridges with exceptionally
high skews where a rational analysis of the structural system will be required to determine
actual forces.

Page 69

3. End Diaphragms and Cross Frames. Locate end diaphragms and cross frames along the
centreline of bearing. Set the top of the diaphragm below the top of the girder to
accommodate the joint detail and the thickened slab at the end of the superstructure deck,
where applicable. Design the end diaphragms to support the edge of the slab including live
load plus impact.
4. Interior Support Diaphragms and Cross Frames. Generally, locate interior support
diaphragms and cross frames along the centreline of bearing. They provide lateral stability
for the bottom flange and bearings.
5. Curved-Girder Structures. Consider diaphragms or cross frames connecting horizontally
curved girders as primary members and orient radially.
6. Detailing. Detail diaphragms and cross frames to follow the cross slope of the deck; i.e. the
diaphragm or cross frame is parallel to the bottom of the deck. The contract documents
should allow the contractor to use diaphragms or cross frames fabricated as a rectangle (as
opposed to a skewed parallelogram). In this case, the drops vary across the bridge.
Detailing diaphragms and cross frames to follow the cross slope allows the fabricator to use a
constant drop on each connection plate (i.e. the distance from the bottom of the flange to the
first bolt hole on the connection plate is constant).
The following identifies typical practices on the selection of diaphragms and cross frames:
1. Solid Diaphragms. These are preferred for rolled beams. For rolled-beam bridges with seat
abutments, design the end diaphragms as full depth to provide sufficient lateral restraint.
2. K-Frames. These are preferred for plate girder bridges.
3. X-Frames. In the case of relatively narrow girder spacings relative to the girder depth, an X-
frame may be more appropriate than a K-frame.
5.5.5.2 Diaphragm Details
On spans composed of rolled beams, detail diaphragms at interior span points as illustrated in
Figure 5.4. Figure 5.5 illustrates the typical abutment support diaphragm connection details for
rolled beams. Plate girders with web depths of 1200 mm or less should have similar diaphragm
details. For plate girder webs more than 1200 mm deep, use cross frames as detailed in Figures
5.6 and 5.7.
Detail pier and intermediate diaphragms for rolled-beam spans with a 75-mm minimum clearance
between the top of the diaphragm and the bottom of the top beam flange. For bridges having a
normal roadway crown, make the diaphragms level. For bridges having a superelevated roadway,
place the diaphragms parallel to the slab.
Design and detail intermediate diaphragms as non-load bearing in the final position. Design
diaphragms at points of support as a jacking frame as specified in Section 5.5.6.
5.5.5.3 Cross Frame Details
Figure 5.6 illustrates typical pier and intermediate cross frame details for plate girder webs more
than 1200 mm deep. The K-frame is the preferred cross frame configuration. Use the X-frame
instead of the K-frame where the girder spacing is less than approximately 1.75 of the girder depth.

Page 70

Figure 5.4: Typical Pier and Intermediate Diaphragm Connection (Rolled Beams)

Note: Select a channel depth approximately of the girder depth.

A solid bent-plate diaphragm with a depth equal to 75% of the girder depth is a good option for
plate girders less than 1200 mm deep.
In general, an X-frame is more cost effective than a K-frame; however, with a typical girder
spacing, the X-frame is shallow and less effective.
Figure 5.7 illustrates the typical abutment cross frame connection details for plate girder webs
more than 1200 mm deep.
The rolled angles that comprise the cross frames are minimum sizes based upon the limiting
slenderness ratios of BDS Articles 6.8.4 and 6.9.3.
Weld the cross frame transverse connection plates to the compression flange and the tension
flange. Design the welded connections to the flanges to transfer the cross frame forces into the
flanges.
Size the width of connection plates to use bar stock and to be not less than 125 mm. When the
connection plate also acts as a transverse stiffener, meet the requirements of BDS Article 6.10.8.1.
5.5.6 Jacking
Include a jacking plan in the contract drawings for all bearing-supported structures. Include live
load in the jacking plan for bridges with moderate to high traffic volumes or those with no readily
available detour. The bearing type determines the level of detail shown for the jacking plan.

Page 71

Figure 5.5: Typical Abutment Diaphragm Connection
(Skewed Diaphragm with Rolled Beams)

Include only bearing stiffeners at all points of jacking for plain or reinforced elastomeric bearings.
Provide a conceptual jacking plan showing the jack location and clearances, required factored
reactions, and modifications to cross frames and diaphragms. Also, show conceptual requirements
for falsework and jacking frames if required.
Include a complete jacking plan for high-load multi-rotational, isolation, or other specialty bearings.
The jacking plan must include necessary bearing stiffeners, jack locations and clearances, factored
reactions, and additional modifications to cross frames and diaphragms. Also, include a detailed
design of the jacking frame if required, but do not include its fabrication as part of the contract
documents. Provide only conceptual falsework requirements.
In general, jacking frames will not be required at the supports unless there is insufficient clearance
between the bottom of girder and top of cap to place a jack. If less than 175 mm of clearance for
the jack, determine if the jack can be supported by temporary falsework. If temporary falsework is
not feasible, provide details for a jacking frame or widen the cap and place the bearings on
pedestals to provide sufficient space for a jack to be placed under the girder.
Other locations where jacking may be required are:
- At supports under expansion joints where joint leakage could deteriorate the bearing areas
of the girders; and
- At expansion bearings with large displacements where deformation-induced wear-and-tear
is possible.

Page 72

Figure 5.6: Typical Pier and Intermediate Cross Frames
(Plate Girder Web > 1200 mm)

Figure 5.7: Typical Abutment Cross Frames
(Plate Girder Web > 1200 mm)

Page 73

If no jacking frame is provided, design the cross frame at the support to transfer lateral wind and
seismic forces to the bearings.
5.5.7 Lateral Bracing
The BDS requires that the need for lateral bracing be investigated for all stages of assumed
construction procedures. If the bracing is included in the structural model used to determine force
effects, then design it for all applicable limit states.
Provide temporary lateral bracing between adjacent boxes at points of spans. Remove after the
deck has been placed.
In general, lateral bracing is not required in the vast majority of steel I-girder bridges (short through
medium spans); however, it must be checked by the bridge designer. Typical diaphragms and
cross frames will transfer lateral loads adequately to eliminate the need for lateral bracing. For tub
girders, internal top lateral bracing is more typical. Tub girders can rack as much as 150 mm in one
day due to the thermal effects of the sun.
BDS Article 4.6.2.7 provides various alternatives relative to lateral wind distribution in multi-girder
bridges.
5.5.8 Inspection Access (Tub Girders)
Detail all steel tub girder bridges with access openings to allow inspection of the girder interior. Do
not locate access openings over travel lanes or railroad tracks and, preferably, not over shoulders
or maintenance roads. Locate the openings such that the general public cannot gain easy
entrance.
Provide access openings in the bottom flange plate of all steel tub girders. Provide one access
opening at each end of the bridge when the total span length is 30 m or more.
Connect access plates to the bottom flange with high-strength bolts. If the general public has
access to the openings, provide bolts with special head configurations. The dimensions of the
access opening should be a minimum 600 mm 600 mm square.
5.6 I-Sections in Flexure
5.6.1 General
5.6.1.1 Positive-Moment Region Maximum-Moment Section
For a compositely designed girder, consider the positive-moment region maximum-moment section
as compact in the final condition.
The cured concrete deck in the positive-moment region provides a large compression flange, and it
laterally braces the top flange. Very little, if any, of the web is in compression.

Page 74

Top Flange
The Strength limit state during construction when the concrete is not fully cured governs the design
of the top flange in the positive-moment region as specified in BDS Article 6.10.3.4.
In the final condition after the deck has cured, the top flange adds little to the resistance of the
cross section. During curing of the concrete deck, however, the top flange is very important.
Bottom Flange (Tension Flange)
The Service II load combination permanent deformation provisions of BDS Article 6.10.4.2 govern.
The bottom flange, if properly proportioned, is not governed by the construction phase. The bottom
flange is governed by the final condition.
5.6.1.2 Negative-Moment Region Pier Section
Both top and bottom flanges in the negative moment region are governed by the Strength limit
state in the final condition. Furthermore, the bottom flange in compression is governed by the
location of the first intermediate diaphragm off the pier because it provides the discrete bracing for
the flange.
The negative-moment region pier section will most likely be a non-compact section during all
conditions. The concrete deck over the pier is in tension in the negative-moment region and, thus,
considered cracked and ineffective at the nominal resistance (i.e. ultimate). Thus, a good portion of
the steel cross section is in compression. To qualify as compact, the web usually needs to be too
thick to be cost effective. Thus, the cost-effective section will typically be a non-compact section.
5.6.1.3 Rigidity in Negative-Moment Regions
BDS Article 6.10.1.5 permits the assumption of uncracked concrete in the negative-moment
regions for member stiffness. Use this stiffness to obtain continuity moments due to live load,
future wearing surface, and barrier weights placed on the composite section.
For the Service limit state control of permanent deflections under BDS Article 6.10.4.2 and the
Fatigue limit state under BDS Article 6.6.1.2, consider the concrete slab fully effective for both
positive and negative moments for members with shear connectors throughout their full lengths
and satisfying BDS Article 6.10.1.7.
5.6.2 Shear Connectors
The preferred size for shear studs for use on the flanges of girders and girders is a 22-mm
diameter by 125 mm; the minimum is a 20-mm diameter by 125 mm. The minimum number of
studs in a group is three in a single transverse row. Skew the studs parallel to the bottom slab
reinforcing steel. Increase the stud length in 25 mm increments when necessary to maintain a 50-
mm minimum penetration of the stud into the deck slab. Detail studs placed on relatively thin
elements (e.g. girder webs) as 19 mm diameter.
5.6.3 Stiffeners

Page 75

5.6.3.1 Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners
Design straight girders without intermediate transverse stiffeners, if economical, or with
intermediate transverse stiffeners placed on one side of the web plate. If stiffeners are required,
fascia girders should only have stiffeners on the inside face of the web for aesthetics.
Due to the labour intensity of welding stiffeners to the web, the unit cost of stiffener by weight is
approximately nine times that of the unit cost of the web by weight. It is seldom economical to use
the thinnest web plate permitted; therefore, investigate the use of a thicker web and fewer
intermediate transverse stiffeners or no intermediate stiffeners at all. If the bridge designer
proceeds with a design that requires stiffeners, the preferred width of the stiffener is one that can
be cut from commercially produced bar stock.
Weld intermediate transverse stiffeners near side and far side to the compression flange. Do not
weld transverse stiffeners to tension flanges. The distance between the end of the web-to-stiffener
weld and the near toe of the web-to-flange fillet weld is between 4t
w
and 6t
w
.
Place transverse stiffeners, except when used as diaphragm or cross frame connections, on only
one side of the web.
Orient transverse intermediate stiffeners normal to the web. However, where the angle of crossing
is between 70 and 90, skew the stiffeners so that the diaphragms of cross frames may be
connected directly to the stiffeners.
Avoid longitudinal stiffeners but, if used in conjunction with transverse stiffeners on spans with
deeper webs, place these preferably on the opposite side of the web from the transverse stiffener.
Where this is not practical (e.g. at intersections with cross frame connection plates), make the
longitudinal stiffener continuous. Do not interrupt the longitudinal stiffener for the transverse
stiffener.
5.6.3.2 Bearing Stiffeners
Provide bearing stiffeners for all plate girders to prevent the possibility of web buckling at
temporary supports. They only require placement on one side and, for fascia girders, place on the
inside.
Provide bearing stiffeners at the bearing points of rolled beams and plate girders. Design bearing
stiffeners at integral abutments for dead and construction loads only.
Design the bearing stiffeners as columns and extend the stiffeners to the outer edges of the bottom
flange plates. Use an effective column length of of the web depth.
The BDS does not specify an effective column length for the design of bearing stiffeners. Because
the reaction load applied at one end of the stiffener pair is resisted by forces distributed to the web
instead of by a force concentrated at the opposite end, as in columns, it is not necessary to
consider the stiffeners as an end-hinged column even where the flanges are free to rotate.
Design the weld connecting the bearing stiffener to the web to transmit the full bearing force from
the stiffener to the web due to the factored loads.

Page 76

Detail bearing stiffeners with the stiffener ends bearing on the loaded flange being milled to bear,
or weld with a full-penetration butt weld. The opposite end will be tight fit only to the flange. Where
bearing stiffeners are also used as diaphragm or cross frame connection plates, fillet weld the
stiffeners to the girder flanges if they are milled to bear or tight fit.
5.6.4 Deck-Overhang Cantilever Brackets
During construction, the deck overhang brackets may induce twist in the exterior girder. Include in
the contract documents the requirement for the contractor to check the twist of the exterior girder
and bearing of the overhang bracket on the web. See Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.8: Schematic of Location for Deck Overhang Bracket

5.7 Connections and Splices
5.7.1 Bolted Connections
The following applies to bolted connections:
1. Type. For painted steel, use 22 mm A325M (Type 1) bolts. For unpainted weathering steel,
use A325M (Type 3) bolts.
2. Design. Design all bolted connections as slip-critical at the Service II limit state, except for
secondary bracing members.
3. Slip Resistance. BDS Table 6.13.2.8-3 provides values for the surface condition. Use Class
B surface condition for the design of slip-critical connections. Class B is applicable to
unpainted, blast-cleaned surfaces and to blast-cleaned surfaces with a Class B coating.
Test all specified coatings to ensure a slip resistance equal to or exceeding Class B. Paint
the faying surfaces of all slip-critical connections with the prime coat of the approved paint
systems.

Page 77

5.7.2 Welded Connections
5.7.2.1 Welding Process
The governing specification for welding is the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code D1.5
(15). However, this specification does not provide control over all of the welding issues that may
arise on a project. As needed, consult additional reference specifications:
- AWS D1.1 (15) for welding of tubular members and strengthening or repair of existing
structures, and
- AWS D1.4 (16) if the welding of reinforcing steel must be covered by a specification.
5.7.2.2 Field Welding
Do not permit field welding except for all but a few special applications. These permissible
applications are welded splices for piles, connecting pile tips to piles, bearing plates to bottom
flange plates, and connector plates between new and existing portions of widened bridges at ends
of simply supported spans (though bolted connections are preferred for this application).
Do not permit direct welding of metal stay-in-place (SIP) deck forms to girder flanges. Weld metal
forms to a strap that is placed over the flange.
5.7.2.3 Design of Welds
The maximum weld size for a single-pass fillet weld applicable to all weld types is 8 mm. The AWS
D1.1 Structural Welding Code (15), Table 3.7, provides more specific maximum single-pass fillet-
weld sizes for various welding processes and positions of welding. Design the weld economically,
but its size should not be less than 6 mm and, in no case, less than the requirements of BDS
Article 6.13.3.4 for the thicker of the two parts joined. Show the weld terminations.
The following types of welds are prohibited:
- field-welded splices,
- intersecting welds,
- intermittent fillet welds (except for the connection of stop bars at expansion joints), and
- partial penetration groove welds (except for the connection of tubular members in hand
rails).
Provide careful attention to the accessibility of welded joints. Provide sufficient clearance to place a
welding rod at the joint. Often, a large-scale sketch or an isometric drawing of the joint will reveal
difficulties in welding or where critical weld stresses must be investigated.
The design of fillet welds is integral to BDS Section 6 on steel design. The BDS addresses topics
such as resistance factors for welds, minimum weld size, and weld details to reduce fatigue
susceptibility.
The weld-strength calculations of the BDS assume that the strength of a welded connection is
dependent only on the weld metal strength and the area of the weld. Weld metal strength is a self-
defining term. The area of the weld that resists load is a product of the theoretical throat multiplied

Page 78

by the length. The theoretical weld throat is the minimum distance from the root of the weld to its
theoretical face. Fillet welds resist load through shear on the throat, while groove welds resist load
through tension, compression, or shear depending upon the application.
Often, it is best to only show the type and sizes of the weld required and leave the details to the
fabricator.
When considering design options, note that the most significant factor in the cost of a weld is the
volume of the weld material that is deposited. Over specifying a welded joint is unnecessary and
uneconomical. A single-pass weld is one made by laying a single weld bead in a single move of
the welder along the joint. A multiple-pass weld is one in which several beads are laid one upon
the other in multiple moves along the joint. Welds sized to be made in a single pass are preferred
because these are most economical and least susceptible to resultant flaws.
5.7.3 Splices
5.7.3.1 Shop Splices
In addition to the provisions of BDS Article 6.13.6, the following will apply to splices:
1. Location. Numerous groove welds and/or groove welds located in high stress regions are
not desirable. Locate flange shop splices away from high moment regions and web splices
away from high shear regions.
This is simple for flange splices in negative moment regions but more difficult with positive
moment regions. In positive moment areas, the magnitude of moment does not change
quickly along the girder compared to the negative moment. As such, shop splices on longer
span bridges must be located in fairly high positive moment regions.
The location of shop groove splices is normally dependent upon the length of plate
available to the fabricator. This length varies depending upon the rolling process. Fifteen
meters is the maximum length of plates that are normalized, quenched, and tempered (485
HPS). Other plates (e.g. Grades 250 and 345) can be obtained in lengths greater than 25
m depending on thickness. Consider the cost of adding a shop-welded splice instead of
extending a thicker plate when designing members.
2. Welded Shop Splice. Figure 5.9 illustrates a welded flange splice. At flange splices, the
thinner plate should not be less than one-half the thickness of the thicker plate.
Figure 5.9: Typical Welded Splice Details

Page 79

See BDS Article 6.13.6.2 for more information on splicing different thicknesses of material
using butt welds.
5.7.3.2 Field Splices
In addition to the provisions of BDS Article 6.13.6, the following will apply to field splices:
1. Type. Use bolted field splices only. In exceptional cases, welded splices may be used
subject to clients approval.
2. Location. In general, locate field splices in main girders at low-stress areas and near the
points of dead-load contraflexure for continuous spans. Long spans may require that field
splices be located in high moment areas.
3. Bolts. Calculate design loads for bolts by an elastic method of analysis. Provide at least two
lines of bolts on each side of the web splice.
4. Design. Design bolted splices to satisfy both the slip-critical criteria under Service II loads
and the bearing-type connection criteria under the appropriate Strength limit states.
5. Swept Width (or Shipping Width) for Curved Girders. Locate field splices such that the
maximum swept width for a horizontally curved girder is 3 m within a single field section.
The swept width is the horizontal sweep in a curved girder plus its flange width.

Page 80

6 DECKS AND DECK SYSTEMS
Sections 3, 4, 5, 6, and 9 of the BDS present the AASHTO criteria for the structural design of
bridge decks. Section 3 specifies loads for decks and deck systems, Section 4 specifies their
analyses, and Section 9 specifies their resistance. Unless noted otherwise in this Chapter, BDS
applies to the design of decks.
This Chapter documents criteria on the design of concrete bridge decks that are constructed
compositely in conjunction with concrete and steel girders and top slabs of cast-in-situ, post-
tensioned box girders.
6.1 Concrete Decks
6.1.1 Protection of Reinforcing Steel
Reference: BDS Articles 2.5.2.1 and 5.12
Protect the concrete bridge deck top surface against chloride ingress by a waterproofing as
specified in Section 4.3.1.5. Provide access for a possible future connection to a cathodic
protection system. In addition, for all concrete for deck slabs, approach slabs, and barrier rails use
a high-performance concrete having a low water/cement ratio and low permeability.
A variety of other methods are available to protect the reinforcing steel in concrete decks and to
retard the rate of corrosion. The bridge designer may occasionally use some of these other
methods to protect reinforcing steel in concrete decks.
6.1.2 Empirical Design
Design all concrete decks that satisfy the requirements of BDS Article 9.7.2.2 in accordance with
the empirical-deck design provisions of BDS Article 9.7.2. Detail the reinforcement as specified in
BDS Article 9.7.2.5, except that the minimum amount of reinforcement is 860 mm
2
/m of steel for
each bottom layer and 573 mm
2
/m of steel for each top layer in lieu of the amounts of steel
reinforcement specified in the BDS.
The minimum amount of reinforcement specified in the BDS is increased in consideration of the
heavier design live loads specified for the UAE.
6.1.3 Traditional Design Using the Strip Method
Reference: BDS Articles 9.7.3, 4.6.2.1.1, 4.6.2.1.3, and Appendix A4
Use BDS Table A4-1 to design the concrete deck reinforcement where the provisions of BDS
Article 9.7.2.2 are not satisfied. Use a 215-kN axle instead of the 142-kN axle specified in the BDS.
Therefore, the bridge designer must multiply the design moments shown in BDS Table A4-1 by
1.5.
BDS Table A4-1 tabulates the resultant live-load moments per unit width for slab steel design as a
function of the girder or web spacings, S. The Table distinguishes between negative moments and
positive moments and tabulates these for various design sections as a function of the distance
from the girder or web centreline to the design section. BDS Article 4.6.2.1.6 specifies the design
sections to be used.

Page 81

6.1.4 Precast Concrete Deck Panels
The bridge designer may use precast bridge deck panels in lieu of a cast-in-situ concrete deck to
reduce bridge closure times for deck replacements or new bridge construction. Use grout to fill the
haunch between the top of the girder and the bottom of the deck panel, plus the horizontal shear
connector pockets and the panel-to-panel joints.
Design horizontal shear connectors for precast deck panels using the cohesion and friction factors
for a clean concrete surface, free of laitance, as specified in BDS Article 5.8.4.3 when extended
reinforcing bars are used as shear connectors. If a welded shear stud detail is used, design the
connections for strength using the cohesion and friction factors for concrete anchored to as-rolled
structural steel by headed studs or by reinforcing bars where all steel in contact with concrete is
clean and free of paint. Also, check the studs for fatigue in accordance with Section 5 of the BDS.
Specify a smooth bottom surface on precast deck panels along the girder lines.
Based on research, no significant increase in strength is observed when the aggregate on the
bottom slab surface is exposed.
6.2 Metal Decks
6.2.1 Grid Decks
Use partially-filled steel grid decks for redecking where the dead load of a concrete deck cannot be
tolerated due to deterioration of the girders and where an orthotropic deck is not cost effective.
Partially-filled steel grid decks are also an alternative for moveable bridges where the deck weight
is also an issue.
Do not use unfilled steel grid decks or fully-filled steel grid decks.
Unfilled grid decks exhibit poor fatigue resistance. The additional fill of a fully-filled grid decks
offers no additional benefit.
6.2.2 Orthotropic Steel Decks
Investigate the fatigue limit state using the Level 3 design of BDS Article 9.8.3.4.
Three design levels are available in BDS Article 9.8.3.4. The preferred method is the more rigorous
Level 3 design of BDS Article 9.8.3.4.4 employing refined three-dimensional analysis.
Table 6.1 summarizes the limits for panel detailing proportions.
For additional guidance on proportioning and detailing orthotropic decks, see the US Department
of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration Manual for Design, Construction, and
Maintenance of Orthotropic Steel Bridges (22).

Page 82

Table 6.1: Orthotropic-Deck Panel Proportions
Detailing Dimension Limit
Deck Plate Thickness > 14 mm
Rib Thickness 8 mm < t
r
< 12 mm
Rib Spacing direct wheel load 600 mm < s < 760 mm
Rib Spacing no direct wheel load 600 mm < s < 1000 mm
Floorbeam Spacing < 6000 mm
Ratio of Rib to Floor beam Depth < 0.4
Floorbeam Web thickness 10 mm < t
FB
< 20 mm

6.3 Design Details for Concrete Bridge Decks
6.3.1 General
The following general criteria apply to concrete bridge decks that are constructed compositely in
conjunction with concrete girders, steel girders, and the top slabs of cast-in-situ, post-tensioned
box girders:
1. Minimum Thickness. The minimum thickness of reinforced concrete decks is 225 mm.
2. Reinforcing Steel Strength. The specified yield strength of reinforcing steel is as per the
Abu Dhabi Standard Specifications: Volume 2: Road Structures.
3. Exposure Factor. Take the exposure factor in BDS Equation 5.7.3.4-1 as 0.75 in general for
concrete bridge decks, except for decks within an extremely aggressive environment,
where the exposure factor is 0.50.
4. Reinforcement Cover. See Section 4.3.1.1 for specified concrete covers. The primary
reinforcement in the top and bottom mats must be the closer reinforcement to the concrete
face.
5. Placement of Top and Bottom Transverse Reinforcing Steel. Offset the top and bottom
transverse reinforcing steel, preferably at half the spacing, so that the top mat is not placed
directly above the bottom mat.
6. Reinforcing Steel Spacing. Maintain a minimum of 40-mm vertical separation between the
top and bottom reinforcing mats. Where conduits are present between mats, increase this
separation. Maintain a minimum horizontal spacing of 125 mm c/c between adjacent bars
within each mat. The maximum horizontal reinforcing steel spacing is 200 mm for primary
(transverse) steel bars.
7. Reinforcing Bar Size. The minimum reinforcing steel size used for concrete bridge deck
reinforcement is a T12 bar.

Page 83

8. Asphaltic Wearing Surface. Consider 110 mm of asphaltic wearing surface with a unit
weight of 23 kN/m
3
.
9. Length of Reinforcement Steel. For detailing, the maximum length of reinforcing steel in the
concrete deck is 12 m.
10. Placement of Transverse Reinforcing Steel on Skewed Bridges. The following applies:
a. Skews s 15: Place the transverse reinforcing steel parallel to the skew.
b. Skews > 15: Place the transverse reinforcing steel perpendicular to the
longitudinal reinforcement.
See Section 6.3.4 for a definition of skew angle and for structural considerations related to
skewed reinforcing steel placement.
11. Splices/Connectors. Use lap splices for concrete deck reinforcement unless special
circumstances exist. Use mechanical connectors where clearance problems exist or on a
phased-construction project that precludes the use of lap splices. See Chapter 4 for more
discussion on splices.
Lap transverse slab reinforcement, if necessary, as follows: Negative moment steel in the
positive-moment region between the slab supports and positive moment steel in the
negative-moment region over the slab supports.
12. Shear Connectors for Concrete Girder Bridges. Extend stirrups from the girders into the
concrete slab to provide a composite section. Detail bars to hook around longitudinal
concrete deck reinforcement.
6.3.2 Detailing Requirements for Concrete-Deck Haunches
6.3.2.1 General
Provide haunches (i.e. concrete between the top of a steel flange or concrete girder and the
bottom of the concrete bridge deck) to account for construction variations and tolerances. The
haunch varies across the width of the flange due to cross slope, the length of the girder due to
flange thickness, camber variation, and profile. In all cases, however, use a minimum of a 15-mm
haunch.
Include the girder haunch in the load calculations as dead load by applying the maximum haunch
dimension throughout the span. Ignore the haunch, however, in the calculation of the sections
resistance.
Measure the control dimension Y at the centreline of bearing.
The control dimension varies along the span to compensate for variations in camber and
superelevation ordinate. In some cases where vertical curve corrections are small, the vertical
curve ordinate can be accommodated in the haunch without including it in the girder.
Detail the haunch flush with the vertical edge of the top flange.

Page 84

6.3.2.2 Haunch Dimensions for Steel Girders
Figure 6.1 illustrates the controlling factors used to determine the haunch dimension for steel plate
girders. Figure 6.2 illustrates a steel rolled beam. For plate girders, the control dimension Y is the
deck thickness T plus a dimension X. X is the greater of 50 mm plus the thickest top flange, or
75 mm.
The 50-mm dimension represents the maximum positive camber fabrication tolerance allowed by
AWS D-1.5 of 40 mm plus a moderate deck cross slope.
For rolled beams, the control dimension Y includes the deck thickness T plus 50 mm.
6.3.2.3 Haunch Dimensions for Precast Concrete Girders
Figure 6.3 illustrates the controlling factors used to determine the haunch dimension for precast
concrete girders. Control dimension Y is the deck thickness T plus 75 mm.
The 75-mm dimension is used to account for camber growth in the girder at the centre of span.
The amount of camber growth can vary even between girders cast at the same time.
6.3.2.4 Reinforcement for Deep Haunches
Provide additional reinforcement in haunches greater than 100 mm deep. For the additional
reinforcement, use a minimum of T16 U-shaped reinforcing bars spaced at a maximum of 300 mm.
Properly develop these reinforcing bars into the concrete bridge deck.
6.3.3 Reinforcing Steel Over Intermediate Piers or Bents
When cast-in-situ slabs are made composite with simple span concrete beams, and are cast
continuous over intermediate piers or bents, provide supplemental longitudinal reinforcing in the
tops of slabs.
Size, space, and place reinforcing bars in accordance with the following criteria:
1. T16 bars placed between the continuous, longitudinal reinforcing bars.
2. A minimum of 11 m in length or
2
/
3
of the average span length, whichever is less.
3. Placed symmetrically about the centreline of the pier or bent, with alternating bars
staggered 1.5 m.
6.3.4 Minimum Negative Flexure Slab Reinforcement
Any location where the top of the slab is in tension under any combination of dead load and live
load is considered a negative flexural region.
6.3.5 Crack Control in Continuous Decks
To minimize shrinkage and deflection cracking in cast-in-situ decks, develop a designated deck
casting sequence for continuous flat slab and beam/girder superstructures and simple span
beam/girder superstructures with continuous decks. Indicate on the plans the sequence and

Page 85

Figure 6.1: Haunch Dimension for Steel Plate Girders

Figure 6.2: Haunch Dimension for Steel Rolled Beams

Page 86

Figure 6.3: Haunch Dimension for Concrete

direction of each deck pour so as to minimize cracking in the freshly poured concrete and
previously cast sections of deck. Provide construction joints as required to limit the volume of
concrete cast in a given pour to between 153 m
3
and 305 m
3
.
For simple span and continuous steel beam/girder superstructures, develop camber diagrams
taking into consideration the deck casting sequence and the effect on the changing cross section
characteristics of the superstructure. For continuous superstructures, the sequence should result in
construction joints spaced approximately at locations of the points of dead load moment
contraflexure. On continuous superstructures, check longitudinal tension stresses in previously
cast sections of the deck during deck casting sequence per BDS Article 6.10.3.2.4. On the plans,
state that a minimum of 72 hours is required between pours in a given continuous unit. When
developing casting sequences and camber diagrams, use the appropriate concrete strength based
on the day the structure is being analysed.
Generally, for continuous steel girder superstructures, all of the positive moment sections of the
deck are cast first, followed by the negative moment sections.
For continuous concrete beam/girder superstructures, develop build-up diagrams taking into
consideration the deck casting sequence, time dependent effects, and the effect on the changing
cross section characteristics of the superstructure. The sequence should result in construction
joints spaced approximately at locations of the points of dead load moment contraflexure. On the
plans, state that a minimum of 72 hours is required between pours in a given continuous unit.
Generally for continuous concrete beam/girder superstructures, all of the positive moment sections
of the deck are cast first, followed by the negative moment sections.
For simple span concrete beam/girders with continuous decks, locate construction joints at the
ends of the spans and at intermediate locations as required. Include the alternate detail showing
the deck continuously cast over intermediate supports with tooled joints in lieu of construction
joints. After placement of the first unit, begin succeeding placements at the end away from and

Page 87

proceed toward the previously placed unit. On the plans, state that a minimum of 72 hours is
required between adjacent pours in a given continuous unit.
For simple and continuous flat slab superstructures, develop camber diagrams indicating the
deflection of the spans due to self weight of the deck and railings. For continuous flat slab
superstructures, show construction joints at most one-quarter and/or three-quarter points in the
spans. After placement of the first unit, begin succeeding placements at the end away from and
proceed toward the previously placed unit. On the plans, state that a minimum of 72 hours is
required between adjacent pours in a given continuous unit.
For flat slab superstructures, the Contractor is responsible for determining the deflection of the
formwork due to the weight of the wet deck concrete, screed, and other construction loads.
For all superstructure types listed above, state on the plans that the casting sequence may not be
changed unless the Contractor performs a new structural analysis, and new camber diagrams are
calculated.
Units composed of simple span steel girders with continuous decks are not allowed due to the
flexibility of the girders.
Casting sequences and the location of the construction joints should be sized so that the concrete
can be placed and finished while the concrete is in a plastic state and within an eight-hour work
shift. A reasonable limit on the size of a superstructure casting is 153 m
3
to (305 m
3
). For small
projects, the 153 m
3
per day production rate is a reasonable upper casting limit. For larger projects,
the 305 m
3
per day maximum casting volume may be more reasonable. Plan the location of
construction joints so the concrete can be placed using a pumping rate of 46 m
3
/hr) for each
concrete pumping machine. Site specific constraints (i.e. land closure restrictions) should be taken
into account when determining the size of a deck casting and/or location of construction joints.
6.3.6 Skewed Decks
Skew is the angle between the centreline of support and the normal drawn to the longitudinal
centreline of the bridge at that point. See Figure 6.4. The support skews can be different.
In addition to skew, the behaviour of the superstructure is also affected by the span-length-to-
bridge-width ratio.
Figure 6.4 illustrates four combinations of skew angles 30 and 50 and length-to-width ratios of
3:1 and 1:3. Both the 50 skew and the 1:3 length-to-width ratio may be considered extreme values
for bridges, but this often occurs where the concrete deck constitutes the top slab of a box culvert.
Both combinations with 30 skew may be orthogonally modelled for design with the skew ignored.
The combinations with 50 skew may require additional thought. Consider, for example, the
combination of 50 skew and L/W = 1:3. If the concrete deck is a cast-in-situ concrete slab without
girders, the primary direction of structural action is perpendicular to the span not in the direction of
the span. In this case, consider running the primary reinforcement in that direction and fanning it as
appropriate in the side zone. With this arrangement, the secondary reinforcement could then be
run parallel to the skew, thus regaining the orthogonality of the reinforcement as appropriate for
this layout.

Page 88

Figure 6.4: Skew Angle and Length/Bridge Width Ratios

Reinforcing placement when the slab skew is 15 degrees or less:
Place the transverse reinforcement parallel to the skew for the entire length of the slab.
Reinforcing Placement when the slab skew is more than 15 degrees:
Place the required transverse reinforcement perpendicular to the centreline of span.
Because the typical required transverse reinforcement cannot be placed full-width in the
triangular shaped portions of the ends of the slab at open joints, the required amount of
longitudinal reinforcing must be doubled for a distance along the span equal to the beam
spacing for the full width of the deck. For all bridges, except those with a thickened slab
end as used with I-beam simple span structures, three T16 Bars at 150-mm spacing, full-
width, must be placed parallel to the end skew in the top mat of each end of the slab.
Regardless of the angle of skew, the traffic railing reinforcement cast into the slab need not be
skewed.
6.3.7 Temperature and Shrinkage Reinforcement
For all cast-in-situ decks, design temperature and shrinkage reinforcement per BDS Article 5.10.8,
except do not exceed 300 mm spacing and the minimum bar size is T12.
6.3.8 Thickened Slab End Requirements
For pretensioned simple span I-beam bridges, design thickened slab end at locations of slab
discontinuity not supported by full depth diaphragms. Do not thicken slab at intermediate supports
within an I-beam simple span unit where the deck slab is continuous.
6.3.9 Phase Constructed Decks
For decks constructed in phases and on bridge widenings, live load on the existing or previously
constructed portions of the superstructure can induce vibration and deflection into the newly

Page 89

constructed portion of the superstructure. Evaluate these live load induced effects on deck casting
and curing and minimize them where possible.
Where possible, live load should be shifted away from newly constructed portions of the deck
during casting and curing operations so as to minimize or eliminate deflection and vibration effects.
This can be a significant issue on long span or flexible superstructures, especially steel
superstructures. Coordinate with the traffic control plans.
6.3.10 Stay-in-Place Forms
Steel or concrete stay-in-place forms can be used with precast concrete girders and steel I-girders.
Do not use stay-in-place forms in bays having longitudinal joints nor in concrete deck overhangs.
Apply design loads for stay-in-place forms to all girder bridges, which is 0.72 kN/m
2
for the metal
forms and form corrugation fill applied over the areas of the forms and as appropriate for concrete
forms. Do not field weld the metal stay-in-place forms to steel flanges.
Clearly state in the General Notes for each bridge project, whether or not stay-in-place forms are
permitted for the project and how the design was modified for their use; e.g. dead load allowance.
Composite stay-in-place forms are not permitted.
6.3.11 Concrete Deck Pouring Sequence for Decks Constructed
Compositely in Conjunction with Concrete and Steel Girders
6.3.11.1 Typical Practice
The bridge designer determines the need for a concrete bridge deck pouring sequence based on
factors such as size of pour, configuration of the bridge, potential placement restrictions, direction
of placement, concrete deck tensile stresses, and any other special circumstances that might
affect the concrete bridge deck placement. In addition, provide a concrete deck-pouring schedule
for bridges that have any of the following features:
- continuous bridges,
- bridges with curved or non-parallel deck edges, or
- wide or long single span bridges.
Where required, the bridge designer will present in the Contract Documents the sequence of
placing concrete in various sections (separated by transverse construction joints) of deck slabs on
continuous spans. Avoid or minimize the dead-load tensile stresses in the slab during concrete
setting to minimize cracking, and arrange the sequence to cause the least disturbance to the
portions placed previously.
For longer span steel girder bridges, the pouring sequence can lock-in stresses far different than
those associated with the instantaneous placement typically assumed in design. Therefore, for
these bridges, consider the pouring sequence in the design of the girders.
Concrete deck placement is uniform and continuous over the full width of the superstructure. The
first pours include the positive-moment regions in all spans. For all deck pours on a longitudinal
gradient of 3% or greater, the direction of pouring is uphill.

Page 90

Figure 6.5 illustrates a sample pour sequence diagram for a continuous girder bridge. For precast
concrete girders, use a minimum of 1 m on each side of the centre of support or 5% of the span
length, whichever is greater.
For precast concrete girders, the cast-in-situ diaphragm over the abutment is cast integrally at the
same time as the concrete deck above it. The negative-moment regions for steel girders extend
between the points of beam dead load contraflexure.
For simple spans, pour the entire concrete deck at once. If this is not practical, pour the deck in a
series of longitudinal strips with closure pours as needed. For steel bridges, investigate potential
differential deflections.
Treat precast concrete girders made continuous for live load and superimposed dead load as a
special case. Pour the concrete deck segment and diaphragm over supports after the mid-span
regions of the deck have been poured as simple-span loads.
End wall concrete in integral abutments will usually be cast concurrently with applicable portions of
the superstructure (e.g. bottom slab, web/diaphragm, concrete deck). The Contract Documents
must indicate the requirements for a special placement sequence.
6.3.11.2 Transverse Construction Joints
Place a transverse construction joint in the end span of concrete bridge decks on steel
superstructures where uplift is a possibility during the deck pour. Where used, place transverse
construction joints parallel to the transverse reinforcing steel. Do not place these joints over field
splices.
A bridge with a relatively short end span (60% or less) when compared to the adjacent interior
span is most likely to produce this form of uplift. Uplift during the deck pour can also occur at the
end supports of curved concrete decks and in superstructures with severe skews.
If analysis using the appropriate permanent load factors of BDS Article 3.4.1 demonstrates that
uplift occurs during concrete deck placement, require a construction joint in the end span and
require placing a portion of the deck first to act as a counterweight.
6.3.12 Longitudinal Construction Joints
Longitudinal construction joints in concrete bridge decks can create planes of weakness that can
lead to maintenance problems. In general, do not use longitudinal construction joints, although
they cannot be avoided under certain circumstances (e.g. widenings, phased construction). The
following will apply to longitudinal construction joints:
1. Usage. Do not use longitudinal construction joints on concrete decks having a constant
cross section where the width is less than or equal to approximately 35 m. For deck widths
greater than 35 m (i.e. where the finishing machine span width must exceed 35 m), make
provisions to permit placing the deck in practical widths. Detail either a longitudinal joint or
a longitudinal closure pour, preferably not less than 1 m in width. Locate lap splices in the
transverse reinforcing steel within the longitudinal closure pour.
Such a joint should remain open as long as the construction schedule permits to allow
transverse shrinkage of the deck concrete. Consider the deflections of the bridge on either
side of the closure pour to ensure proper transverse fit.

Page 91

Figure 6.5: Typical Pour Diagram (Continuous Steel and Precast Girders)

Page 92

2. Location. If a longitudinal construction joint is necessary, do not locate it underneath a
wheel line. Preferably, locate construction joints outside the girder flange and in a shoulder
or median area.
3. Closure Pours. For staged construction projects, use a closure pour to connect the slab
between stages. When used, the following apply:
- Do not use stay-in-place forms under the closure pour.
- Do not rigidly connect diaphragms/cross frames in the staging bay of structural steel
girders until after the adjacent stages of the concrete deck have been poured.
Construct concrete diaphragms in the staging bay of prestressed concrete girders
after adjacent portions of the bridge are complete. The diaphragms may be poured
as part of the closure.
- Do not tie or couple reinforcing steel between different stages until after the
adjacent stages of the concrete deck have been poured.
- Support the finishing machine on an overhang jack that is connected to the girder
loaded by the concrete deck pour. Do not place the finishing machine on a
previously poured deck. Indicate in the Contract Documents that this method of
constructing the closure pour is not allowed. See Figure 6.6.
A closure pour serves two useful purposes: It defers final connection of the stages until
after the deflection from concrete deck slab weight has occurred, and it provides the width
needed to make a smooth transition between differences in final grades that result from
construction tolerances. The closure width should relate to the amount of relative dead-load
deflection that is expected to occur across the pour after the closure is placed. Use a
minimum closure width of 1 m.
Greater closure widths may be required when larger relative dead-load deflections are
anticipated. The required width can be estimated by considering the closure pour to be a
fixed-fixed beam and by limiting the stresses in the concrete to the cracking stress.
6.3.13 Longitudinal Concrete Deck Joints
There is not a specified maximum bridge width that can be used without a longitudinal open joint
although, as an approximate guide, widths up to 35 m without a joint are usually acceptable. Open
longitudinal joints may be needed where the width of the bridge exceeds 35 m or on multiple-span
bridges with large skews.
Open longitudinal joints, used on slab-on-girder bridges, are not typically needed except on the
widest of bridges. The requirement for open longitudinal joints in bridges is based on the bridge
width, skew, and span configuration.
1. Column Design. Use a longitudinal open joint where transverse temperature controls the
column design.

Page 93

Figure 6.6: Support for Finishing Machine

Page 94

Desirably, the column design will be controlled by seismic loads and not other load
combinations.
2. Location. Do not place longitudinal open joints over a girder flange. If a longitudinal joint is
used, place the joint in both the superstructure and substructure.
6.3.14 Transverse Edge Beam for Steel Girder Bridges
Provide a transverse edge beam to support wheel loads near the transverse edge of the concrete
deck in conjunction with an end diaphragm for steel girder bridges. See Figure 6.7.
6.3.15 Concrete Deck Overhang/Bridge Rail
6.3.15.1 Overhang Width and Thickness
Concrete bridge deck overhang is the distance between the centreline of the exterior girder to the
outside edge of the deck. The overhang width must not be more than 40% of the girder spacing.
The thickness of the overhang at the outside edge of deck is the same as the interior deck
thickness. The thickness of the overhang at outside edge of girder is the deck thickness plus the
haunch depth.
6.3.15.2 Structural/Performance Design
Reference: BDS Articles 13.6.1, 13.6.2, and 13.7.2
Design all combination bridge rail/concrete deck overhang designs to meet the structural design
requirements to sustain rail collision forces in BDS Article A13.2. Use a Class 2 exposure factor in
BDS Equation 5.7.3.4-1 for all bridge rails and deck overhang designs.
When designing the deck overhang for Extreme Event II, include a vertical wheel load located 300
mm from the face of bridge rail in conjunction with transverse and longitudinal bridge rail loads; do
not apply the wheel load in combination with vertical rail loads. Design the deck overhang using
the rail resistance instead of the rail load. This ensures failure in the rail before the concrete deck
overhang.
Sidewalks, when used, are placed on the outside edge of bridge decks adjacent to rails. Assume
the point of fixity for the design of the rail at the deck level and not the top of sidewalk.
6.3.15.3 Bridge Barriers
See Chapter 7 Bridge Rails of the Abu Dhabi Roadside Design Guide (Document Reference No.
AD-D-05) for a discussion on bridge rails and transitions to bridge rails.
The following applies to bridge barrier joints:
1. Concrete Bridge Barrier Joints. Provide joints on concrete bridge rails at all locations of
expansion in the bridge; i.e. the joints on the bridge deck and barrier will match. In addition,
provide 50-mm open joints in the barrier, extending from the top of the barrier downward
600 mm, at the mid-span of each span and over supports. Consider additional open joints
on longer spans. Design open joints as discontinuities.
2. Barrier Rail Connection. Extend the expansion joint up into the barrier rail at least 150 mm.

Page 95

Figure 6.7: Transverse Edge Beam

Page 96

6.4 Approach Slabs
6.4.1 Usage
Provide approach slabs on all bridges. See the Abu Dhabi Standard Drawings for Road Projects
(Document Reference No. AD-D-14).
6.4.2 Design Criteria
Design the roadway ends of approach slabs parallel to the bridge ends. The following design
criteria apply to approach slabs:
1. Analysis. If a special design is used, model the approach slab as a simple span with a span
of L/2.
2. Bridge Approach Joints. Provide a terminal joint or pavement relief joint at the end of the
roadway at the bridge approach slab, if the approaching roadway is concrete.

Page 97

7 FOUNDATIONS
7.1 General
7.1.1 Scope
A critical consideration for the satisfactory performance of any structure is the proper selection and
design of a foundation that will provide adequate support and addresses constructability
considerations. This Chapter presents criteria that are supplementary to Section 10 of the BDS for
the design of drilled shafts, spread footings, and driven piles. The Chapter has been prepared
primarily for use by the bridge designer and as a reference for the geotechnical engineer. The Abu
Dhabi Geotechnical Investigation and Design: Part 2: Ground Investigation and Geotechnical
Design (Document Reference No. AD-D-02) discusses the geotechnical considerations for the
design of bridge foundations.
The structural engineer, with input from the geotechnical and hydraulic engineers, must determine
the structure loads and the pile/shaft section or spread footing configuration. The structural
engineer and the geotechnical engineer must consider constructability in the selection of the
foundation system. Issues such as existing underground and overhead utilities, pile-type
availability, availability of construction equipment, phase construction, conflicts with existing piles
and structures, effects on adjacent structures, etc. must be considered in evaluating foundation
design.
Design all substructures to incorporate bearings or provide fixed connections to the superstructure.
Determine pile and drilled shaft loads and design footings and bent caps using plan pile and drilled
shaft locations. Detail footings and bent caps taking into consideration pile driving and drilled shaft
placement tolerances.
7.1.2 Design Methodology
Use the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) methodology for foundations.
The BDS distinguishes between the strength of the in-situ materials (soils and rock strata)
supporting the bridge and the strength of the structural components transmitting force effects to
these materials. The distinction is emphasized by addressing in-situ materials in Section 10
Foundations and structural components in Section 11 Abutments, Piers, and Walls, which is
necessitated by the substantial difference in the reliability of in-situ materials and man-made
structures. The foundation provisions of the BDS are essentially strength design provisions with a
primary objective to ensure equal, or close to equal, safety levels in all similar components against
structural failure.
Sections 5 and 6 of the BDS specify requirements for concrete and steel components. The
appropriate provisions from these Sections are applied in the structural design of drilled shafts,
footings, and driven piles.
7.1.3 Bridge Foundation Design Process
The selection of a foundation type involves an evaluation of the load/structural considerations for
the superstructure and substructure, the geotechnical factors pertaining to the native soils, and site

Page 98

conditions. The following summarizes the procedure for selecting and designing a bridge
foundation type:
1. Preliminary Structure Layout. The bridge designer obtains preliminary soils information
from the geotechnical engineer to assist with the selection of support locations and span
lengths. Provide preliminary foundation loads to the geotechnical engineer.
2. Scour Potential. For bridges over waterways, the hydraulics engineer evaluates the
proposed bridge site and preliminary structure layout to identify the predicted hydraulic
scour based on material properties provided by the geotechnical engineer. This analysis is
provided to both the bridge designer and the geotechnical engineer.
As part of the specific subsurface site investigation, the geotechnical engineer will provide a
geologic or historic elevation for scour. The hydraulics engineer will calculate an anticipated
hydraulic scour depth. The bridge designer in conjunction with the geotechnical engineer
and hydraulics engineer will determine a design scour for the design of the foundation.
3. Geotechnical Data. For all sites, the geotechnical engineer conducts a site-specific
subsurface investigation and prepares a Geotechnical Report. The geotechnical engineer
provides this Report to the bridge designer.
4. Foundation Type Selection. Based on information provided by the bridge designer (e.g.
structure layout, vertical and lateral loads, settlement criteria), the geotechnical engineer
provides the foundation-type to the bridge designer in the Geotechnical Report.
5. Detailed Structural Design. The bridge designer performs the detailed structural design of
the foundation based on Section 10 of the BDS as modified by Chapter 7 of this Manual in
conjunction with the structural requirements of Sections 5 and 6 of the BDS.
7.1.4 Bridge Design/Geotechnical Design Interaction
7.1.4.1 Overview
The geotechnical engineer is responsible for developing a subsurface exploration program and
preparing the preliminary geotechnical design and a Geotechnical Report. The bridge designer
uses this information to design bridge foundations and other structures. The successful integration
of the geotechnical design into the bridge design will require close coordination between the
geotechnical engineer and the bridge designer.
Prior to the design of the foundation, the bridge designer must have knowledge of the
environmental, climatic, and loading conditions expected during the life of the proposed unit. The
primary function of the foundation is to spread concentrated loads over a sufficient zone, to provide
adequate bearing resistance and limitation of movement and, when necessary, to transfer loads
through unsuitable foundation strata to suitable strata. Therefore, knowledge of the subsurface soil
conditions, ground water conditions, and scour is necessary.
7.1.4.2 Preliminary Geotechnical Design Data
The preliminary geotechnical design data are provided based on existing soil information and any
preliminary subsurface investigation that may have been conducted for the project. These general
geotechnical data are used to select the bridge foundation and initiate the preliminary structure
design. The geotechnical information is used in conjunction with the input of the hydraulics

Page 99

engineer (as applicable) to establish support locations. Prior to beginning work on preliminary
bridge design, the bridge designer will review the preliminary geotechnical design information to
gain knowledge of the anticipated soil conditions at the bridge site and the potential general
foundation types. The preliminary geotechnical design data provide a preliminary footing elevation
and an expected allowable bearing pressure when spread footings are used. For deep
foundations, the selection will be driven piles or drilled shafts. Driven piles will include pile capacity
and type. This preliminary geotechnical information is used to estimate sizes of foundation
members.
7.1.4.3 Geotechnical Report
Subsurface Exploration
The geotechnical engineer performs a detailed subsurface exploration based on the bridge
abutment and pier locations and anticipated foundation type. The geotechnical engineer
determines the proposed boring locations. Typically, the structural modelling and analysis of the
bridge proceed based on the preliminary geotechnical design while the geotechnical subsurface
exploration is conducted. During this time, the bridge designer assumes a preliminary point-of-fixity
or preliminary footing elevation to model the substructure. The bridge designer determines,
verifies, and provides foundation loads or calculated bearing pressures to the geotechnical
engineer. The bridge designer provides the design loads (vertical and horizontal) at the bottom of
substructure units. The bridge designer also provides the elevation at which the loads or bearing
pressures are applied. When the geotechnical subsurface exploration has been completed, the
geotechnical engineer will perform laboratory testing and geotechnical design. The geotechnical
engineer will issue a Geotechnical Report based on the field exploration, laboratory testing,
geotechnical design, the preliminary bridge design, and the loads provided by the bridge designer.
Foundation Design
The bridge designer uses the information provided in the Geotechnical Report to design
foundations for bridges and bridge-related structures. For deep foundations, the Geotechnical
Report provides tip elevations and p-y soil models of the subsurface that are used to perform
foundation lateral soil-structure interaction analyses. The bridge designer then performs the lateral
soil-structure interaction analysis with computer programs such as DFSAP, LPile Plus, or
COM624. The bridge designer uses this information to compute lateral displacements and to
analyse the structural adequacy of the columns and foundations. Use the lateral soil-structure
interaction analysis to select the appropriate method (point-of-fixity, stiffness matrix, linear stiffness
springs, or p-y nonlinear springs) to model the bridge foundation in the structural design software.
For spread footings, the Geotechnical Report provides the estimated footing elevation, allowable
bearing pressure, and estimates on settlements and lateral displacements. The bridge designer
uses this information to finalize the design of the footing and verify that members are not
overstressed. Computer programs for lateral soil-structure interaction analysis require reputable
well-tested software.
Seismic Design
For bridges on deep foundations requiring seismic analysis, the bridge designer performs lateral
soil-structure interaction analyses using Extreme Event I loadings. If soil liquefaction is anticipated,
the geotechnical engineer will provide the bridge designer with foundation downdrag loads due to
liquefaction for use in developing the Extreme Event I load combination. The geotechnical
engineer will also provide any lateral soil forces that act on the foundation as a result of seismically
induced stability movements of earth retaining structures (e.g. embankments, retaining walls) or

Page 100

lateral soil movements attributable to lateral spread. Include these additional lateral loads in the
Extreme Event I load combinations when evaluating lateral soil-structure interaction. The
geotechnical engineer will generate the p-y soil model of the subsurface that accounts for cyclic
loadings and any liquefied soil conditions. The bridge designer then performs the lateral soil-
structure interaction analysis with computer programs such as DFSAP, LPILE Plus, or COM624.
The bridge designer uses this information to calibrate the seismic model of the structure.
The geotechnical engineer or the contracted geotechnical firm will issue a Geotechnical Report for
most projects. This report will include:
1. detailed soil conditions,
2. foundation type,
3. design parameters,
4. constructability considerations,
5. background information that may assist the structural engineer in determining appropriate
pile lengths,
6. input data for COM624, FBPier, and other design programs when lateral loads are a major
concern,
7. completed FHWA Report Checklist and Guidelines for Review of Geotechnical Reports and
Preliminary Plans and Specifications,
8. core boring drawings reflecting the foundation data acquired from field investigations, and
9. required load tests.
The geotechnical engineer will obtain local, site-specific foundation construction history.
Geotechnical Reports will conform to the Abu Dhabi Geotechnical Investigation and Design: Part 2:
Ground Investigation and Geotechnical Design (Document Reference No. AD-D-02) and the
FHWA Report Checklist and Guidelines for Review of Geotechnical Reports and Preliminary Plans
and Specifications prepared by the Geotechnical and Materials Branch, FHWA, Washington, D.C.,
October 1985. Contact the Geotechnical Engineer to receive a copy of this document.
Verify the scope of services, as well as the proposed field and laboratory investigations before
beginning any operations.
7.1.4.4 Foundation Scour Design
This is a multi-discipline effort involving geotechnical, structures, and hydraulics engineers. The
process described below will often require several iterations. The foundation design must
satisfactorily address the various scour conditions, and furnish sufficient information for the
Contractor to provide adequate equipment and construction procedures. These three engineering
disciplines have specific responsibilities in considering scour as a step in the foundation design
process.
1. The structures engineer determines the preliminary design configuration of a bridge
structure utilizing all available geotechnical and hydraulic data and performs lateral stability

Page 101

evaluations for the applicable loadings (do not impose arbitrary deflection limits except on
movable bridges). A preliminary lateral stability analysis generally will occur during the
predesign phase of the project, and a final evaluation will occur subsequent to the selection
of the final configurations. The structures engineer must apply sound engineering judgment
in comparing results obtained from scour computations with available hydrological,
hydraulic, and geotechnical data to achieve a reasonable and prudent design.
2. The hydraulics engineer provides the worst case scour elevation through a 100-year flood
event (100-Year Scour), a 500-year flood event (500-Year Scour), and for Long-Term
Scour.
3. The geotechnical engineer provides the nominal axial (compression and tension)
capacity curves, mechanical properties of the soil, and foundation type based on
construction methods, pile availability, similar nearby projects, site access, etc.
It is not necessary to consider the scour effects on temporary structures.
7.2 Spread Footings and Pile Caps
This discussion applies to both spread footings supported on soil and to pile caps.
Pile caps distribute loads among two or more drilled shafts or driven piles that support a single
column, group of columns, or walls.
7.2.1 Usage
Spread footings supported on soil are an appropriate foundation type if soils and estimated
settlements allow their use. They are typically only used in the Abu Dhabi Emirate to sometimes
support walls. Spread footings are prohibited:
- at stream crossings where they may be susceptible to scour, and
- on MSE fills.
Spread footings are thick, reinforced concrete members sized to meet the structural and
geotechnical loading requirements for the proposed structural system. A factor affecting the size of
the footing is the structural loading versus the ability of the soil to resist the applied loads.
The Geotechnical Report will provide the maximum soil pressures, the minimum footing widths and
the minimum footing embedment. The BDS Table 10.5.5.2.2-1 shall be used for Resistance
Factors ().
Determine the factored design load and proportion the footings to provide the most cost effective
design without exceeding the maximum soil pressures. Communicate with the geotechnical
engineer to ensure that the corresponding settlements do not exceed the tolerable limits.
Require dewatering with a note on the plans when in the Geotechnical Report. Dewatering is
required if the seasonal high ground water elevation is higher than 600 mm below the bottom of
the footing.
Verify sliding, overturning, and rotational stability of the footings.

Page 102

7.2.2 Dynamic Load Allowance (Impact Modifier, IM)
If a significant portion of the footing is above ground, apply the dynamic load allowance,
traditionally termed Impact Modifier (IM), to the proportioning of footings.
7.2.3 Thickness
Use a minimum footing thickness of 600 mm for bridge abutments and piers. Thinner footing
thicknesses may be used to support walls.
The footing thickness may be governed by the development length of the column or wall
reinforcement, or by shear requirements. Avoid shear reinforcement in footings. If shear governs
the thickness, it is usually more economical to use a thicker footing without shear reinforcement
instead of a thinner footing with shear reinforcement.
7.2.4 Depth
Reference: BDS Articles 5.8.3, 5.13.3.6, and 5.13.3.8
The following will apply:
1. In Waterways. On soil, locate the top of the spread footing below the design scour depth.
On rock, locate the bottom of the footing 300 mm below the surface of the scour-resistant
rock.
2. Minimum Embedment and Bench Depth. Embed spread footings a sufficient depth to
provide the greatest of the following:
- adequate bearing and scour,
- 900 mm to the bottom of footing, or
- 600 mm of cover over the footing.
Locate pile caps above the lowest anticipated scour level if the piles are designed for this
condition. Construct footings so as to neither pose an obstacle to water traffic nor be exposed to
view during low flow. Construct footings to pose minimum obstruction to water and debris flow if
exposed during high flows.
7.2.5 Bearing Resistance and Eccentricity
Present the required nominal bearing and the geotechnical resistance factor in the Contract
Documents.
7.2.6 Sliding Resistance
Use the coefficients of friction in the BDS for sliding resistance.
Keys in footings to develop passive pressure against sliding are not commonly used for bridges.
When it becomes necessary to use a key, the bridge designer should consult with the geotechnical
engineer.

Page 103

7.2.7 Differential Settlement
Reference: BDS Articles 3.12.6, 10.6.2.2, and 10.7.2.3
7.2.7.1 Typical Practice
Angular distortion is the differential settlement divided by the distance between the adjacent
foundations. The following presents general practices on the acceptable limits for angular
distortion:
1. Typical Angular Distortions. If the geotechnical engineer estimates that the angular
distortion between adjacent foundations is equal to or less than 0.004 radians in simple
spans and 0.002 radians in continuous spans ignore the effects of differential settlement in
the structural design of the bridge (Samtani, et al (2010)) (24).
2. Limiting Angular Distortion. BDS Article C10.5.2.2 states that angular distortions between
adjacent foundations greater than 0.008 radians in simple spans and 0.004 radians in
continuous spans should not be ordinarily permitted (Moulton et al., 1985 (25)); DiMillio,
1982 (26); and Barker et al., 1991 (27), and the Article suggests that other considerations
may govern. Do not use the BDS limits for design, which are related to structural distress,
because these angular distortions yield unacceptable impacts on rideability and aesthetics.
Typically, meeting the requirements of Comment No. 1 on differential settlement will
preclude exceeding the angular distortions allowed by the BDS.
3. Piers. Consider continuous footings or deep foundations where differential settlement is a
concern between columns within a pier.
Differential settlement (SE) is considered a superstructure load in the BDS. Differential settlement
is defined as the difference between the settlements of two adjacent foundations. Generally, due to
the methods used to proportion foundations, settlements are within a tolerable range and,
therefore, force effects due to differential settlement need not be investigated.
7.2.7.2 Effects of Foundation Settlement
If varying conditions exist, the Geotechnical Report will address settlement. Consider the following
effects:
1. Structural. Consider differential settlement in design if deemed significant, especially those
negative movements that may either cause or enlarge existing cracking in concrete deck
slabs.
The differential settlement of substructures causes the development of force effects in
continuous superstructures. These force effects are directly proportional to structural depth
and inversely proportional to span length, indicating a preference for shallow, long-span
structures. They are normally smaller than expected and tend to be reduced in the inelastic
phase.
2. Joint Movements. Consider any change in bridge geometry due to settlement that causes
movement in deck joints in their detailing, especially for deep superstructures.
3. Profile Distortion. Excessive differential settlement may cause a distortion of the roadway
profile that may be undesirable for vehicles travelling at high speed.

Page 104

4. Appearance. Viewing excessive differential settlement may create a feeling of lack of
safety.
5. Mitigation. Where necessary, use ground modification techniques to improve the soil to
address differential settlement concerns. These techniques include but are not limited to:
- chemical grouting,
- over-excavation and replacement,
- surcharging,
- the construction of stone columns, and
- compaction grouting.
7.2.8 Reinforcement
Chapter 5 discusses practices for the reinforcement of structural concrete. In addition, unless other
design considerations govern, use the following for reinforcement in footings:
1. Steel in Top of Footing. Use the minimum reinforcement in the top of pile caps and spread
footings as required by design, but do not use less than T20 bars at 300-mm spacing.
For pile caps, the anchorage of piles or drilled shafts into footings requires tension
reinforcement in the top of the footing to resist the potential negative bending under seismic
action.
2. Embedment Length. Extend the vertical steel of the footing down to the bottom pile cap or
spread footing steel and hook onto the bottom end regardless of the footing thickness.
3. Spacing. The minimum spacing of reinforcing steel in either direction is 150 mm centre to
centre; the maximum spacing is 300 mm centre to centre.
4. Blinding. Where blinding is used, extend the piles through the blinding and 100 mm into the
footing and locate the reinforcement above the top of piling.
5. Other Reinforcement Considerations. BDS Article 5.13.3 specifically addresses concrete
footings. For items not included, the other relevant provisions of Section 5 will govern. For
narrow footings, to which the load is transmitted by walls or wall-like abutments, take the
critical moment section at the face of the wall or abutment stem; the critical shear section is
a distance equal to the larger of d
v
(d
v
is the effective shear depth of the footing) or 0.5d
v

cot u (u is the angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses as defined in BDS
Article 5.8.3.4) from the face of the wall or bent stem where the load introduces
compression in the top of the footing section. For other cases, either BDS Article 5.13.3 is
followed, or use a two-dimensional analysis for greater economy of the footing.
7.2.9 Miscellaneous
7.2.9.1 Joints
Footings do not generally require construction joints. Where used, offset footing construction joints
600 mm from expansion joints or construction joints in walls and construct them with 75-mm deep
keyways.

Page 105

7.2.9.2 Stepped Footings
Stepped footings may be used occasionally. Where used, the difference in elevation of adjacent
stepped footings should not be less than 600 mm. Extend the lower footing at least 600 mm under
the adjacent higher footing.
If high bearing pressures under a spread footing are present, use concrete backfill instead of
granular backfill for support under the upper step. See Figure 7.1. The two footings could be
placed monolithically, also if bearing pressure allow.
Figure 7.1: Concrete Backfill Under Stepped Footing

7.3 Deep Foundations
7.3.1 General
Attempt to use only one type and size of deep-foundation component (i.e. drilled shaft or driven
pile) throughout a structure.
7.3.2 Component Spacing
To determine the minimum spacing of deep-foundation components in a group obtain the
maximum resistance of the individual components; that is, select the spacing such that the
efficiency factor, , equals 1.0.
Unless otherwise specified, determine the maximum spacing of deep-foundation components in a
group based upon the stiffness of the cap,
7.3.3 Drilled Shafts
7.3.3.1 Usage
Drilled shafts are the most common foundation for road structures. Typical shaft diameters range
from 900 mm to 1500 mm. In general, use drilled shafts to resist large lateral or uplift loads where
deformation tolerances are relatively small.

Page 106

Drilled shafts derive load resistance either as end-bearing shafts transferring load by tip resistance
or as friction shafts transferring load by side resistance or a combination of both. Friction-only
shafts are the most desirable but may not be the most economical. Drilled shafts are typically good
for seismic applications.
7.3.3.2 Drilled Shaft Axial Compressive Resistance at the Strength
Limit State
Reference: BDS Articles 10.8.3.5.1, 10.8.3.5.2, and 10.8.3.5.4
The BDS provides procedures to estimate the axial resistance of drilled shafts in cohesive soils
and cohesionless soils in BDS Articles 10.8.3.5.1 and 10.8.3.5.2. In both cases, the resistance is
the sum of the shaft and tip resistances. BDS Article 10.8.3.5.4 discusses the determination of
axial resistance of drilled shafts in rock.
7.3.3.3 Structural Design
Use the following for the design of drilled shafts:
1. Column Design. Because even soft soils provide sufficient support to prevent lateral
buckling of the shaft, design drilled shafts surrounded by soil according to the criteria for
short columns in BDS Article 5.7.4.4 when soil liquefaction is not anticipated. If the drilled
shaft is extended above ground to form a pier, analyse and design the shaft as a column.
Similarly, consider the effects of scour around the shafts in the analysis.
2. Casing. Consider using a casing to maintain the excavation, especially when placing a
shaft within the water table. Do not consider this casing, if left in place after construction, in
the determination of the structural resistance of the shaft. However, consider the casing
when evaluating the seismic response of the foundation because the casing will provide
additional resistance.
3. Lateral Loading. Section 7.3.3.8 discusses the analysis of drilled shafts for lateral loading
and resistance.
7.3.3.4 Design Details
Use the following when designing drilled shafts:
1. Location of Top of Shaft. Terminate drilled shafts 300 mm to 600 mm above the highest
anticipated groundwater table.
2. Edge Distance and Spacing. Shafts used in groups should be located such that the
distance from the side of any shaft to the nearest edge of the cap is not less than 250 mm.
Shaft spacing will not exceed four shaft diameters.
3. Reinforcement. Chapter 5 discusses practices for the reinforcement of structural concrete.
Additional reinforcement criteria include:
- The shaft will have a minimum reinforcement of 1% of the gross concrete area, and the
reinforcement will extend over the entire length of the shaft and into the footing.
- For confinement reinforcement, use spirals (up to T22). For seismic applications,
consider butt-welded hoops.

Page 107

- Detail drilled shafts and columns to accommodate concrete placement considering the
multiple layers of reinforcing steel including lap splices. Maximize lateral reinforcement
spacing. Use information from The International Association of Foundation Drilling
(23).
Figures 7.2, 7.3, and 7.4 illustrate typical drilled shaft and column longitudinal and
transverse reinforcement for the alternative of a single drill shaft supporting a single
column. Typically, groups of drilled shafts are preferred due to redundancy considerations.
4. Construction Joints. Do not use keys in the design of construction joints for drilled shafts.
5. Diameter. The minimum diameter of a drilled shaft supporting a single column is 500 mm
greater than the greatest dimension of the column cross section.
6. Constructability. Detail drilled shafts and columns to accommodate concrete placement
through the layers of reinforcing steel. Limit lap splices in the drilled shaft locations and
provide adequate openings.
7. Casing. A permanent casing (typically CMP) is often used to facilitate insertion of the
column cage into the upper portion of the shaft after the shaft concrete has been placed up
to the first construction joint. See Figure 7.2.
7.3.3.5 Minimum Sizes
The minimum diameter size for drilled shaft bridge foundations is 900 mm. Shafts for bridge
widening or under miscellaneous structures (i.e. sign structures, mast arms, high-mast light poles,
sound barriers) are exempt from this requirement.
The minimum drilled shaft diameter for bridges is 900 mm to alleviate construction difficulties.
Rebar cages for 900 mm shafts have fewer flexibility issues during installation, pose less
congestion and consolidation issues during concreting and permit more tremie options than cages
for smaller shafts.
7.3.3.6 Downdrag
Show the downdrag load on the plans.
For drilled shaft foundations, downdrag is the ultimate skin friction above the neutral point (the
loading added to the drilled shaft due to settlement of the surrounding soils) minus the live load.
Do not discount scourable soil layers to reduce the predicted downdrag.
Scour may or may not occur as predicted; therefore, the presence of scourable soil layers must be
accounted for.
7.3.3.7 Group Effect
Minimum spacing requirements are based upon group effect. BDS Articles 10.8.3.6 and 10.8.3.7.3
specify group effects.
7.3.3.8 Laterally Loaded Shafts
Estimate the resistance of laterally loaded shafts according to approved methods. Several
methods exist for including the effects of shafts and surrounding soil into the structural model for
lateral loadings including seismic loads. Section 7.4 discusses the preferred method.

Page 108

Figure 7.2: Drilled Shaft Detail
(With Permanent Corrugated Metal Pipe for Shafts Larger Than Columns)

Page 109

(For Shafts Larger Than Columns Without Corrugated Metal Pipe)

Page 110

(With Equal Diameter Shaft and Column)

Page 111

7.3.3.9 Resistance Factors
Use Table 7.1 to determine the resistance factors for drilled shafts.
Table 7.1: Resistance Factors for Drilled Shafts (Bridge Foundations)
Loading Design Method
Construction QC
Method
Resistance
Factor, |
Compression
For soil: FHWA alpha or beta
method
1
Specifications 0.6
For rock socket: McVays method
2

neglecting end bearing
Specifications 0.6
3

including 1/3 end bearing
Specifications 0.55
2
Statnamic Load Testing 0.7
2
Static Load Testing 0.75
Uplift
For clay: FHWA alpha method
1
Specifications 0.35
For sand: FHWA beta method
1
Specifications 0.45
2
Specifications 0.5
Lateral
4
FBPier
4
Specifications or lateral
load test
5

1.00
1 Refer to FHWA-IF-99-025, soils with N<15 correction suggested by ONeill.
2 Refer to FDOT Soils and Foundation Handbook.
3 Extreme event.
4 Or comparable lateral analysis program.
5 When uncertain conditions are encountered.
7.3.4 Driven Piles
Driven piles are not typically used in the Abu Dhabi Emirate. Driven piles should only be
considered if they prove more economical than drilled shafts for deep foundations. Driven piles
may become necessary where other foundation solutions have an undesirable impact on marine
ecology, result in soil-contamination issues with regard to workers, etc.
Piles transfer loads to deeper suitable strata. Piles may function through skin friction and/or
through end bearing.
7.3.4.1 Pile Types/Selection
Pile Selection
The geotechnical engineer ultimately determines the selected type of pile. Table 7.2 provides
guidance in selecting pile types based on their potential usage.

Page 112

Table 7.2: Driven Pile Selection Guide
Pile Type Soil Conditions and Structural Requirements
Steel Pipe Pile
(closed or open end)
Loose to medium dense soils or clays where skin friction is the primary
resistance and lateral stiffness in both directions is desirable,
especially in rivers where deep scour is anticipated and high lateral
stiffness is needed. Primarily used as a friction pile.
Steel H-Pile
Rock or dense soil where end bearing is desirable and lateral flexibility
in one direction is not critical. Primarily used for end bearing.
Prestressed
Concrete Pile
Loose to medium dense soils or clays where skin friction is the primary
resistance.
Pile Length
Reference: BDS Articles 10.7.1.10, 10.7.1.11, and 10.7.1.12
Determine pile length on a project-by-project basis. Use the same length for all piles for a specific
pier or abutment where practical. Show pile lengths in whole-meter increments.
Present the design and minimum pile tip elevations on the drawing of the structural element in the
contract documents.
Design pile tip elevations to reflect the elevation where the required ultimate pile capacity is
anticipated to be obtained. Minimum pile tip elevations reflect the penetration required, considering
scour and liquefaction, to support both axial and lateral loads.
Predrill for piles placed at abutment embankments that are more than 1.5 m in depth. The size of
the pre-drilled hole is 50 mm larger than the diameter or largest dimension of the pile.
The Geotechnical Report will provide project-specific requirements for the pile embedment,
socketing, and special construction requirements.
Reinforced Pile Tips
Where hard layers are anticipated, use reinforced pile tips to minimize damage for all steel piles.
Where rock is anticipated, equip the pile tips with teeth designed to penetrate into the rock.
The geotechnical engineer selects the type of pile tip to be used. The bridge designer must show
this in the contract documents.
Battered Piles
Preferably, use vertical piles. Consider battered piles, typically 3V:1H, where there is inadequate
horizontal resistance. If battered piles are used, use a refined analysis; a two-dimensional analysis
is a minimum.

Page 113

Edge Distance and Spacing
The distance from the side of any pile to the nearest edge of footing is not less than 250 mm. Pile
spacing will not exceed 3 m or 2.5 pile diameters.
Orientation
The orientation of steel H-piles (strong versus weak axis) is a design consideration, and it is
preferable that all piles be oriented the same. For diaphragm-with-pile integral abutments, use a
single row of piles driven vertically, with the strong axis parallel to the diaphragm centreline. See
Chapter 8 for a discussion on integral abutments.
7.3.4.3 Force Effects
Downdrag (DD) Loads
Mitigate downdrag forces by the following methods:
- provide friction-reducing material around the piles;
- construct embankments a sufficient amount of time in advance of the pile driving for the fill
to settle; or
- prebore and backfill the space around the installed pile with pea gravel (may be less
effective if the adjacent soil continues to settle).
When a pile penetrates a soft layer subject to settlement, the designer must evaluate the force
effects of downdrag or negative loading on the foundations. Downdrag acts as an additional
permanent axial load on the pile and may cause additional settlement. If the force is of sufficient
magnitude, structural failure of the pile or a bearing failure at the tip is possible. For piles that
derive their resistance mostly from end bearing, the structural resistance of the pile must be
adequate to resist the factored loads including downdrag.
Uplift Forces
Uplift forces can be caused by lateral loads, buoyancy, or expansive soils. Check piles intended to
resist uplift forces for resistance to pullout and structural resistance to tensile loads. Check the
connection of the pile to the cap or footing.
Laterally Loaded Piles
Estimate the resistance of laterally loaded piles according to approved methods. Several methods
exist for including the effects of piles and surrounding soil into the structural model for lateral
loadings including seismic loads. Section 7.4 discusses the preferred method.
Group Effect
Minimum spacing requirements are based upon group effect. BDS Articles 10.7.3.9 and 10.7.3.11
specify group effects.

Page 114

7.3.5 Pile/Shaft Testing
7.3.5.1 Pile Loads
Contract Documents
Present the applicable pile loads in the contract documents.
This information will help ensure that pile driving efforts during construction will result in a
foundation adequate to support the design loads.
Static Load Tests
The geotechnical engineer will determine the number and location of the static load tests. Present
the test locations and sizes in the contract documents. Pile tests shall be carried out as specified in
Abu Dhabi Standard Specifications: Volume 2: Road Structures (Document Reference Number
AD-C-01).
Dynamic Pile Monitoring
Data obtained during pile-driving monitoring is used to verify pile resistance with CAPWAP.
During the installation of production piles, dynamic pile monitoring ensures that driving occurs in
accordance with the established criterion. It provides information on soil resistance at the time of
monitoring and on driving performance. Dynamic pile monitoring also reveals driving stresses,
which helps prevent pile damage. If damage is imminent, the monitoring provides an alert early
enough to save the pile from complete destruction.
7.3.5.2 Additional Steel Thickness
To account for future corrosion, add an additional sacrificial steel thickness to all permanent steel
substructure and wall components as shown in Table 7.3.

Page 115

Table 7.3: Table of Additional Sacrificial Steel Thickness Required (mm)
Steel Component
Substructure Environmental Classification
Slightly
Aggressive
Moderately
Aggressive
Case 1
1
Case 2
2
Pipe and H-Piles completely buried
in ground without corrosion
protection measures
2 4 Do not use 6
Pipe and H-Piles on land, partially
buried in ground with corrosion
protection measures
2 5 Do not use 7
Pipe and H-Piles in water, partially
buried in ground without corrosion
protection measures
4 8 Do not use N/A
Pipe and H-Piles in water, partially
buried in ground with corrosion
protection measures
2 5 Do not use N/A
Anchored Sheet Piles 0 0 0 0
Cantilevered Sheet Piles
1
2 3 3
Wall Anchor Bars with corrosion
protection measures
2 5 7 7
1
Case 1: Water > 2000 ppm chlorides or resistivity < 1000 ohm/cm or pH < 6.0; except for special case.
2
Case 2: Special case for land applications: where ground water < 2000 ppm chlorides and resistivity >
5000 ohm-cm and 4.9 < pH < 6.0
The following criteria were used to determine the additional steel thickness required:
Environmental classification versus corrosion rate per side for partially buried piles and wall anchor
bars:
Slightly aggressive: 0.03 mm/year
Moderately aggressive: 0.05 mm/year
Extremely aggressive: 0.07 mm/year

Environmental classification versus corrosion rate per side for completely buried piles:
Slightly aggressive: 0.01 mm/year
Moderately aggressive: 0.03 mm/year
Extremely aggressive: 0.04 mm/year

Design Life:
Pipe and H-Piles without corrosion protection measures:

Page 116

75 years (additional sacrificial thickness required)
Pipe and H-Piles, Sheet Piles and Wall Anchor Bars with corrosion protection measures:
75 years (coating system 30 years and sacrificial thickness 45 years), (Corrosion
rates for anchored sheet pile walls beyond the coating system life are neglected due
to structural redundancy).
Application:
Partially buried Pipe Piles and H-Piles: Two-sided attack at soil and/or water line.
Completely buried Pipe Piles and H-Piles: Two-sided attack below ground line as shown in table
above; single sided attack if pipe piles are concrete filled.
Sheet Piles: Single-sided attack at soil and/or water line.
7.3.5.3 Test Piles
Test piles are constructed to determine soil capacity, pile-driving system, pile drivability, production
pile lengths, and driving criteria.
Depending on the bridge site and local conditions, a few test piles, as indicated in the contract
documents, are tested to 200% of service load or to failure. A number of working piles, as
indicated in tender documents, are tested to 150% of service load. All piles are tested with integrity
testing.
At least one test pile must be located approximately every 60 m of bridge length with a minimum of
two test piles per bridge structure. These requirements apply for each size and pile type in the
bridge except at end bents. For bascule piers and high-level crossings that require large footings
or cofferdam-type foundations, specify at least one test pile at each pier. Consider maintenance of
traffic requirements, required sequence of construction, geological conditions, and pile spacing
when determining the location of test piles. For phased construction, test piles should be located in
the first phase of construction. The geotechnical engineer must verify the suitability of the test pile
locations.
The structural engineer must coordinate the test pile lengths and locations with the geotechnical
engineer and geotechnical consultant, before finalization of the plans.
7.3.5.4 Load Tests
Reference: BDS Articles 10.7.3.8 and 10.8.3.5.6
See the Abu Dhabi Standard Specifications: Volume 2: Road Structures (Document Reference
Number AD-C-01), for load testing of drilled shafts and driven piles.
7.4 Modelling for Lateral Loading
When modelling deep foundations for lateral loading, ignore the first one meter of soil below
finished grade. Use a structural model with site-specific p-y curves to represent the soil and
determine the lateral resistance of shafts or piles. Model the soil surrounding the shaft as a set of
equivalent non-linear soil springs, as represented in Figure 7.5. A discussion on modelling of the

Page 117

soil strata as equivalent non-linear soil springs is given in Priestley, et al, Seismic Design and
Retrofit of Bridges, Wiley-Interscience, 1996.
The soil resistance p is a non-linear function of the corresponding horizontal shaft or pile
deflection y. The solutions accuracy is a function of the spacing between nodes used to attach
the soil springs to the shaft or pile (the closer the spacing, the better the accuracy), and the shaft
or pile itself. Simple girder column elements are usually adequate for modelling behaviour.
The node placement for springs should model the soil layers. Generally, the upper of the shaft
or pile in stiff soils has the most significant contribution to the lateral soil reaction. Space springs in
this region at no more than 1 m apart. Springs for the lower of the shaft or pile may transition to
a much larger spacing. Stiff foundations in weak soils will transfer loads much deeper in the soil,
and the use of more springs is advised.
Use computer software (e.g. DFSAP, LPILE Plus, COM624) to model soil-structure interaction.
Section 7.1.4 discusses the interaction between the bridge designer and the geotechnical
engineer.
7.5 Mass Concrete
Consider mass concrete requirements in selecting member sizes and avoid mass concrete if
practical; however, when its use is unavoidable, indicate which portions are mass concrete. See
the Abu Dhabi Standard Specifications: Volume 2: Road Structures (Document Reference Number
AD-C-01) for thermal control of mass concrete.
Figure 7.5: Method of Modelling Deep Foundation Stiffness

Page 118

8 ABUTMENTS, PIERS, AND WALLS
Section 11 of the BDS discusses design and detailing requirements for abutments, piers, and
walls. This Chapter presents supplementary information on the design of these structural
elements.
8.1 Abutments/Wingwalls
8.1.1 General
An abutment includes an end diaphragm, a stem wall, and wingwalls. A stem wall or diaphragm
functions as a wall providing lateral support for fill material on which the roadway rests immediately
adjacent to the bridge.
Abutments can be generally classified as rigid or flexible. This classification refers to the
abutments fixity to the foundation and should not be confused with the fixity of the beams or
girders to the substructure.
Rigid abutments incorporate expansion joints at the end of the bridge between the deck and the
backwall to accommodate thermal and other movements.
Flexible abutments (integral abutments) eliminate expansion joints at the end of the superstructure
by integrating the bridge deck and encased beam ends with the backwall to form an end wall.
Flexible abutments must be able to accommodate the movements through elastic behaviour of the
bridge and the surrounding soil because the deck and beams are integral with the end bent.
An abutment may be designed as one of the following three types:
1. Seat Abutment. Rigid abutment with a joint between the bridge deck and the backwall.
2. Integral Abutment. Flexible abutment without an expansion joint between the abutment and
the bridge deck (in cross section, the end wall and cap may appear as a monolithic
rectangle with no apparent division between them).
3. Semi-Integral Abutment. Flexible abutment with the bridge deck cast monolithically with the
end wall but with a bearing under the beam and a bond-breaker between the end wall and
cap to facilitate construction and subsequent maintenance.
Abutments may consist of a cast-in-situ, reinforced concrete cap founded on drilled shafts, piles, or
spread footings. The seat abutment supported on drilled shafts is the most common abutment
configuration in the Abu Dhabi Emirate. When practical, consider a jointless bridge in design.
Abutments on shafts or piles may use MSE walls to retain the approach fill.
Jointless bridges in service have demonstrated the ability to perform well within certain
parameters. Therefore, in the absence of in-depth analyses, design a jointless bridge under the
following parameters. Exceeding one or more of these parameters will require a more detailed
analysis:
- 50 mm of total movement at the abutment,
- 30 degree skew or less, and
- abutment types that are supported on a single row of shafts or piles.

Page 119

Where required, a detailed analysis must consider the zone of soil/structure interaction behind the
abutments, specifically the lateral soil pressure build-up and settlements that will occur in this zone
as a result of thermal cycling. Conduct the design based upon the detailed analysis in published
design criteria from a recognized source applicable to the type of jointless bridge under
consideration. Some suitable design guides include BA 42/96 The Design of Integral Bridges (28)
and Section 15, Integral Abutment Bridges of the NJDOT Design Manual for Bridges and
Structures (29). Experience in North America has demonstrated that superstructures of this type
may be designed longer than the 60-m limit in BA 42/96, provided that the effects described
therein are properly accounted for.
8.1.2 General Abutment/Wingwall Design and Detailing Criteria
Use the following:
1. Expansion Joints. Consider vertical expansion joints for wall lengths exceeding 40 m in
length. Water proofing of expansion joints will differ depending on whether the structure is
submerged (underpasses) or not (flyovers). These details are described in the Abu Dhabi
Standard Specifications: Volume 2: Road Structures (Document Reference Number AD-C-
01).
2. Abutment Top Surfaces. Abutment seats at bearing locations are level. For seat abutments,
slope the remaining exposed top surfaces transversely to provide adequate drainage.
3. Approach Slab Support. Assume that the end of the approach slab at the bridge is
supported on the abutment and that the other end of the approach slab away from the
bridge is supported over half of its length by springs representing the soil under the
approach slab.
4. Live-load Surcharge (LS). Apply the live-load surcharge (LS) to the abutment assuming no
mitigating effect from the approach slab.
5. Dead Load. Include one-half of the dead load of the approach slab as an abutment dead
load.
6. Skewed Bridges. For skew angles greater than 30, detail a 75-mm minimum chamfer at
acute corners.
7. Soil Reinforcements. Do not use soil reinforcements (such as steel strips and bar mats
commonly used in mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) wall construction) as attachments to
abutment diaphragms or stem walls to resist lateral loads applied to these components.
8. Reinforcement. Chapter 4 discusses practices for the reinforcement of structural concrete
(e.g. concrete cover, bar spacing). The design of abutments and wingwalls must meet all
applicable requirements in Chapter 4.
8.1.3 Seat Abutments
Use the following:
1. Seat Width. The seat width is typically governed by seismic design requirements.
2. Stem Width. The minimum stem width is 600 mm. Increase as required by design.

Page 120

3. Minimum Size and Spacing of Bars. Determine the size and spacing of bars by design with
a minimum of T16 bars @ 300 mm unless noted otherwise.
8.1.4 Integral Abutments
8.1.4.1 Usage
Limit the use of integral abutments to a maximum height of 3 m as measured from the bottom of
the soffit to the bottom of the wall, or twice the depth of the superstructure, whichever is less.
Design integral abutment details to meet the following requirements:
1. Joints. The use of integral abutments allows joints to be placed off of the superstructure.
Thus, the potential leaking of joints will not result in deterioration of the bridge.
2. Foundation Components. Use a single row of drilled shafts or driven piles to support
integral abutments.
3. Shaft or Pile Embedment. To provide fixity, embed the shafts or piles a minimum of 300
mm into the abutment.
4. Top and Bottom Slab Reinforcing. Extend the top and bottom slab reinforcing through the
abutment diaphragm.
5. Settlement of Fill. Investigate settlement of the fill in and around integral abutments.
Typically, integral abutments around the world have been supported on driven piles. Several
successful designs have used drilled shafts instead of piles. Shafts should be of lateral stiffness
comparable to typical driven piles.
8.1.5 Semi-Integral Abutments
For this type of abutment, cast the integral end diaphragm around the girder ends, attached to the
slab but separated from the cap. Attach wingwalls to the cap with only the diaphragm remaining
free to move. Limited usage of semi-integral abutments is envisioned for the Abu Dhabi Emirate.
Allow diaphragm movement and rotation through the detailing of the bearing or connection of the
girder and the cap as either:
- a pinned connection through a fixed (in terms of translation) bearing, or
- a floating abutment with an expansion bearing with the end of the bridge free to translate.
Usually in a single-span bridge, one end (typically, the downhill end) will be fixed and the other end
free to translate. In a multi-span bridge, both abutments will usually be free with fixity provided at
the pier(s).
The following applies to the design of semi-integral abutments:
1. Pinned End. Assume a pinned (in terms of rotation) end for the structural design of the
superstructure.

Page 121

2. Diaphragm Width. Typically, the end diaphragm width is the same as the pile cap beam but
will be a minimum of 750 mm.
3. Batter. Design walls to be a constant thickness; do not use battered walls except for high
cantilever abutments.

Semi-integral abutments allow for better detailing of abutments. At least two rows of piles will be
required to support the abutment seat. It shares all of the benefits of an integral abutment and
does not need to overcome the problem of ensuring a flexible abutment support. The stiffer
abutment seat may now be used if necessary to fix the bridge superstructure. Supporting the deck
on bearings also allows for future jacking if required to overcome settlements, which is not possible
for integral abutments.
8.1.6 MSE Wall Abutments
Two basic types of abutments with MSE walls exist:
1. True Abutment. An abutment supported by an MSE wall, in which the wall rests on a
spread footing atop the reinforced earth. Design the load from the spread footing as an
earth surcharge load (ES).
2. False Abutment. A shaft-supported abutment, in which the MSE wall wraps around an
otherwise open abutment. Isolate the shafts from the MSE backfill through sleeves to
eliminate downdrag, and found the shafts in the soils below the MSE wall.
The typical MSE wall abutment in the Abu Dhabi Emirates is the false abutment type.
Section 8.3 discusses the use and design of MSE walls in more detail.
Although, traditionally, MSE wall abutments have been limited to minor bridges of limited spans,
experience in Europe and North America suggest that MSE wall abutments can be used
successfully on all bridges.
8.1.7 Wingwalls
Wingwalls must have sufficient length to retain the roadway embankment and to furnish protection
against erosion. With respect to abutments, the following applies to wingwalls:
1. Orientation. Orient wingwalls perpendicular to the direction of traffic on the bridge.
2. Thickness. The minimum thickness of any wingwall is 300 mm.
3. Wingwall/Abutment Connection. The junction of the abutment and wingwall is a critical
design element, requiring special considerations. Use a 600-mm triangular fillet at the
junction of the back of the abutment and wingwall. Use fillet reinforcement with a minimum
of T20 reinforcing bars at 300-mm spacing properly anchored into the wingwall and
abutment.
4. Design Forces. The design forces for wingwalls are earth-pressure forces only. Also
consider seismic forces from the soil behind the wingwall in their design.

Page 122

8.1.8 Abutment Construction Joints
To accommodate normal construction practices, detail the following horizontal construction joints in
the contract documents:
1. Seat Abutments. Detail a horizontal construction joint between the top of the abutment seat
and the bottom of the backwall. Some expansion joint types may require another
construction joint at the approach slab seat.
2. Integral Abutments. Detail a horizontal construction joint at the top of the end diaphragm at
the joint with the soffit.
3. Wingwalls. Detail a permissible horizontal construction joint at an elevation that is the same
as the top of the abutment seat.
Planned vertical construction joints are normally associated with staged construction issues. Make
provisions for splicing or mechanical reinforcing couplers on horizontal reinforcing steel. Place the
vertical reinforcing steel at least 75 mm from the construction joint.
8.2 Piers
8.2.1 Design Preferences
Desirably, seismic loads will control the column design and not other load combinations. Design
the columns to take all of the longitudinal seismic force assuming that the abutment backwalls fail.
Use a longitudinal open joint where transverse temperature controls the column design.
8.2.2 Pier Caps
8.2.2.1 Usage
In general, use pier caps supported by a single column, multiple columns, or a solid pier wall.
Integral pier caps are preferred for aesthetic reasons.
For outrigger caps, consider the torsional effects resulting from longitudinal seismic displacements.
Use a pin connection at the interface between the column top and bottom of the outrigger cap to
minimize torsion in the cap.
An outrigger cap is an integral cap that extends beyond the edge of the bridge superstructure.
They are used where columns cannot be placed within the width of the bridge superstructure.
8.2.2.2 Cap Width
Extend the width of pier caps beyond the sides of columns. The added width of the cap is a
minimum of 75 mm on each side of the column for a total of 150 mm by which the cap is larger
than the column. This width will reduce the reinforcement interference between the column and
cap. The cap will also have short cantilevered ends, when practical, to balance positive and
negative moments in the cap. Design these caps to meet the deflection requirements of BDS
Article 2.5.2.6.2.
Seismic requirements for girder-seat widths may control cap width.

Page 123

8.2.2.3 Diaphragms for Piers Integral with the Superstructure
Design diaphragms for piers integral with the superstructure to be 10% of span or 2 times the
superstructure depth. The end diaphragm is 5% of superstructure depth.
8.2.2.4 Drop Caps
Step down the tops of drop caps as shown in Figure 8.1 to account for elevation differences
between girders:
Figure 8.1: Tops of Drop Caps

The drop cap steps should be vertical, and the bearing surfaces should be level. For planar
(superelevated) cross sections, slope the bottom of the cap at the same rate as the cross slope of
the top of the bridge deck. For crowned sections, the bottom of the cap is level.
8.2.3 Column Cross Sections
Where a pier wall is used, the wall is solid for its entire height. The minimum thickness is 600 mm
and may be widened at the top to accommodate the bridge seat where required.
Caps are at least 150 mm wider than the columns greatest dimension.
Where columns are supported on isolated drilled shafts, enlarge the shaft diameter relative to the
column to force plastic hinging in the column and protect the drilled shaft from inelastic action. The
drilled shaft diameter is typically 500 mm larger than the column diameter. Confirm that the
diameters selected for the column and shaft will accommodate the overlapping reinforcing steel
cages and clear cover requirements in both the column and drilled shaft.
8.2.4 Column Reinforcement
8.2.4.1 General
Chapter 4 discusses practices for the reinforcement of structural concrete. This includes:
- concrete cover,
- bar spacing,
- lateral confinement reinforcement,
- development of reinforcement, and
- splices.
Design all concrete pier columns to meet all applicable requirements in Chapter 4.
8.2.4.2 Transverse Reinforcement

Page 124

General
Use spirals or butt-welded spliced hoops as transverse reinforcing steel in octagonal or round
columns. Use ties in rectangular columns or for shapes where spirals or hoops cannot be used.
Reinforce columns with oblong cross sections and interlocking hoops with a centre-to-centre
spacing not to exceed times the diameter of the cage. Interlock the overlaps by a minimum of
four bars.
Spiral Splices
Almost all spiral reinforcement will require a splice. BDS Article 5.10.11 provides requirements for
splices in spiral reinforcement. The contract documents will indicate plastic hinge regions where a
spiral splice is not allowed.
A lapped splice, where permitted, will consist of an overlap distance of 60 bar diameters or 1
column diameters whichever is more. Terminate the ends of both spirals in a 135 hook, wrapped
around a longitudinal bar, and having a tail length of at least 150 mm. Provide a detail or
description of the lapped splice in the contract documents.
Where the spiral reinforcement extends into a footing or cap, the spiral reinforcement can be
discontinuous. This allows easier placement of the top mat of footing or bottom mat of cap
reinforcement. Provide a detail or note in the plans that shows an allowed discontinuity in the spiral
with a splice.
8.2.4.3 Longitudinal Reinforcement
For longitudinal column reinforcing bars, use T25 or larger, with T32 bars being the preferred
maximum. Detail the longitudinal reinforcing steel continuous with a maximum spacing of 200 mm
centre-to-centre. Fully develop the longitudinal column reinforcing bars where these bars enter into
the pier cap and the drilled shaft, spread footing, or pile cap.
The preferred detail for longitudinal reinforcement is continuous, unspliced reinforcement. In such
cases, include a note on the plans stating that splices will not be allowed in the longitudinal
reinforcement.
If column heights require splices, use the provisions in BDS Article 5.10.11. Use mechanical
couplers or lap splices for splicing the longitudinal reinforcing steel. Do not locate splices within the
plastic-hinge regions of the column. Use a minimum stagger of 600 mm between adjacent splices
and show the locations in the plans. Stagger splices in bundled bars at a minimum of 600 mm.
Proposals by contractors to change the location or type of splice from those in the contract
documents should not be allowed unless approved by the bridge designer. The resolution of
conflicts or errors requires special consideration.
8.2.4.4 Compression Member Connection to Caps
Terminate longitudinal bars at a point below the top cap reinforcement or prestressing ducts. If a
hook is required, extend the hook toward the compression member core. Maintain minimum
clearances for the placement of cap concrete through tremies.

Page 125

8.2.5 Column Construction Joints
Use construction joints at the top and bottom of the column. Where columns exceed 8 m in height,
show construction joints such that concrete pours do not exceed 8 m in height. Where applicable,
locate all construction joints at least 300 mm above the water elevation expected during
construction.
8.2.6 Multi-Column Piers
Support the columns by drilled shafts, individual caps/footings, or a combined cap/footing. The
following applies to the design and detailing of multi-column piers:
1. Column Spacing. In general, column spacing should not exceed approximately 8 m centre
to centre of columns.
2. Compressive Reinforcing Steel in Cap or Footing. If the initial design indicates the need for
compressive steel, redesign the pier to eliminate this need.
Compressive reinforcing steel tends to buckle when the cover is gone or when the concrete
around the steel is weakened by compression.
8.2.7 Single-Column Piers
The following applies to the design of single-column piers:
1. Cantilevers. The design of the cantilever is affected by the cantilever depth-versus-length
geometry. Where the distance between the centreline of the bearing and the column is less
than approximately twice the depth of the cantilever, consider using the strut-and-tie model
in BDS Article 5.6.3 for the design of the cantilever.
2. Cantilever Reinforcement. Extend all of the calculated cantilever reinforcement throughout
the entire length of the cap. Place cap stirrups in the cap within the limits of the shaft at a
spacing not exceeding 300 mm.
8.2.8 Pier Walls
Pier walls are solid full height. The dimensions of the wall in the transverse direction may be
reduced by providing cantilevers to form a hammerhead pier.
8.2.9 Dynamic Load Allowance (DLA)
Consider the Dynamic Load Allowance or Impact Modifier (IM) in the structural design of pier caps,
pier columns, and all drilled shafts, driven piles, and spread footings, only if a significant portion of
these elements is above ground.
The BDS allows the Dynamic Load Allowance, traditionally called impact multiplier (IM), to only be
omitted on foundation components that are entirely below ground level.
8.2.10 Moment-Magnification
For exceptionally tall or slender columns/shafts where the slenderness ratio (Kl/r) is greater than
100, use a refined analysis, as outlined in BDS Article 5.7.4.1. Where P-Delta design procedures

Page 126

are used, consider the initial out-of-straightness of columns and the sustained dead load in the
design.
Ignore moment magnification in seismic design.
Piers, pier columns, and piles are referred to as compressive members, although their design is
normally controlled by flexure. In most cases, the use of the moment-magnification approach in
BDS Article 5.7.4.3 is warranted.
8.2.11 Crack Control
Limit service tension stresses in the outer layer of longitudinal reinforcing steel for all mildly
reinforced pier columns, pier caps and bent caps under construction loading and Service III loading
to 40% of the yield strength (0.4f
y
). The service biaxial bending tension stresses in longitudinal
column reinforcing may be approximated by taking the square root of the sum of the squares in
each direction.
The tensile limit of 0.4f
y
for mild reinforcing, combined with proper distribution of reinforcement, is
intended to ensure the durability of pier columns, pier caps, and bent caps by limiting crack widths.
1. Long Walls and Other Similar Construction.
a. Limit the length of a section to a maximum of 9 m between vertical construction
joints.
b. Clearly detail required construction joints on the plans.
c. Specify construction or expansion joints fitted with a water barrier when necessary
to prevent water leakage.
2. Footings. Specify that footings be cast monolithically. Attach struts and other large
attachments as secondary castings.
3. Keyways. Do not place keyways in horizontal construction joints. Provide keyways at
formed surfaces of vertical construction joints and elsewhere as necessary to transfer
applied loads from one cast section to an adjacent, second pour. Specify or detail
trapezoidal keyways for ease of forming and stripping. For example, a typical joint must
have a keyway about 50 mm deep and about 150 mm wide (or one third the thickness of
the member for members less than 500 mm in thickness) running the full length.
8.3 Walls (Earth Retaining Systems)
Reference: BDS Section 11
8.3.1 General
Use earth retaining systems to provide lateral support for a variety of applications:
- cuts in slopes for roadway alignments;
- roadway widening where right-of-way is limited;
- grade separations;
- proximate live-load surcharge from buildings, highways, etc., that must remain in place;
- stabilization of slopes where instabilities have occurred;

Page 127

- protection of environmentally sensitive areas; and
- excavation support.
Earth retaining systems are classified according to their construction method and the mechanism
used to develop lateral support:
1. Construction Method. This may be either a fill-wall construction or cut-wall construction.
Fill-wall construction is where the wall is constructed from the base of the wall to the top
(i.e. bottom-up construction) such as an MSE wall. Cut-wall construction is where the wall
is constructed from the top of the wall to the base (i.e. top-down construction) such as a
soldier-pile wall.
2. Lateral Load Support. The basic mechanism of lateral load support may be either
externally stabilized or internally stabilized. Externally stabilized wall systems use an
external structural wall, against which stabilizing forces are mobilized. Internally stabilized
wall systems employ reinforcement that extends within and beyond the potential failure
mass.
Rankin earth pressure may be used in lieu of Coulomb earth pressure. If Rankin earth pressure is
used, the resultant lateral earth load can be assumed to be located at the centroid of the earth
pressure diagram.
During the design process, review wall locations for conflicts with existing or proposed utilities and
drain pipes located beneath or adjacent to the proposed wall and/or reinforced soil zone. Analyse
for constructability, settlement effects, wall stability, maintenance repair access, potential for
relocation of the utility or drain pipe, etc. Coordinate wall and utility locations and designs with the
utilities engineer.
Do not place utilities or longitudinal drainage conveyances in the soil-reinforced zone behind
Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) or tie-back walls.
It is undesirable and, in some cases, impossible to incorporate drain pipes and utilities within the
layered structural elements in the reinforced soil zone of an MSE wall, considering special design
and construction difficulties result from introducing obstructions. Drain pipes and utilities placed
below the wall or in the reinforced soil zone cannot be maintained because excavation in this zone
can potentially undermine stability of the wall. In addition, leaking pipes can generate soil wash out
and compromise the structural integrity of the wall. Special design constraints may be imposed
when a pressurized utility carrier is placed within, through, under, or immediately adjacent to an
MSE wall. This is to assure the design of structural elements takes into consideration support
limitations that may be created by the presence of utilities and potential damage or failure if a
pressurized utility carrier leaks.
8.3.2 Responsibilities
The type selection for an earth retaining system is a collaborative effort between the bridge
designer and geotechnical engineer. The following identifies the basic responsibilities of each for
the design of earth retaining systems, except MSE walls.
8.3.2.1 Geotechnical Engineer
For permanent earth retaining systems, the geotechnical engineer:

Page 128

- performs the geotechnical investigations;
- provides the wall type;
- provides the allowable soil bearing and lateral earth design coefficients for gravity,
surcharge, and seismic loading;
- performs the global and external stability checks;
- determines if there is a need for special drainage features due to the selected wall type
and/or site conditions; and
- determines the size and spacing of soil nails and tie-back anchors.
The geotechnical engineer will also provide the following information to the bridge designer:
- earth pressure coefficients (k
a
, k
o
, k
p
) and an estimate of the amount of deformation to
develop the active and passive earth pressures and the factors of safety;
- unit weight of the backfill material;
- allowable interface friction between cast-in-situ concrete footing and soil;
- allowable bearing capacity;
- expected settlement;
- requirements for drainage control;
- testing requirements for anchored and soil nail walls; and
- special construction requirements for all walls.
8.3.2.2 Bridge Designer
The bridge designer performs the following for the design of earth retaining systems:
1. Design. For cast-in-situ concrete cantilever walls, non-gravity cantilever (sheetpile) walls,
and anchored walls, perform the internal stability design for the wall (e.g. wall dimensions
and reinforcing configurations). Perform the overturning, sliding, and bearing checks using
the geotechnical parameters provided by the geotechnical engineer. For soil nail and tie-
back anchor walls, design the reinforcing for the structural facing of the wall.
2. Detailing. Provide all construction details for the earth retaining system, including:
- Plan views to indicate the layout of the walls. Provide the station and offset to the wall
layout line (usually the front face) at all locations needed for locating the wall.
- Elevation views to show the length and design height of wall segments, and top and
bottom elevations of the wall. Provide top-of-wall elevations at intervals necessary to
build the walls. Provide elevations every 7.5 m when the top of wall is not on a straight
line. Footings are almost always level with the bottom and top of footing elevation
shown for each step.

Page 129

- Typical sections to show all additional information on the wall. This includes the
dimensions of the footing and wall, approximate original ground line, finished ground
line at the bottom and top of wall, bench at bottom of wall, slopes at the bottom and top
of wall, drainage requirements, and reinforcing steel.
Chapter 17 provides additional references (30 to 35) for the design of earth retaining systems.
8.3.3 Types of Earth Retaining Systems
8.3.3.1 Fill Walls
MSE Walls
MSE walls are constructed using reinforced layers of earth fill with extensible (polymeric or
geosynthetic) reinforcing. The facing for the walls can be concrete panels, geotextile fabrics, or
exposed welded wire. The heights of these walls can extend to over 30 m.
Advantages of MSE walls include:
- They tolerate larger settlements than a cast-in-situ concrete cantilever wall.
- They are relatively fast to build.
- They are relatively low in cost.
Cast-in-Situ Concrete Cantilever Walls
Cast-in-situ concrete cantilever walls are best-suited for sites characterized by good bearing
material and small long-term settlement. In soft soils or when settlement may be a problem, the
semi-gravity walls can be pile supported. This adds to the cost, especially relative to a MSE wall.
However, for short wall lengths, the cast-in-situ concrete cantilever wall may be the most cost-
effective selection.
Cast-in-situ concrete cantilever walls do not require special construction equipment, wall
components, or specialty contractors. They can be up to 10 m in height, although most are less
than 6 m in height. The footing width for these walls is normally to the wall height.
Cast-in-situ concrete cantilever walls can be used in cut slope locations. In this case, the slope
behind the face of the wall requires excavation to provide clearance for the construction of the wall
footing. Do not use excavation slopes steeper than 1V:1.5H, which can result in significant
excavations in sloped areas.
Prefabricated Modular Walls
Prefabricated modular walls include concrete and metal bin walls and concrete crib walls.
These types of walls may occasionally be advantageous. For example, because the components
are prefabricated before delivery to the field, prefabricated modular walls may be desirable where
the time to build the wall is limited.
8.3.3.2 Cut Walls
Soldier Pile Walls
For soldier pile walls, install H-piles every 2.5 m to 3 m and span the space between the H-piles
with lagging. Install the H-piles by grouting the H-pile into a drilled hole; however, they can also be
installed by driving.

Page 130

The advantage of installing the H-pile by drilling is that vibrations, and the potential for driving
refusal, are usually avoided.
The depth of the soldier pile is similar to the sheet pile wall; i.e. approximately two times the
exposed height. Use either timber or concrete panels for lagging.
For most soldier pile walls, a concrete facing is cast in front of the soldier piles and lagging after
the wall is at full height. Various architectural finishes can be used for the facing.
Anchored Walls
Ground-anchored wall systems (often called tie-back walls) typically consist of tensioned ground
anchors connected to a concrete wall facing. Ground anchors consist of a high-strength steel bar
or prestressing strand that is grouted into an inclined borehole and then tensioned to provide a
reaction force at the wall face. Locate these anchors at 2.5-m to 3-m horizontal and vertical
spacing, depending on the required anchor capacity. Each anchor is proof tested to confirm its
capacity. The upper row of anchors can extend a distance equal to the wall height plus up to 12 m
behind the face of the wall.
Specialized equipment is required to install and test the anchors, resulting in a higher cost relative
to conventional walls. An important consideration for this wall type can be the subsurface
easement requirements for the anchoring system.
Soil Nail Walls
A soil nail wall uses top-down construction. The typical construction methodology includes:
- a vertical cut of approximately 1.2 m;
- drill, insert, and grout soil nails;
- shotcrete exposed cut surface;
- repeat operation until total height of wall is complete; and
- for permanent applications, a reinforced concrete wall is cast over the entire surface.
A soil nail wall involves grouting large diameter rebar (e.g. T32 or larger) or strand into the soil at
1.2-m to 1.8-m spacing vertically and horizontally. For the length of the rebar or strand, use from
0.7 times the wall height to 1.0 times the wall height.
Specialty contractors are required when constructing this wall type. Soil nail walls can be difficult to
construct in certain soil and groundwater conditions. For example, where seeps occur within the
wall profile or in relatively clean sands and gravels, the soil may not stand at an exposed height for
a sufficient time to install nails and apply shotcrete.
Nongravity Cantilever (Sheet Pile) Walls
Sheet pile walls are normally driven or vibrated into the ground with a pile-driving hammer and are
most suitable at sites where driving conditions are amenable to pile driving. Therefore, part of the
design process requires performing a driveability analysis. Sites with shallow rock or consisting of
significant amounts of cobbles and boulders are not suitable for sheet pile driving.
Generally, the sheet pile must be driven to a depth of at least the exposed height to meet stability
requirements. Most sheet pile walls are 3 m to 4.5 m or less in height.

Page 131

Although higher walls are possible, the structural design and installation requirements increase
significantly. Taller sheet pile walls are possible, but require ground anchors that are typically
attached to a horizontal whaler beam installed across the face of the sheet piles.
8.3.4 Mechanically-Stabilized Earth (MSE) Walls
8.3.4.1 Design
FHWA Publication No. FHWA-NHI-00-043, Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced
Soil slopes Design & Construction Guidelines, contains background information on the initial
development of MSE wall design and is referenced by BDS Article 11.10.1 as the design
guidelines for geometrically complex MSE walls.
MSE walls are proprietary systems, and it is the responsibility of the suppliers of the system to
design and supply all of the elements that make up the wall, such as the precast concrete facing
panels, tension straps, precast barriers with their counterbalancing slabs, and copings. The
supplier is responsible for the complete design of the MSE retaining wall system, inclusive of its
internal and external stability, given existing site/ground conditions and takes full responsibility for
any improvement to the existing soils that may be required.
For concrete class and cover requirements, see Figure 8.2.
Only non-metallic soil reinforcement and fixings shall be utilized.
Construction of MSE walls shall be according to Abu Dhabi Standard Specifications: Volume 2:
Road Structures (Document Reference Number AD-C-01).
Minimum Service Life
1. Design permanent walls for a service life of 75 years, except those supporting abutments
on spread footings. Design walls supporting abutments on spread footings for a service life
of 100 years.
2. Design temporary walls for the length of construction contract or a service life of three
years, whichever is greater.
Concrete Levelling Course
1. All permanent walls will have a non-structural concrete levelling course as a minimum.
2. The entire bottom of the wall panel will have bearing on the concrete levelling course.
Bin Walls
1. When two walls intersect forming an internal angle of less than 70 degrees, design the
nose section as a bin wall. Submit calculations for this special design with the plans for
review and approval.
2. Design structural connections between wall facings within the nose section to create an at-
rest bin effect without eliminating flexibility of the wall facings to allow tolerance for
differential settlements.
3. For wall facings without continuous vertical open joints, such as square or rectangular
panels, design the nose section to settle differentially from the remainder of the structure
with a slip joint. Facing panel overlap, interlock or rigid connection across vertical joints is

Page 132

not permitted. For aesthetic considerations and differential settlement concerns, the panels
should be erected in such a pattern that the horizontal panel joint line is discontinuous at
every other panel. This should be accomplished by alternating standard height and half
height panel placement along the levelling pad.
4. Design soil reinforcements to restrain the nose section by connecting directly to each of the
facing elements in the nose section. Run soil reinforcement into the backfill of the main
reinforced soil volume to a plane at least 900 mm beyond the Coulomb (or Rankine) failure
surface. See Figure 8.2.
5. Design of facing connections, pullout and strength of reinforcing elements and obstructions
must conform to the general requirements of the wall design.
Minimum Length of Soil Reinforcement
In lieu of the requirements for minimum soil reinforcement lengths in BDS Article C11.10.2.1 use
the following:
The minimum soil reinforcement length, L, measured from the back of the facing element, must
be the maximum of the following:
- Walls in front of abutments on piling L > 2.4 m and L > 0.7H.
- Walls supporting abutments on spread footings L > 7 m and L > 0.6 (H+d) + 2 m, (d = fill
height about wall) and L > 0.7H.

Figure 8.2: Design Criteria for Acute Corners of MSE Bin Walls

Page 133

where: H = height of wall, in meters, and measured from the top of the levelling pad to the top
of the wall coping. L = length in meters, required for external stability design.
As a rule of thumb, for a MSE wall with reinforcement lengths equal to 70% of the wall height, the
anticipated factored bearing pressure (q
uniform
) can be estimated to be about 200% of the
overburden weight of soil and surcharge. It may be necessary to increase the reinforcement length
for external stability to assure that the factored bearing pressure does not exceed the factored
bearing resistance (q
r
) of the foundation soil at this location.
Minimum Front Face Wall Embedment
1. Consider scour and bearing capacity when determining front face embedment depth.
2. Consult the hydraulic and geotechnical engineers to determine the elevation of the top of
levelling pad.
3. In addition to the requirements for minimum front face embedment in BDS Article 11.10.2.2,
the minimum front face embedment for permanent walls must comply with both a minimum
of 600 mm to the top of the levelling pad and Figure 8.3. Also, consider normal construction
practices.
Figure 8.3: MSE Wall Minimum Front Face Embedment

Facing
1. The typical panel size must be square and not exceed 9 sq m in area 1.5 m x 1.5 m,
nominal.
2. The typical non-square (i.e. diamond-shaped, not rectangular) panel size must not exceed
12 sq m in area.
3. Special panels (top out, etc.) must not exceed 15 sq m in area.
4. Full height facing panels must not exceed 2.4 m in height.
5. Consider the use of larger panels on a case-by-case basis. The reinforcing steel concrete
cover must comply with the design standard for the wall type as determined using Figure
8.3.
External Stability
The reinforced backfill soil parameters for analysis are (if detailed information is not available):
1. Sand backfill:

Page 134

Moist unit weight: 1682 kg/m
3

Friction angle: 30 degrees
2. Limerock backfill:
Moist unit weight: 1842 kg/m
3

Friction angle: 34 degrees
3. Flowable fill backfill:
Moist unit weight: 721 to 2003 kg/m
3

c f ' : minimum 0.52 MPa
4. In addition to the horizontal back slope with traffic surcharge figure in BDS. Figure 8.4
illustrates a broken back slope condition with a traffic surcharge. If a traffic surcharge is
present and located within 0.5 H of the back of the reinforced soil volume, then it must be
included in the analysis. Figure 8.5 illustrates a broken back slope condition without a traffic
surcharge.
5. The geotechnical engineer for the project is responsible for designing the reinforcement
lengths for the external conditions shown in Figure 8.6 and any other conditions that are
appropriate for the site.
Apparent Coefficient of Friction
The pullout friction factor (F*) and the resistance factor for pullout () need not be modified for the
design of soil reinforcement below the design flood elevation when the angle of internal friction is
determined for saturated conditions.
Soil Reinforcement Strength
1. For geosynthetic reinforcement, supplement BDS Table 11.10.6.4.3b-1 with the following
default value:
Application
Total Reduction Factor,
RF
Critical temporary wall applications with non-aggressive
soils and polymers meeting the requirements listed in BDS
Table 11-10.6.4.2b-1.
7.0

2. Do not design soil reinforcement to be skewed more than 15 degrees from a position
normal to the wall panel unless necessary and clearly detailed for acute corners.
3. There are times when the 15-degree criteria cannot be met due to vertical obstructions
such as piling, drainage structures, or bridge obstructions with angles. In these cases,
clearly detail the soil reinforcement skew details in the Shop Drawings.
4. Do not design soil reinforcement to be skewed more than 15 degrees from a horizontal
position in elevation view to clear horizontal obstructions.
5. Soil reinforcement must not be attached to piling, and abutment piles must not be attached
to any retaining wall system.

Page 135

Figure 8.4: Broken Backfill with Traffic Surcharge

Figure 8.5: Broken Backfill without Traffic Surcharge

Page 136

Figure 8.6: Proprietary Retaining Walls

Page 137

Reinforcement/Facing Connection
Design the soil reinforcement to facing panel connection to assure full contact of the connection
elements. The connection must be able to be inspected visibly during construction.
Normally, mesh and bar mats are connected to the facing panel by a pin passing through loops at
the end of the reinforcement and loops inserted into the panels. If these loops are not aligned, then
some reinforcement will not be in contact with the pins causing the remaining reinforcement to be
unevenly stressed and/or overstressed. If the quality of this connection cannot be assured through
pullout testing and quality control during installation, then the strength of the soil reinforcement and
its connections should be reduced accordingly.
Flowable Fill Backfill
1. Flowable fill backfill will prevent the MSE wall from adapting to differential settlements and
sand or limerock backfilled MSE walls, however, the use of flowable fill may speed wall
construction. Flowable fill backfill is permitted only with written approval.
2. Prior to requesting approval, verify external stability, the accommodation of anticipated
settlements and the cost-effectiveness of flowable fill backfill.
3. Provide 300 mm flowable fill cover in all directions between metallic soil reinforcement and
adjacent sand or limerock backfill. Provide 900 mm of sand or limerock backfill between the
top of the flowable fill and the bottom of the roadway base.
4. Indicate the minimum and maximum flowable fill unit weights that will satisfy all external
stability requirements with a range of at least 160 kg/m
3
.
5. Provide for drainage of water between the flowable fill and the MSE wall panels.
End Bents on Piling or Drilled Shafts Behind MSE Walls
1. Locate MSE walls adjacent to end bents so as to avoid any conflicts with the end bent
foundation elements.
2. The minimum clear distance is 600 mm for the following:
Between the front face of the end bent cap or footing and the back face of wall panel.
For battered piles, at the base of the wall between the face of piling and the levelling pad.
Note: The 600-mm dimension is based on the use of 450 mm piles. For larger piles and
drilled shafts, increase the clear distance between the wall and pile or drilled shaft such that
no soil reinforcement is skewed more than 15 degrees.
3. Soil reinforcement to resist the overturning produced by the earth load, friction, and
temperature must be attached to end bents, unless the total settlement of the soil above
the bottom of the end bent cap exceeds 100 mm. In this case, the reinforcement must not
be attached to the end bent and a special wall behind the backwall must be designed to
accommodate the earth load.
End Bents on Spread Footings Behind MSE Walls
The spread footing must be sized so that the factored bearing pressure does not exceed 282
kN/m
2
.

Page 138

1. The edge of the footing must be a minimum of 300 mm behind the back of the wall panel.
2. The minimum distance between the centreline of bearing on the end bent and the back of
the wall panel must be 1200 mm.
Back-to-Back MSE Walls
Design back-to-back MSE walls in accordance with Section 6.4 of FHWA-NHI-10-024 Design and
Construction of Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Slopes Volume I.
GRS Walls and Abutments
FHWA Publication No. FHWA-HRT-11-026 Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil Integrated Bridge
System Interim Implementation Guide (GRS Guide) contains background information and design
steps for GRS walls and abutments. (Refer to this guide for figures referenced below.)
1. GRS abutments may be used to support single-span bridges that are not at risk of
movement due to sliding, uplift, etc.
2. Design the GRS abutment in accordance with the LRFD methodology contained in
Appendix C of the GRS Guide, except as otherwise described in this section.
3. Coordinate with the hydraulics engineer to determine the design scour depth at the
abutment with respect to the distance between abutments.
4. Utilize a reinforced soil foundations (RSF) in lieu of the concrete levelling course utilized for
MSE walls. (See Figure 30 and Section 7.4 of the GRS Guide.)
5. Detail the bottom layer of reinforcement for the GRS abutment to bear on top of the RSF at
the design scour elevation or 150 mm below the finished ground surface, whichever is
deeper.
6. Ensure the minimum length of reinforcement, B (bottom layer of reinforcement) is not less
than 1800 mm.
7. Ensure the thickness of the RSF is 450 mm or 0.25B, whichever is greater.
8. Extend the RSF a distance of at least 450 mm or 0.25B, whichever is greater, in front of the
wall facing.
9. Use a maximum vertical reinforcement spacing of 200 mm. (In the bearing reinforcement
zone, the reinforcement spacing is reduced by 50 percent.)
10. GRS walls are designed as GRS abutments, but without a bearing reinforcement zone.
8.3.4.2 External Stability and Internal Stability
The approved wall suppliers are responsible for the internal and external stability of the wall.
The external stability calculation includes a check for sliding, overturning, rotational failure, and
bearing pressure. Establish the wall geometry (including the width of reinforcement and height)
based on these items for each height of wall. Increases over that required for external stability
must be verified by the geotechnical engineer to ensure that the increase is justified.

Page 139

8.3.4.3 Piles within MSE Walls
Piles placed within the mechanically stabilized earth backfill require special consideration. The
piles must be placed prior to the construction of the wall. To reduce the friction on the piles and to
mitigate the downdrag forces, place a prefabricated jacketed pile sleeve on the plies, or place a
slightly larger corrugated pipe over the pile prior to backfilling.
As the wall is constructed, the subsoils beneath the wall and the MSE wall itself may compress.
The piles, however, are rigid. The compression of the soils will induce a load into the piles due to
friction. Depending on site materials, these downdrag forces can be substantial.
Modify the soil reinforcement when piles are located within the wall. The soil reinforcement cannot
be bent around the piles; they must remain linear to develop their strength. Also, do not attach the
soil reinforcement to the piles. Consider a skew of up to 15 from a line perpendicular to the wall
face, provided that the design accounts for this.
Bar mats can be cut and skewed, but they must conform to the following:
- Do not allow single longitudinal wires.
- Bar mats develop their strength from the cross wires. At least two longitudinal wires are
needed to make the cross wire effective.
- Cut segments must meet minimum pull-out capacity factors of safety. Testing of cut
segments is required to show that their full strength is developed.
Ensure that all cutting of reinforcement is done prior to the application of corrosion protection.
8.3.4.4 Loads from Other Structures
Design MSE walls that support structures, such as soundwalls, for the lateral and vertical loads
imposed on the MSE wall. Document the magnitude of the force and where the force is applied on
the MSE wall in the contract documents or provide a drawing.
8.3.4.5 Barrier Rails
MSE walls that incorporate a roadside barrier or bridge rail at the top of wall require special
attention. The top of MSE walls are not strong enough to resist traffic impacts. Ensure that traffic
impacts are transferred from the barrier into a reinforced concrete slab that is part of or located just
below the roadway pavement. The concrete slab is sufficiently massive to keep vehicle impact
forces from being transferred into the MSE wall. Size the concrete slab to resist sliding and
overturning forces due to vehicle impacts, wind, or seismic loading as appropriate.
8.3.4.6 Copings
Cast-in-situ all copings at the top of MSE walls. Project the top of the walls 300 mm to 600 mm
above the top layer of soil reinforcement. The coping must be sufficiently large to hold together this
unbraced section. Extend reinforcing steel from the top wall panels into the coping.
8.4 Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil (GRS) Walls and
Abutments
GRS abutments are a shallow foundation and retaining wall option that may significantly reduce
the construction time and cost of single span bridges.

Page 140

GRS walls and abutments, like MSE walls, are very adaptable to both cut and fill conditions and
can tolerate a greater degree of differential settlement than cast-in-situ walls. GRS walls, however,
are also not appropriate for all sites.
GRS walls and abutments are constructed with coarse aggregate or GAB backfill and geosynthetic
soil reinforcement. However, site space limitations may preclude the use of GRS walls and
abutments because of the inability to place the soil reinforcement.
When excessive scour or settlements are anticipated, countermeasures, deep foundations, and/or
other wall types may be required.
8.5 Pier, Column, and Footing Design
For tall piers or columns, detail construction joints to limit concrete lifts to 7.5 m. A maximum lift of
9 m may be allowed to avoid successive small lifts (less than approximately 5 m) which could
result in vertical bar splice conflicts or unnecessary splice length penalties.
Detail splices for vertical reinforcing at every horizontal construction joint; except that the splice
requirement may be disregarded for any lift of 3 m or less.
Avoid construction joints in tidal zones.
Coordinate the lift heights and construction joint locations with the concrete placement
requirements of the specifications.
On structures over water, vertical post-tensioning strand (except in cylinder piles) cannot extend
below an elevation that is 3.6 m above Mean High Water Level (MHW) or Normal High Water
Level (NHW), regardless of the Environmental Classification. Post-tensioning bars are excluded
from this restriction.
Precast pier sections with spliced sleeve connections for mild reinforcing are allowed.
The minimum wall thickness for segmental piers is 250 mm if external post-tensioning is used and
300 mm if internal post-tensioning is used.
Post-tensioning applied to piers must be located within a voided or hollow cross section and not
external to the pier. Where tendons extend from the underside of pier caps into hollow sections,
provide a 13 mm 13 mm drip recess around the tendon duct.
Size footings such that the effective depth of concrete is sufficient to resist shear without the
requirement for shear reinforcement per BDS Article 5.13.3.6.
For bridges designed for vessel collision, design pier columns to be solid concrete from 5 m above
MHW or NHW to 600 mm below Mean Low Water Level (MLW) or Normal Low Water Level
(NLW). Voided sections that are filled after the column is constructed may be used.
The above requirement is sufficient for barge collision. Ship collision will be taken on a case-by-
case basis.
For all land projects, voided substructure piers and columns located within the clear zone,
regardless of the presence of guardrail or barriers, must be filled with concrete to 5 m above the
finished grade. For voided piers, the fill section may be accommodated with a secondary pour.
Show mass concrete fill section to be cast against two layers of roofing paper.

Page 141

For water crossings:
1. Locate the bottom of all footings, excluding seals, a minimum of 30 mm below Astronomic
High Tide (AHT).
2. Locate the top of waterline footings a minimum of 300 mm above AHT.
3. For submerged footings, consider the type of boating traffic and water use when
determining the clearance between AHT and the top of footing.
A minimum height of 100 mm is required for all pedestals not poured monolithically. Pedestals
should be no more than 375 mm tall. If taller pedestals are required, use transversely sloping caps
to minimize pedestal heights.
For precast struts set into, cast into or placed against cast-in-situ concrete within the splash zone,
maintain concrete cover over the entire interfacing surfaces of both the precast strut and the cast-
in-situ concrete. Connect precast struts to cast-in-situ concrete using only stainless steel or non-
metallic reinforcement.
Experience has shown that cast-in-situ concrete pulls away from a precast strut at their interface
allowing water and/or chlorides to enter and initiate corrosion.
Connect stay-in-place precast bathtub forms to cast-in-situ footings using stainless steel or non-
metallic reinforcement, or provide a mechanical connection across the interface between the form
and the footing, e.g. shear keys.

Table 8.1: Required Tendons for Post-Tensioned Substructure Elements
Post-Tensioned Bridge Element Minimum Number of Elements
Hammerhead pier cap
6
Straddle beam cap
Framed straddle pier column
C-pier column
C-pier cap
All other pier types and components not
listed
C-pier footing
8
Hollow cast pier column

Page 142

Table 8.2: Minimum Centre-to-Centre Duct Spacing
Substructure Element Duct Spacing
Hammerhead pier cap
Vertical Spacing. 100 mm, outer duct
diameter plus 1.5 times maximum
aggregate size or outer duct diameter plus
50 mm, whichever is greater.
Horizontal Spacing. Outer duct diameter
plus 75 mm.
Straddle beam cap
C-pier cap
Pile/drilled shaft cap
Solid vertical column
Outer duct diameter plus 75 mm.
Hollow cast pier column

Page 143

9 EXPANSION JOINTS
BDS Article 14.4 discusses bridge joint movements and loads, and BDS Article 14.5 provides
requirements for joints and considerations for specific joint types. This Chapter presents criteria for
the design and selection of expansion joints in bridges.
9.1 Design Requirements: Movement and Loads
Reference: BDS Articles 14.4 and 14.5
9.1.1 General
Expansion joints in bridges accommodate the expansion and contraction of bridges due to
temperature variations, creep, and shrinkage. The following general criteria apply:
1. Minimize Number. Minimize the number of expansion joints because of their inherent
operational and maintenance problems. Abutment seats tend to deteriorate due to leaky
joints, collect debris, and provide locations for animal and human habitation. The use of
continuous structures minimizes the number of joints. When conditions permit, eliminate
the expansion joints on the bridge, and tie the approach slab into the superstructure.
However, always provide joints at the roadway end of approach slabs.
2. Tributary Expansion Length. The location of the point of zero movement is a function of the
longitudinal stiffness of the substructure elements and fixed bearings.
The tributary expansion length equals the distance from the expansion joint to the point of
assumed zero movement, which is the point along the bridge that is assumed to remain
stationary when expansion or contraction of the bridge occurs.
3. Consistency. When possible, use the same type of joint and construction details throughout
the bridge.
4. Maintenance Problems. The selection, design, and detailing of expansion joints are of
critical importance.
Many of the maintenance problems on bridges are the result of failed joints.
5. Temperature Range. Use Procedure A of BDS Article 3.12.2.1 to determine the appropriate
design thermal range. Use the minimum and maximum temperatures specified in Table 9.1
as T
MinDesign
and T
MaxDesign
, respectively, in BDS Equation 3.12.2.3-1 (Equation 9.1).
Table 9.1: BDS Procedure A Temperature Changes
Concrete Bridges Steel Bridges
0C to 60C 0C to 70C

6. Recess Detail. Recess embedded steel elements, such as approach slab protection angles
and strip seal expansion joint restrainers, 6 mm from the finished grade.
This recess accommodates milling of the concrete adjacent to the joints.

Page 144

7. Effects of Skew. Limit racking to 20% of the rated movement of the joint.
The thermal movements of skewed bridges are such that asymmetrical movements
(racking) can occur along the length of the expansion joints. The movement is not solely
in the longitudinal direction. The acute corners of a bridge with parallel skewed supports
tend to expand and contract more than the obtuse corners, causing the joint to rack.
8. Other Geometric Considerations.
Horizontally curved bridges and bridges with other special geometric elements (e.g.
splayed girders) do not necessarily expand and contract in the longitudinal direction of the
girders. The effect of thermal movements on the joints of complex bridges could be more
pronounced compared to bridges with simple geometrics.
9. Blockouts. Provide blockouts in decks at expansion joints to allow for placement of the joint.
The expansion joint assembly will be installed and the block-out concrete placed after
profile grinding has been completed.
10. Cover Plates Over Expansion Joints. Use cover plates over expansion joints at sidewalks.
Where bicycles are anticipated in the roadway, consider using cover plates in the shoulder
area.
9.1.2 Estimation of General Design Thermal Movement, A
T

Estimate the design thermal movement, in millimetres, by the following equation:

Equation 9.1: (BDS Equation 3.12.2.3-1)

where: = coefficient of thermal expansion, 1.08 x 10
-5
for concrete bridges and 1.17 x
10
-5
for steel girder bridges, mm/mm/C
L = tributary expansion length, mm
T
MaxDesign
= maximum design temperature from Table 9.1
T
MinDesign
= minimum design temperature from Table 9.1
9.1.3 Estimation of Design Movement
In addition to the thermal movement determined in Section 9.1.2, include the effects of creep (CR)
and shrinkage (SH) in the total movement for prestressed concrete bridges.
For steel girder structures, neglect creep and shrinkage effects in expansion-joint design because
they are minimal.
9.1.4 Setting Temperature
Determine gap widths at setting (ambient) temperatures of 20C, 25C, 30C, 35C, and 40C,
consistent with the minimum and maximum temperatures at the bridge site. Use gap widths
+c
2

Page 145

considering minimum gap widths and, for cast-in-place post-tensioned boxes, elastic shortening
when appropriate.
9.2 Expansion Joint Selection and Design
9.2.1 General
Table 9.2 presents the typical application for several types of expansion joints based upon joint
movement.
Select the type of expansion joint and its required movement rating based on the expansion and
racking demands, skew and gap widths. Gap width does not directly apply to asphaltic plug joints.
Do not use a minimum gap less than 30 mm on any bridge. Use a maximum gap width of 115 mm
for strip seals and 75 mm for individual components of modular joints.
Gap width is the perpendicular distance between the faces of the joint at the road surface.
Table 9.2: Expansion Joint Selection
Joint Type
Total Joint Movement
One-Directional Movement Only (mm)
Strip seal s 125
Modular expansion > 125
Steel finger joints > 125
Nosing joint < 40
Silicone joint sealant 75
Closed-cell compression seal 100
Asphaltic plug s 50

9.2.2 Strip Seal Joint
The strip seal expansion joint is the preferred deck expansion joint system for new bridges with
estimated total design thermal movements ranging from 25 mm to 125 mm.
Where practical and where additional protection for bearing assemblies and hinges is warranted,
provide a secondary sealing system below the expansion joint assembly.
A strip seal consists of a neoprene membrane (gland) rigidly attached to a steel restrainer on both
sides of the joint. The material is remoulded into a V shape that opens as the joint width
increases and closes as the joint width decreases. Strip seal joints are usually protected by a steel
cover plate.
Strip seal joints are watertight when properly installed. Under typical conditions, the life of a strip
seal tends to be longer than that of other joint seals. However, these seals are difficult to replace,
and splices in the membrane should be avoided.

Page 146

9.2.3 Modular Expansion Joint
Modular joints are expensive and may require significant maintenance; therefore, limit their use to
where thermal movements are greater than 125 mm. When selecting a modular joint system, use
only those that have been designed to facilitate the repair and replacement of components and
that have been verified by long-term in-service performance. The contract documents must include
a detailed description of the requirements for a modular joint system.
The following will apply to the design of modular-type expansion joints:
1. Joint Support. The blockouts and supports needed for modular joint systems are large and
require special attention when detailing. For modular joints supported from the top of the
girder, present a detail of the supporting device in the contract documents.
2. Splices. Where practical, provide full-length modular joints with no field splices across the
roadway width. If a field splice is required for staged construction on a slab-on-girder
bridge, space the support girders at a maximum of 600 mm from the splice location, which
should be outside of the wheel path. The splice will be constructed according to the
manufacturers requirements.
3. Neoprene Seal. Ensure that the neoprene seal, which is a strip seal gland in a modular
joint, is one piece across the roadway width, regardless of construction staging
considerations.
9.2.4 Silicone Joint Sealant
Use this system where anticipated movements are small and where the strip seal joint is
impractical.
The movement capacity of this type of joint is dictated by the joint width at the time of installation,
which is a function of the installation width plus or minus some percent of original gap size. The
silicone joint sealant is relatively easy to maintain because local joint failures can be repaired. This
system can be bonded to concrete or steel surfaces.
9.2.5 Closed-Cell Compression Seal
Low-density, closed-cell foam products consist of pre-formed shapes compressed into the joint.
The sizes of the material and movement capacity follow the manufacturers requirements. Larger
joints may also require a cover plate for protection of the compression seal.
9.2.6 Asphaltic Plug Joint
Only use an asphaltic plug for retrofit applications for total movements of up to 50 mm.
This joint system consists of a metal flashing installed over the existing joint and covered with
concrete containing an asphaltic or other elastomeric binder. Its advantages include the elimination
of any mechanical anchorage system, ease of placement, low maintenance, and rideability. Its
disadvantages include its tendency to rut under heavy traffic and turning movements in hot
weather.

Page 147

9.2.7 Steel Finger Joints
Design steel fingers joints to support traffic loads with sufficient stiffness to preclude excessive
vibration. In addition to longitudinal movement, finger joints must also accommodate any rotations
or differential vertical deflection across the joint.
Steel finger joints have been successfully used to accommodate medium and large movement
ranges. They are generally fabricated from steel plates and are installed in cantilevered
configurations. Unfortunately, finger joints do not provide an effective seal against water infiltration.
Elastomeric and metal troughs have been installed beneath steel finger joints to catch and redirect
runoff water. However, in the absence of routine maintenance, these troughs clog and become
ineffective.
9.2.8 Nosing Joint
For nosing joints, load a high-performance nosing material conservatively with aggregates to
preserve flexibility and avoid brittleness.
A nosing joint consists of a section of nosing material bonded to the deck of either side of the
expansion gap, with a compression seal bridging the gap. The nosing material supports the
adjacent surfacing, and provides an edge that will resist the effects of vehicle wheel loads.
Nosing material is a resin material (usually polyurethane based) with aggregate additives that is
mixed and poured in the field on each side of a structural expansion joint gap. The material, when
cured, is less rigid than the adjacent concrete substrate and, as a result, is more forgiving of traffic
impact and suddenly applied vehicle loads.
Very popular in the 1960s and 1970s, the nosing joint is no longer favoured in many countries. It
has a reputation for frequent failures and leakage.
9.2.9 Expansion Joints for Asphaltic Overlays
If a bridge deck is to receive an asphalt overlay, expansion joints that move less than 50 mm can
be retrofit with plug joints. See Section 9.2.6.
These systems have the flexibility to accommodate joint movement and the strength to carry traffic.
Plug joints work well with asphalt overlays because they have similar flexibility.
For movement greater than 50 mm, place concrete headers within an asphalt overlay to facilitate
installation of the appropriate expansion joint from Table 9.2.
These concrete headers are often damaged by traffic impacting the edge, but are required for
greater movements.
9.3 Expansion Joints for Post-Tensioned Bridges
At expansion joints, provide a recess and continuous expansion joint device seat to receive the
assembly, anchor bolts, and frames of the expansion joint, i.e. a finger or modular type joint. In the
past, block-outs have been made in such seats to provide access for stressing jacks to the upper
longitudinal tendon anchors set as high as possible in the anchor block. Lower the upper tendon
anchors and re-arrange the anchor layout as necessary to provide access for the stressing jacks.

Page 148

At all expansion joints, protect anchors from dripping water by means of skirts, baffles, v-grooves,
or drip flanges. Ensure that drip flanges are of adequate size and shape to maintain structural
integrity during form removal and erection.
9.4 Expansion Joint Design
Do not design superstructures utilizing expansion joints within the span (i.e. point hinges).
The setting of expansion joint recesses and expansion joint devices, including any
precompression, must be clearly stated on the drawings. Expansion joints must be sized and set at
time of construction for the following conditions:
1. Allowance for opening movements based on the total anticipated movement resulting from
the combined effects of creep, shrinkage, and temperature rise and fall. For box girder
structures, compute creep, and shrinkage from the time the expansion joints are installed
through day 4000.
2. To account for the larger amount of opening movement, expansion devices should be set
precompressed to the maximum extent possible. In calculations, allow for an assumed
setting temperature of 30 degrees C. Provide a table on the plans giving precompression
settings according to the prevailing conditions. Size expansion devices and set to remain
precompressed through the full range of design temperature from their initial installation
until a time of 4000 days.

Page 149

10 BEARINGS
BDS Article 14.4 discusses the force effects of bearings, and BDS Article 14.7 discusses types of
bearings. This Chapter presents criteria for the selection, design, and detailing of bearings for
bridges.
10.1 General
Select bridge bearings to accommodate the anticipated movements of the superstructure and
transmit the anticipated loads to the substructure.
The type of bearing selected depends upon the magnitude and type of movement and the
magnitude of the load.
10.1.1 Movements and Loads
Include both translations and rotations in the selection, design, and detailing of bearings.
The sources of movement include initial camber or curvature, construction loads, misalignment,
construction tolerances, settlement of supports, thermal effects, elastic shortening due to post-
tensioning, creep, shrinkage, and seismic and traffic loading.
10.1.2 Effect of Camber and Construction Procedures
Evaluate both the initial rotation and its short duration. At intermediate stages of construction, add
deflections and rotations due to the progressive weight of the bridge elements and to the
construction equipment to the effects of live load and temperature.
Consider the direction of loads, movements, and rotations. It is inappropriate to simply add the
absolute maximum magnitudes of these design requirements. Anticipate the worst possible (but
yet realistic) condition. Do not consider combinations of absolute maximums that cannot
realistically occur. In special cases, it may be economical to install the bearing with an initial offset,
or to adjust the position of the bearing after construction has started, to minimize the adverse effect
of these temporary initial conditions.
The initial camber of bridge girders induces bearing rotation. Initial camber may cause a larger
initial rotation on the bearing, but this rotation may decrease as the construction of the bridge
progresses. Rotation due to camber and the initial construction tolerances are sometimes the
largest component of the total bearing rotation.
10.1.3 Design Thermal Movements
Estimate the design thermal movement in accordance with Section 9.1.2.
Assume setting temperatures for the installation of the bearings of 20C, 25C, 30C, 35C, 40C,
and 45C, consistent with the minimum and maximum temperatures at the bridge site. At the time
of construction, the appropriate setting conditions may be chosen based upon the ambient
temperature.
Note that a given temperature change causes thermal movement in all directions. Because the
thermal movement is a function of the expansion length as shown in BDS Equation 3.12.2.3-1, a
short, wide bridge may experience greater transverse movement than longitudinal movement.

Page 150

10.1.4 Estimation of Total Design Movement
In addition to the thermal movement determined in Section 10.1.3, consider the effects of creep
(CR) and shrinkage (SH) in the total movement for bridges in accordance with Section 9.1.3.
10.1.5 Serviceability, Maintenance, and Protection Requirements
Design and detail bearings under deck joints to minimize environmental damage and to allow easy
access for inspection. Design and detail bearing locations for potential bearing replacement.
Bearings under deck joints may be exposed to dirt, debris, and moisture that promote corrosion
and deterioration. The service demands on bridge bearings are very severe and result in a service
life that is typically shorter than that of other bridge elements.
The following provisions apply to all bridges with the exception of flat slab superstructures (cast-in-
situ or precast):
1. Design and detail superstructure using bridge bearings that is reasonably accessible for
inspection and maintenance.
2. On all new designs make provisions for the replacement of bearings without causing undue
damage to the structure and without having to remove anchorages or other devices
permanently attached to the structure.
3. Design and detail provisions for the removal of bearings, such as jacking locations, jacking
sequence, jack load, etc. Verify that the substructure width is sized to accommodate the
jacks and any other required provisions. Simple span pretensioned I-beams are exempt
from this requirement.
4. When widening a bridge that does not already include provisions for replacing bearings,
consult the maintenance engineer who will decide if bearing replacement provisions must
be made on the plans.
Certain non-conventional structures, such as steel girders or segmental concrete box girders,
require separate details and notes describing jacking procedures. For steel I-girder bridges, design
so that jacks are placed directly under girder lines. For steel box girder bridges, design so that
jacks are placed directly under diaphragms. Always include a plan note stating that the jacking
equipment is not part of the bridge contract.
Few concrete I-beam bridges have required elastomeric bearing pad replacement. Occasional
replacement of these pads does not justify requiring these provisions for every bridge.
10.1.6 Anchor Bolts
Use anchor bolts to transfer horizontal forces through bearing assemblies when external devices
such as shear keys are not present. In addition, use anchor bolts as hold downs for bearings.
Use holes for anchor bolts in steel elements of bearing assemblies that are 6 mm larger in
diameter than the diameter of the anchor bolt. Locate the centrelines of anchor bolts a minimum of
50 mm from the edge of the girder. A larger offset may be necessary to facilitate installation.

Page 151

Consider the space necessary for nuts, washers, base plate welds, and construction tolerances
and establish anchor bolt locations accordingly. Maintain a 13-mm clearance from the edge of the
elastomeric bearing to the edge of the anchor bolt.
Provide sufficient reinforcement around the anchor bolts to develop the horizontal forces and
anchor them into the mass of the substructure unit. Identify potential concrete crack surfaces next
to the bearing anchorage and evaluate their shear friction capacity.
Conflicts between anchor bolt assemblies and substructure reinforcement are common, especially
for skewed bridges. Therefore, the bridge designer must ensure that all reinforcing steel can fit
around the bearing assemblies.
10.1.7 Bearing Plate Details
Use a bearing plate that is at least 25 mm wider than the elastomeric bearing on which the plate
rests. Use a minimum bearing plate thickness of 40 mm. When the instantaneous slope of the
grade plus the final in-place camber exceeds 1%, bevel the bearing plate to match the grade plus
final camber. For bevelled bearing plates, maintain a minimum of 40 mm thickness at the edge of
the bearing plate.
At expansion bearings, provide slotted bearing plates. Determine the minimum slot size according
to the amount of movement and end rotation calculated. The slot length, L, is:
L = (diameter of anchor bolt) + 1.2 (total movement) + 25 mm
The multiplier of 1.2 represents the load factor from BDS Table 3.4.1-1 for TU, CR, and SH.
The total movement should include an effect of girder end rotation at the level of the bearing plate.
Round the slot length to the next higher 6 mm. To account for the possibility of different setting
temperatures at each stage, provide offset dimensions in the contract documents for stage-
constructed projects. For all other projects, consider the need to provide offset dimensions.
Top and bottom adapter plates shall be provided to allow for simple mechanical bearing
replacement. The fixing arrangement of the bearing to the top and bottom adapter plates shall be
such as to enable the bearings to be replaced without the need for cutting into the bridge
superstructure or substructure. The bearing may be attached to the masonry plate by seating it in a
machined recess and bolting it down. To replace the bearing, the bridge will need to be lifted a
height equal to the depth of the recess.
10.1.8 Levelling Pad at Integral Abutments
Detail a plain elastomeric pad under the bearing plate of girders at integral abutments to provide a
level and uniform bearing surface. Structural grout is not an acceptable substitute.
10.1.9 Lateral Restraint
Determine if lateral restraint of the superstructure of a bridge is required and make necessary
provisions to assure that the bridge will function as intended. These provisions include
considerations for the effects of geometry, creep, shrinkage, temperature, and/or seismic on the
structure. When lateral restraint of the superstructure is required, develop the appropriate method
of restraint as described hereinafter.

Page 152

10.1.9.1 Elastomeric Bearings
When the required restraint exceeds the capacity of the bearing pad, the following appropriate
restraint must be provided:
1. For concrete girder superstructures, provide concrete blocks cast on the substructure and
positioned to not interfere with bearing pad replacement.
2. For steel girder superstructures, provide extended sole plates and anchor bolts.
10.1.9.2 Mechanically Restrained Bearings
Bearings that provide restraint through guide bars or pintles (e.g. pot bearings), must be designed
to provide the required lateral restraint. When unidirectional restraints are required, avoid multiple
permanent unidirectional restraints at a given pier location to eliminate binding. Where multiple
unidirectional restraints are necessary at a given pier, require bearings with external guide bars
that are adjustable and include a detailed installation procedure in the plans or specifications that
ensure that the guide bars are installed parallel to each other.
10.2 Bearing Types and Selection
10.2.1 General
Use steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings or plain elastomeric bearing pads for all girder bridges
where possible. Bridges with large bearing loads and/or multi-directional movement may require
other bearing devices such as high-load, multi-rotational (HLMR) bearings.
Distribute the loads among the bearings in accordance with the superstructure analysis.
See Table 10.1 for a general summary of bearing capabilities. Use the values shown in the table
for preliminary guidance only. Complete the final design of the bearing in accordance with the
BDS. Provide the geometry and other pertinent specifications for the bearing. If the load falls
outside of the optimal ranges, contact the bearing manufacturer.
Use bearing plates and anchor bolts for precast concrete and steel girder superstructures. Use
concrete shear keys with elastomeric bearings to transfer horizontal forces from a concrete box
girder superstructure to the substructure.
Bearing selection is influenced by many factors including loads, geometry, maintenance, available
clearance, displacement, rotation, deflection, availability, policy, designer preference, construction
tolerances, and cost. In general, vertical displacements are restrained, rotations are allowed to
occur as freely as possible, and horizontal displacements may be either accommodated or
restrained.
10.2.2 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings
Use steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings for all typical girder bridges. Section 10.3 discusses the
design of these bearings in more detail.
Provide elastomeric expansion bearings with adequate seismic-resistant anchorages to resist the
horizontal forces in excess of those accommodated by shear in the pad. Provide a wider sole plate
and base plate to accommodate the anchor bolts.

Page 153

Table 10.1: Summary of Bearing Capabilities
Type
Load (kN)
Absolute
Max. Load
Limits
(kN)
Translation
(mm)
Rotation
Limit
(Rad)
Cost
Typical Design
Range
1

Min Max Initial Maintenance
Steel-reinforced
elastomeric bearing
450 to 2200 4500 0 100 0.04 low low
High-load,
multi-
rotational
(HLMR)
bearings
Pot
bearing
1200 to 10,000 50,000 0
2
0
2
0.04 - 0.05 high high
Disc
bearing
1200 to 10,000 50,000 0
2
0
2
0.03 high high
Spherical
bearing
1200 to 10,000 50,000 0
2
0
2
> 0.05 high high
Plain elastomeric pad 0 to 670 1000 0 20 0.0175 low low
1
Higher or lower values may be applicable if necessary.
2
High-load, multi-rotational (HLMR) bearings have no inherent translational capability. Expansion
bearings are achieved by using them in conjunction with flat PTFE sliding surfaces.

Provide elastomeric fixed bearings with a horizontal restraint adequate for the full horizontal load.
Steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings are usually a low-cost option and require minimal
maintenance.
10.2.3 Plain Elastomeric Bearing Pads
Use plain elastomeric bearing pads where bearing loads are light, up to 670 kN, and as levelling
pads at integral abutments for girder bridges.
Plain elastomeric bearing pads are usually a low-cost option, and they require minimal
maintenance. However, their use is restricted to lighter bearing loads for practical reasons. Plain
elastomeric bearing pads can support modest gravity loads, but they can only accommodate
limited rotation or translation. Hence, they are best suited for bridges with small expansion lengths
or specialty situations.
10.2.4 High-Load, Multi-Rotational (HLMR) Bearings
Reference: BDS 14.7.4, 14.7.3 and 14.7.8
High-load, multi-rotational (HLMR) bearings include pot bearings, spherical bearings (termed
Bearings with Curved Sliding Surfaces in the BDS), and disc bearings. Only use these bearings
where bearing loads exceed the capabilities of steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings, greater than
2900 kN. The selection among HLMR bearings is based upon the rotational capabilities presented
in Table 10.1.
Only show schematic bearing details, combined with the specified loads, movements, and
rotations, in the contract documents. The manufacturer designs the bearing; this advantageously
uses the cost-effective fabrication procedures that are available in the shop.

Page 154

HLMR bearings are generally avoided due to their cost.
Pot bearings are able to support large compressive loads, but their elastomer can leak and their
sealing rings can suffer wear or damage.
Modelling of a bridge supported on spherical bearings must recognize that the centre of rotation of
the bearing is not coincident with the neutral axis of the girder above.
Disc bearings are susceptible to uplift during rotation, which may limit their use to bearings with
polytetrafluoroethyl (PTFE) sliding surfaces.
10.2.5 Polytetrafluoroethyl (PTFE) Sliding Surfaces
Consider using PTFE sliding surfaces with expansion HLMR bearings and where the maximum
movements exceed the allowable for elastomeric bearings.
The following design information applies to PTFE sliding surfaces:
- Optimal design range for loads: 0 to 10,000 kN
- Translation: 25 mm to > 100 mm
10.2.6 Seismic Isolation Bearings
The AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design and the FHWA Seismic
Retrofitting Manual for Highway Structures: Part 1 Bridges (36) discuss the use of seismic
isolation bearings.
There are various types of seismic isolation bearings, most of which are proprietary.
10.3 Plain Elastomeric Bearing Pads and Steel-Reinforced
Elastomeric Bearings
10.3.1 General
Plain elastomeric bearing pads and steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings have fundamentally
different behaviours and, therefore, they are discussed separately.
Orient elastomeric pads and bearings so that the long side is parallel to the principal axis of
rotation, because this orientation better accommodates rotation.
10.3.2 Holes in Elastomer
Do not use holes in steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings or plain elastomeric bearing pads.
10.3.3 Edge Distance
For elastomeric pads and bearings resting directly on a concrete bridge seat, the minimum edge
distance is 75 mm.
The minimum low-temperature elastomer is Grade 3. Indicate the elastomer grade in the contract
documents.

Page 155

10.3.4 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings
Preferably, use steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings in combination with steel bearing plates for
slab-on-girder bridges. Use a 25-mm minimum clearance between the edge of the elastomeric
bearing and the edge of the bearing plate in the direction parallel to the beam or girder. Use a 13-
mm minimum clearance between the edge of the elastomeric bearing pad and the anchor bolt in
the direction perpendicular to the girder.
Steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings become large if they are designed for loads greater than
approximately 2900 kN. The maximum practical load capacity of a steel-reinforced elastomeric
bearing pad is approximately 4500 kN. Uniform heating and curing during vulcanization of such a
large mass of elastomer becomes difficult, because elastomers are poor heat conductors.
Manufacturing constraints thus impose a practical upper limit on the size of most steel-reinforced
elastomeric bearings. If the design loads exceed 2900 kN, the designer should check with the
manufacturer for availability.
10.3.5 Design of Plain Elastomeric Bearing Pads
Design and detail plain elastomeric bearing pads in accordance with Method A of BDS Article
14.7.6.
Use a maximum friction coefficient of 0.20 for the design of elastomeric pads that are in contact
with clean concrete or steel surfaces. If the shear force is greater than 0.20 of the simultaneously
occurring compressive force, then secure the bearing against horizontal movement. Use a friction
coefficient of 0.40 when checking the maximum seismic forces that can be transferred to the
substructure through the pad.
Plain elastomeric bearing pads rely on friction at their top and bottom surfaces to restrain bulging
due to the Poisson effect. Friction is unreliable, and local slip results in a larger elastomer strain
than that which occurs in steel-reinforced elastomeric pads and bearings. The increased elastomer
strain limits its load capacity, and the pad must be relatively thin if it will carry the maximum
allowable compressive load.
10.3.6 Design of Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings
Typically, use the Method A procedure in BDS Article 14.7.6 for steel-reinforced elastomeric
bearings. The Method B procedure in BDS Article 14.7.5 may be used for high-capacity bearings.
Use high-capacity elastomeric bearings only where very tight geometric constraints, extremely high
loads, or special conditions or circumstances require the use of higher grade material.
If a high-capacity elastomeric bearing is used, prepare a unique Special Provision for inclusion in
the contract documents.
Use a minimum elastomeric bearing length or width of 150 mm. Provide a minimum of 6 mm of
cover at the edges of the steel shims.
For bearing design, classify all bridge sites as being in Temperature Zone A, for which BDS Table
14.7.5.2-1 presents the design data.
Use a setting temperature of 20C for the installation of the bearings unless the time of
construction is known. In this case, modify the setting temperature accordingly. Use 80% of the

Page 156

total movement range for design. This value assumes that the bearing is installed within 30% of
the average of the maximum and minimum design temperatures.
BDS Article C14.7.5.3.4 recommends using 65% of the total movement range for design but, due
to the wide variation in temperatures across the Abu Dhabi Emirate and variations within a single
day, the design value is increased.
Account for creep (CR) and shrinkage (SH) according to the assumed construction schedule for
the determining elastomeric thickness. If the construction schedule differs significantly, the
contractor must reconsider the required thickness.
Base the design thermal movement (T) upon T
MaxDesign
and T
MinDesign
from Table 9.1.
For the minimum total elastomer thickness, use 2 (T + SH + CR + EL) with the appropriate
values of T, SH, CR, and EL for the bridge type and construction.
Ensure that the bearing details are consistent with the design assumptions used in the seismic
analysis of the bridge.
The Method B design procedure allows significantly higher average compressive stresses than
Method A. These higher allowable stress levels are justified by an additional acceptance test,
specifically a long-duration compression test. Design criteria for both methods are based upon
satisfying fatigue, stability, delamination, steel reinforcement yield/rupture, and elastomer stiffness
requirements.

Page 157

11 PEDESTRIAN BRIDGES
A pedestrian bridge is defined as a bridge intended to carry primarily pedestrians and bicyclists
and light maintenance vehicles and not intended for use by typical highway traffic.
11.1 Live Load
11.1.1 Pedestrian Load (PL)
Reference: DPB Article 3.1
Use a uniform pedestrian loading of 5.0 kPa as specified in DPB Article 3.1.
The commentary of the DPB suggests that 7.18 kPa represents the maximum credible pedestrian
load. This may be used for special cases where heavy pedestrian traffic can be expected.
11.1.2 Vehicle Load (LL)
Reference: DPB Article 3.2
In cases that maintenance vehicles can reach the superstructure, apply the vehicle configuration
specified in DPB Article 3.2 for the design of pedestrian bridges in the Abu Dhabi Emirate.
11.2 Wind Load (WS)
Reference: DPB Article 3.4 and SSS Articles 3.8 and 3.9
Use 120 km/h for the basic wind speed with a gust factor of 1.3 for the Abu Dhabi Emirate.
The DPB specifies that wind loading is taken from the SSS instead of the BDS due to the
potentially flexible nature of pedestrian bridges and also due to the potential for traffic signs to be
mounted on them.
11.3 Vibrations
Reference: DPB Section 6
The bridge owner should not waive the vibration control provisions of DPB Section 6.
This provision mandates that the owner control vibrations whereas the DPB allows the owner to
waive this control.
11.4 Design
11.4.1 General
Use the AASHTO BDS and Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges (37) (DPB) for
the design and construction of typical pedestrian bridges with any modifications presented herein.
The DPB provides additional guidance on the design and construction of pedestrian bridges when
compared to the BDS, and for wind and fatigue provisions, when compared to the AASHTO
Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals
(38) (SSS). In addition, the AASHTO Guide for the Planning, Design, and Operation of Pedestrian
Facilities may be useful in the planning, access facilities (i.e. stairs, lifts), and design of pedestrian
bridges.

Page 158

The preliminary design for a pedestrian bridge is intended to determine the most appropriate
structure type and configuration for a given site considering the design objectives of BDS Article
2.5 and Section 1.4 of this Manual.
11.4.2 Geometrics
Design the geometrics of the bridge and the approach transitions to meet the requirements of the
DPB. For pedestrian bridges over waterways, the hydraulics engineer will determine the necessary
hydraulic opening. Clearances over other facilities will be determined on a project-by-project basis.
11.4.3 Structure Type
Select structure types as deemed appropriate for the given site. An evaluation of structure types
must include a consideration of constructability, aesthetics, use of falsework, construction costs,
etc.
11.4.4 Seismic
Apply the AASHTO seismic provisions to pedestrian bridges, as modified by this Manual. See
Chapter 2 and Section 3.3.1.
11.4.5 Fatigue
For fatigue load, use Section 11 of the SSS as specified in the DPB; for fatigue resistance, use
Section 6 of the BDS, Section 11 of the SSS, or Figure 2.13 of the AWS D1.1 Structural Welding
Code Steel (16), as appropriate, also as specified in the DPB.
11.4.6 Design
Prefabricated pedestrian bridges should be designed and detailed as follows:
1. Fully design and detail foundation and substructure in the plans.
2. Fully design and detail all approach structures including non-truss approach spans, ramps,
steps/stairways, approach slabs, retaining walls, etc., in the plans.
3. Include general plan and elevation indicating minimum aesthetic requirements for the
prefabricated bridge in the plans.
4. Prefabricated superstructure is to be designed and detailed by the Contractor after award
of the contract. Design calculations, technical specifications, and fully detailed shop
drawing are to be submitted to the Engineer for review and approval prior to fabrication.
Components to be included in the shop drawings include trusses, floor system, lateral
bracing, deck, railing/fencing, deck joints, bearing assemblies, etc.
It is desirable to limit the maximum overall width of prefabricated bridges to 3.6 m. This will
eliminate the need for a spliced section.
Design all pedestrian bridges for a 75-year design life.
Clearance criteria for pedestrian bridges should be as follows:
1. Pedestrian bridges that accommodate animal (horse, camel, etc.) travel should have a
minimum of 3.6 m vertical clearance above the bridge deck.
2. Horizontal clearances should take into account future widening of the roadway below.

Page 159

11.4.7 Deflections
Use the following to determine maximum allowable deflections for pedestrian bridges:
1. Pedestrian Load .................................................................. Span/500
2. Maintenance Vehicle Load .................................................. Span/500
3. Cantilever Arms Due to Service Pedestrian Live Load ....... Cantilever Length/300
4. Horizontal Deflection Due to Lateral Wind Load ................. Span/500
5. The pedestrian bridge should be built to match the plan profile grade after all permanent
dead load has been applied.
11.4.8 Steel Connections
Field welding is allowed only by prior written approval and then, only when bolting is impractical or
impossible.
11.4.8.1 Bolting Criteria
Design bolted connections per Chapter 5 with the exception of bearing type connections permitted
only for bracing members.
11.4.8.2 Tubular Steel Connections
Open-ended tubing is not acceptable.
Prior to bolting of field sections tubular members should be capped and fully sealed with the
following exception. Weep holes should be provided at the low point of all members to allow for
drainage of water accumulated inside the members during transport and erection. After erection is
complete and prior to painting, the weep holes should be sealed with silicone plugs.
Require that all field splices be shop fit. Specify or show field sections bolted together using splice
plates. Direct Tension Indicators (DTI) are prohibited in bolted connections. When through bolting
is necessary, stiffen the tubular section to ensure the shape of the tubular section is retained after
final bolting. See Figure 11.1.
11.4.8.3 Vibrations
Pedestrian bridges are highly susceptible to vibrations. Limits on vibration should be as specified
in DPB. Vibration frequency should be checked under temporary construction conditions.
11.4.9 Charpy V-Notch Testing
Require ASTM A709M Charpy V-notch testing for all structural steel tension members.
Require Impact testing requirements as noted below:
1. Test non-fracture critical tension members in accordance with ASTM A709M (latest
version).
2. Primary tension chords in a two truss bridge may be considered non-fracture critical due to
frame action.

Page 160

Figure 11.1: Tubular Truss Splice Detail

3. Test fracture critical tension members in accordance with ASTM A709M (latest version).
4. Test tubular tension members in accordance with ASTM A500M.
5. Cross frames, transverse stiffeners, and bearing stiffeners not having bolted attachments
and expansion joints do not need to be tested.
11.4.10 Painting/Galvanizing
Coatings are not required for the interior of tubular components. Consider the suitability of the
fabricated component for galvanizing. Hot-dip galvanizing may be used where entire steel
components can be galvanized after fabrication and where project specific aesthetic requirements
allow. Welding components together after galvanizing is not acceptable.
11.4.11 Erection
Design and detail pedestrian bridge plans to minimize the disruption of traffic during bridge
erection. Include the following notes on the plans:
- erection over traffic is prohibited, and
- the Contractor is responsible for designing a falsework system capable of supporting
portions of the superstructure during erection.
11.4.12 Railings/Enclosures
Occasional use of the bridge by maintenance or emergency vehicles generally does not warrant
the use of a crash tested combination pedestrian/traffic railing.

Page 161

Provide railings options as follows:
1. 1 m pedestrian/bicycle railing (minimum)
2. 1.5 m special height bicycle railing
3. Open top fence/railing combination
4. Full enclosure fence/railing combination
5. Open top cladding/railing combination (e.g. glass, steel panel, concrete panel)
6. Full enclosure cladding/railing combination
Utilize standard fence designs or connection details, where applicable.
The railing shall be approved by clients safety engineer.
11.4.13 Drainage
Design and detail drainage systems as required. Provide curbs, drains, pipes, or other means to
drain the superstructure pedestrian deck. Drainage of the superstructure onto the roadway
underneath is not allowed.
11.4.14 Corrosion Resistant Details
Provide designs such that water and debris will quickly dissipate from all surfaces of the structure
and will not cause corrosion of members and connections.
11.4.15 Lighting/Attachments
For tubular structures, design any attachment, including electrical wiring, signs, signals, etc.,
strapped to the bridge. The tapping of holes into the structural tubular members is not allowed.
Design lighting attachments for wind loads as per SSS.
11.4.16 Maintenance and Inspection Attachments
Inspections will be performed in accordance with current procedure and criteria and maintenance
guidelines.
The inspection and maintenance criteria of private permitted bridges that cross Abu Dhabi Emirate
roadway facilities are the same as for public bridges.

Page 162

12 CULVERTS
Use only reinforced concrete boxes, concrete arch culverts, and concrete pipe culverts. Other
culvert options in the BDS offer less durability.
12.1 Reinforced Concrete Boxes
12.1.1 General
The structural design of reinforced concrete boxes is based on Section 12 of the BDS. The
hydraulics engineer is responsible for these drainage appurtenances, and standard drawings will
apply in most cases. Use a special design other than those represented by the standard drawings
when:
- The box geometry or height of soil above the reinforced concrete box exceeds the limits
indicated on the standard drawings.
- Other structures impose loads on the reinforced concrete box.
- The sequence of backfilling of the sides of the reinforced concrete box will not allow equal
loading.
- The design requires a special inlet, outlet, confluence, or other special hydraulic structure
for which a standard drawing does not exist.
12.1.2 Analysis
Analyse culverts using elastic methods and model the cross section as a plane frame (2D) using
gross section properties. Restrain the bottom slab by any of the following methods:
- Fully pinned support at one corner and pin-roller support at the opposite corner.
- Vertical springs (linear-elastic or non-linear soil springs) at a minimum of tenth points and a
horizontal restraint at one corner.
- Beam on elastic foundation and a horizontal restraint at one corner.

- Up-stand beams at the edges of the box need to be detailed with discontinuity joints so that
they do not contribute to the load distribution from the top slab (deck).
Obtain the modulus of subgrade reaction from the geotechnical engineer when performing the
more refined analyses in the second and third bullet items above.
12.1.3 Span-to-Rise Ratios
Do not use span-to-rise ratios exceeding 4:1.
As span-to-rise ratios approach 4:1, frame moment distribution is more sensitive to support
conditions, and positive moments at midspan can significantly exceed computed values even with
a relatively small horizontal displacement of frame leg supports.

Page 163

12.1.4 Deformations
Ensure that top slab deflection due to the live load plus impact does not exceed 1/800 of the
design span. For culverts located in urban areas used in part by pedestrians, ensure that this
deflection does not exceed 1/1000 of the design span.
Determine live-load deflections in accordance with BDS Article 2.5.2.6.2.
12.1.5 Design Method
Design new reinforced concrete culverts and extensions to existing culverts (precast or cast-in-situ,
four-sided, or three-sided) subjected to either earth fill and/or highway vehicle loading in
accordance with BDS.
Investigate the need for culvert barrel weep holes to relieve uplift pressure. When culvert barrel
weep holes are determined to be necessary, show the requirement in the plans.
12.1.6 Load Modifiers and Load Factors
The product of the load modifiers and maximum load factors [(q) ()] for Strength Limit States
should be equal to:
1. Box culverts (four sided)

1.05 1.30 = 1.365 for Vertical Earth Pressure (EV), and
1.05 x 1.35 = 1.418 for Horizontal Earth Pressures (EH)

2. Three-sided culverts

1.05 1.35 = 1.418 for Horizontal and Vertical Earth Pressure (EV and EH)
Use the load modifiers (q) as 1.0 for horizontal loads when investigating the minimum horizontal
earth pressure effects in accordance with BDS Article 3.11.7, and combined with the maximum
load factors for Strength Limit State investigation.
Use the load modifier (q) as 1.0 for all other Limit States and Load Types including construction
load investigation.
12.1.7 Dead Loads and Earth Pressure
Reference: BDS Article 3.5, 3.11.5, and 3.11.7
The dead load on the top slab consists of the pavement, soil, and the concrete slab. For simplicity
in design, the pavement may be assumed to be soil.
Use the following design criteria in determining dead load and earth pressures:
Soil = 1950 kg/m
3

Concrete = 2400 kg/m
3
horizontal earth pressure (at-rest) for:
Maximum horizontal load effects = 960 kg/m
3
, (assumes soil internal friction angle = 30)
Minimum horizontal load effects = 480 kg/m
3
, (50% of maximum load effects)

Page 164

Modify vertical earth pressures in accordance with BDS Article 12.11.2.2.1, Modification of Earth
Loads for Soil Structure Interaction (Embankment Installations) for both box and three-sided
culverts.
12.1.8 Live Load
Lane loading is required for the design of culverts with spans greater than 5 m in lieu of the
exemption in BDS Article 3.6.1.3.3.
12.1.9 Wall Thickness Requirements
Determine the exterior wall thickness for concrete culverts based on the design requirements,
except that the following minimum thickness requirements have been established to allow for a
better distribution of negative moments and corner reinforcement:
Clear Span Minimum Exterior Wall Thickness
< 2.4 m 250 mm (precast); 300 mm (cast-in-situ)
2.4 m to < 4 m 300 mm
4 m to < 6 m 350 mm
6 m and greater 400 mm
The interior wall thickness in multi-cell culverts must not be less than 250 mm for precast culverts
and 300 mm for cast-in-situ culverts.
Increase the minimum wall thickness by 25 mm for concrete culverts in extremely aggressive
environments (100 mm concrete cover)
12.1.10 Reinforcement Details
Design the main reinforcement in the top and bottom slabs perpendicular to the sidewalls in cast-
in-situ culverts and non-skewed units of precast culverts. For reinforcement requirements of
skewed precast culverts, see Section 12.1.11.
The minimum inside bend diameter for negative moment reinforcement (outside corners of top and
bottom slabs) must satisfy the requirements of BDS Article 5.10.2.3 and be not less than 4.0 d
b
for
welded wire reinforcement.
Top and bottom slab transverse reinforcement must be full-length bars, unless spliced to top and
bottom corner reinforcement.
12.1.11 Skewed Culverts
Design and detail skewed precast concrete culverts with non-skewed interior units designed for the
clear span perpendicular to the sidewalls and skewed end units designed for the skewed clear
span.
For a cast-in-situ concrete box culvert with a skewed end, the top and bottom slab reinforcement
will be cut to length to fit the skewed ends. The cut transverse bars have the support of only one
culvert sidewall and must be supported at the other end by edge beams (headwall or cutoff wall).
Precast concrete culverts with skewed ends usually cannot use edge beams as stiffening
members because of forming restrictions. The transverse reinforcement must be splayed to fit the
geometry of the skew. This splaying of the reinforcement will increase the length of the transverse
bars and, more importantly, the design span of the end unit. For small skews, the splayed

Page 165

reinforcement is usually more than adequate. However, large skews will require more
reinforcement and may require an increased slab thickness or integral headwalls.
12.2 Concrete Arch Culverts
The following will apply to concrete arch culverts:
- The design must meet the requirements of Section 12 of the BDS.
- Provide double reinforcement meeting BDS requirements for minimum reinforcing and
service limit state (crack control) criteria.
- Use the CANDE or similar computer program to verify the design.
- Provide design verification for a potential future condition that would require excavation of
backfill material along one edge of the arch.
- Design the arch culvert with a concrete invert.
- Design the saddle area of multiple-cell arch structures with a waterproofing system and a
suitable drainage system to control ponding and saturation of backfill soils. Provide
weepholes in exterior walls at 10-m maximum spacing. All drains and weepholes will be a
minimum 75-mm diameter.
- A technical representative of the arch culvert supplier must be on-site and must supply the
necessary technical assistance during the initial completion of major work activities
including, but not limited to, the placement of reinforcing, forming, concrete placement, form
removal, waterproofing, and backfilling.
First introduced in 1976 under the sponsorship of US Federal Highway Administration, CANDE
(Culvert ANalysis and DEsign) is a design and analysis tool for all types and sizes of buried
structures. CANDE is a public-domain finite element program that is used worldwide. CANDE
provides an elastic solution (Level 1), automated finite element mesh generation for common
configurations (Level 2), and a user-defined finite element mesh (Level 3).
12.3 Concrete Pipe Culverts
12.3.1 General
Round and elliptical pipes are widely used for roadway drainage. They are standardized structures,
and no structural drawings are needed in the contract documents.
Elliptical pipes used in the Abu Dhabi Emirate are normally horizontally elliptical.
12.3.2 Materials
Materials for round and elliptical concrete pipe must meet the requirements of the Abu Dhabi
Standard Specifications: Volume 2: Road Structures (Document Reference Number AD-C-01)
Section 29.3 and the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods
of Sampling and Testing (39), M170 (Round RCP) and M207 (Elliptical RCP).

Page 166

12.3.3 Design
Design round and elliptical concrete pipe culverts in accordance with Section 12 Buried Structures
and Tunnel Liners of the BDS.
Determine earth loads and live loads in accordance with Section 3 of the BDS as modified by
Chapter 2 of this Manual.
The standard pipe class used in the Abu Dhabi Emirate is Class III. Use Classes IV and V pipe
when higher resistance is needed. Base the selection of the required class of pipe on the diameter
and height of fill above the top of the pipe.
Concrete pipes are classified according to their construction and resistance as Class I, II, III, IV, or
V.

Page 167

13 SOUND BARRIERS
The environmental engineer will determine the warrants for, locations of, and minimum heights for
sound barrier walls. Use the following for the structural design of sound barriers:
- Section 15 of the BDS.
- Wind pressure from a wind velocity of 120 km/h and a gust factor of 1.3, as specified in
Chapter 2 of this Manual, Loads and Load Factors.
- Seismic load as specified in Chapter 2 of this Manual, Loads and Load Factors.
- For the masonry design, grout all cells and provide minimum reinforcing consisting of T16
bars at 400-mm vertical and 600-mm horizontal spacing.
13.1 Sound Barrier Design
13.1.1 General Features Panel Height and Post Spacing
Post spacing should be a minimum of 3 m and a maximum of 6 m.
All concrete wall panels should be a minimum of 2 m high. Bottom panels should be a minimum of
2.4 m high when emergency access is required.
The minimum bottom panel height of 2 m was chosen to clear required fire hose access holes. The
minimum bottom panel height of 2.4 m for sound barriers requiring emergency access was chosen
to allow forming and installation of 2 m high doors.
13.1.2 Wind Loads
For sound barriers located on embankments and structures, the height zone should be determined
by using the elevation of adjoining ground as being the approximate elevation of the original
ground surface prior to embankment construction.
13.1.3 Lateral Earth Pressure
For sound barriers supported on discrete vertical wall elements embedded in granular soil, rock, or
cohesive soil, the simplified lateral earth pressure distributions shown in BDS Figures 3.11.5.10-1,
3.11.5.10-2, and 3.11.5.10-3, respectively, should be used.
For sound barriers supported on continuous vertical elements embedded in granular soil or
cohesive soil, the simplified earth pressure distributions shown in Figures 3.11.5.10-4 and
3.11.5.10-5, respectively, should be used.

Page 168

14 SIGN AND LUMINAIRE SUPPORTS
Reference: AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs,
Luminaires, and Traffic Signals
14.1 General
This Section is a supplement to the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for
Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals (SSS) (38), much as the rest of the Manual is a
supplement to the BDS. Standard designs represented by standard drawings in the Abu Dhabi
Standard Drawings for Road Projects (Document Reference Number AD-D-14) will apply in most
cases. Occasionally, the bridge designer will become involved in the design of structural supports
for these roadside appurtenances.
14.2 Deformations
Reference: SSS Article 10.4
Deformations for specific structure types shall be limited as provided in SSS Articles 10.4.1 and
10.4.2.
The limit on deformations serves two purposes to provide an aesthetically pleasing structure
and to provide adequate structural stiffness that will result in adequate serviceability.
14.3 Basic Wind Speed
Reference: SSS Article 3.8.2
Base the wind loads on the wind speeds of 120 km/h with a gust factor of 1.3.
14.4 Steel Design
14.4.1 Base-Plate Thickness
For base plate connections without stiffeners, the minimum base plate thickness should be 65 mm.
Research has proven full-penetration groove welds combined with thicker base plates increases
the pole-to-base-plate connection fatigue strength.
14.4.2 Welded Connections
14.4.2.1 Circumferential Welded Splices
On steel sign and signal structures, no circumferential welds are permitted on the uprights, arms,
or chords with the exceptions of the base plate weld, the flange plate connections on tubular truss
members, and the mitred arm-to-upright angle weld on monotube.
The intent is to avoid any unnecessary welds on sign, signal, or lighting structures.
14.4.2.2 Base Connection Welds
For base plate connections without stiffeners, only use full-penetration groove welds.
Research has proven full-penetration groove welds combined with thicker base plates increases
the pole-to-base-plate connection fatigue strength.

Page 169

14.4.3 Bolted Connections
Design all pole-to-arm connections on mast arm structures as through bolted. Do not use tapped
connections.
Through-bolted connections provide fully tensioned A325 bolts.
14.4.4 Anchor Bolt Connections
14.4.4.1 Minimum Number of Bolts
Use a minimum of six Grade 380, ASTM F1554 anchor bolts at the pole-to-foundation connection
for all sign, signal, and lighting structures designed for a minimum service life of 50 years.
A minimum of six anchor bolts provides redundancy and better distribution of forces through the
base plate.
14.4.4.2 Use of Grout
Grout pads underneath the base plates in double-nut moment joints of miscellaneous highway
structures (i.e. mast arms, overhead sign structures, high mast lights, steel strain poles and
monotube structures) are not required.
Inspections have shown that a poorly functioning grout pad is worse than no grout pad at all. For
poles without a grout pad beneath the base plate, the double-nut moment joint requires adequate
tensioning of the anchor bolts. It is critical that the nuts beneath the base plate, typically referred to
as levelling nuts, are firmly tightened and locked to prevent loosening. This locking mechanism is
accomplished through the turn of the nut method or a properly placed grout pad.
14.4.5 Bolt Types
Reference: SSS Article 5.17.1
Do not use adhesive anchors or threaded post-tensioning bars.
Adhesive anchor and threaded post-tensioning bars have undesirable creep and ductility
behaviour, respectively.
14.5 Aluminium Design
Reference: SSS Article 6
Do not specify aluminium overhead sign structure supports with the exception of the vertical sign
panel hangers, which may be aluminium or steel.
Aluminium overhead sign structures have been prone to unacceptable levels of vibration and
fatigue cracking.
14.6 Prestressed-Concrete Poles

Page 170

The minimum clear concrete cover for all prestressed and non-prestressed poles shall be 40 mm
and 50 mm, respectively.
The minimum 40-mm and 50-mm covers are required on all concrete poles in all environments.
14.7 Foundation Design
Drilled shafts are the standard foundation type on high-mast light poles, span overhead signs,
mast arms, monotube, and steel strain poles. See Chapter 7 of this Manual for detailing
requirements for drilled shafts.
14.7.1 Geotechnical Design of Drilled Shaft Foundations
Use a safety factor of 2 against overturning when using the Broms method.
Experience has established a safety factor of 2 produces conservative designs.
14.7.2 Structural Design of Drilled Shaft Foundations
Longitudinally reinforce drilled shaft foundations with a minimum of 1% steel. At a minimum, place
T16 stirrups at 100 mm spacing in the top 610 mm of shaft. In cantilever structures, design for
shear resulting from the torsion loading on the anchor bolt group.
Using 1% steel is conservative for flexural design in most cases. Additional stirrups in the top of
the shaft provide resistance against shear failure in the top of the shaft. Due to torsion, additional
stirrups may be required in cantilever structures.
14.8 Design Loads for Vertical Supports
When 3 or 4 span wire pole structures are connected, analyse the system with wind directions of 0,
45, and 90 degrees. If other angles are used, document the angles in the analysis report.
More refined analysis is typically not required due to the number of approximate assumptions
made in the analysis. Other angles may be analysed and substituted if program results are not
consistent at the specified angle.

Page 171

15 ROAD TUNNELS
Reference: AASHTO Technical Manual for Design and Construction of Road Tunnels - Civil
Elements
15.1 General
The AASHTO Technical Manual for Design and Construction of Road Tunnels - Civil Elements
(MRT) (40) provides recommendations for the planning, design, construction, and structural
rehabilitation and repair of the civil elements of road tunnels. The MRT is not an AASHTO
specification. AASHTO design and construction specifications for highway tunnels are under
development considering safety and operations, maintenance, and inspection for road tunnels.
This Chapter is a supplement to the MRT, much as the rest of the Abu Dhabi Road Structures
Design Manual is a supplement to the BDS. Except as modified herein, apply the MRT to the
design of road tunnels in the Abu Dhabi Emirates.
The MRT includes various types of tunnels, including cut-and-cover tunnels, mined or bored
tunnels, immersed tunnels, and jacked box tunnels.
Although there are no applicable mandatory International Standards, Highways Agency (Highways
Agency 1999) (41), Austroads (Austroads 2010a and 2010b) (42) and other publications provide
considerable reference and guidance material in addition to the MRT.
The type of construction (e.g. cut-and-cover, driven or bored) may influence the cross-section
decision because the resulting cross-sections are different for each type. Bored tunnels are
circular, driven tunnels have a somewhat flatter roof, and cut-and-cover tunnel roofs are generally
flat.
The Sequential Excavation Method (SEM), also commonly known as the New Austrian Tunnelling
Method (NATM), discussed in Chapter 9 of the MRT, is a type of mined tunnel construction that
attempts to mobilize the self-supporting capability of the ground to an optimum, thus achieving
economy in ground support by understanding the behaviour of the ground as it reacts to the
creation of an underground opening.
Jacked box tunnelling, discussed in Chapter 12 of the MRT, is a unique tunnelling method for
constructing shallow, rectangular road tunnels beneath critical facilities such as operating railways,
major highways and airport runways without the disruption of the services provided by these
surface facilities or having to relocate them temporarily to accommodate open excavations for cut-
and-cover construction.
15.2 Definition of Road Tunnels
Any fully enclosed length of roadway may be called a road tunnel, but there is general agreement
that a structure less than 80 m in length is not a tunnel. Various jurisdictions identify a minimum
length of between 80 m and 150 m as the length above which the structure is considered to be a
tunnel.
A short tunnel may also be termed an underpass but, in general, treat any covered length of road
over 80 m as a tunnel in terms of fire considerations (NFPA 2008) (43).

Page 172

The Highways Agency defines a road tunnel as a subsurface highway structure enclosed for a
length of 150 m, or more (Highways Agency 1999) (41).
15.3 Geotechnical Site Investigations
The geotechnical site investigation is the most important process in planning, design, and
construction of a road tunnel. The geotechnical investigation and risk assessment shall be
according to Abu Dhabi Manual for Geotechnical Investigation and Design: (Parts 1 and 2)
(Document Reference Number AD-D-02).
Tunnels are unique structures in that the surrounding ground material is the structural material that
carries most of the ground load. Therefore, geology has even more importance in tunnel
construction than with above-ground bridge structures.
15.4 Fire Protection
For fire protection of road tunnels, use NFPA 502 - Standard for Road Tunnels, Bridges, and Other
Limited Access Highways (NFPA 2008) (43). Generally, due to local conditions, the clients
consider variations to this standard. The designer shall inquire such deviations before designing of
tunnels.
This document, a standard produced by the National Fire Protection Association, uses tunnel
length to dictate minimum fire protection requirements:
- 90 m or less: No fire protection requirements.
- 90 m to 240 m: Minor fire protection requirements.
- 240 m or more: Major fire protection requirements.
15.5 Constructability
Select a type of tunnel construction that considers ground conditions, geometric
constraints/requirements, and other factors. In addition to being constructable, the type of
construction should be safe to construct.
In most cases, the designer must consider the need to obtain specialised equipment to make the
proposed type of tunnel construction achievable.
An essential consideration in the design of road tunnels is the constructability of the tunnel and the
safety of the people performing the construction.
15.6 Design Life
Design the basic tunnel structure for a design life of 100 years or more. Select a design life for
various elements in the tunnel structure and the ancillary infrastructure based on the nature of the
element under consideration and the ease with which that element can be maintained or replaced.
Replaceable items, such as computerised operating systems, fans and pumps, may be designed
for a much shorter design life.

Page 173

15.7 Design Considerations
15.7.1 Design Elements
Structural design considerations involve the integrity of the natural ground through which the tunnel
passes and the design of structural components to support traffic and equipment installed to assist
in the operation of the tunnel. The relevant structural design elements include:
- Geotechnical integrity of the surrounding ground;
- Strength of support linings;
- Design of running surface support where required (bridge or pavement design as required);
- Structural integrity of roof structures;
- Consideration of tunnel-induced ground movements and settlement;
- Adjacent infrastructure, excavations, and tunnels;
- Fire resistance of structural elements;
- Structural integrity of supports for equipment (e.g. ventilation, lighting, traffic signage,
communication facilities); and
- Design of ancillary structures (e.g. control centre, plant rooms, services buildings).
Experience with tunnel design has shown that the design of the structural components should
consider the following issues:
- Evaluate the minimum hydraulic head adopted as part of the tunnel design, whether the
tunnel is fully tanked or not.
- Consider symmetric and asymmetric loads.
- Analysis of arching may be required, particularly where the cover is less than the width of
the tunnel.
- Incorporate concrete shrinkage, creep, and temperature effects.
- Consider the long-term concrete modulus (particularly in deflection assessments).
- When considering the leakage of water into the tunnel, no water should leak or drip onto
the tunnel road surface (all tunnels in Abu Dhabi should be treated as submerged because
of the presence of a high water table and, hence, should receive a waterproofing
membrane on all surfaces in contact with the ground).
15.7.2 Live Load
Design the structural components of road tunnels carrying traffic loads for the live-load models
specified in Sections 2.3.2 and 2.3.6.

Page 174

Design tunnels (including the roof) for existing and known future loads (e.g. surface traffic loads,
buildings, earth pressures). Provide easements above, below, and around tunnels to ensure that
unintended loads are not imposed on the tunnel.
15.7.3 Seismic Considerations
Reference: MRT Chapter 13
Design road tunnels to withstand the spectral response accelerations given in Table 2.2 without
damage. After the event characterized by these spectral response accelerations, the tunnel should
be usable by emergency traffic, although damage may have occurred, and some temporary repairs
may be required. Permanent repair to reinstate the design resistances for both static and seismic
loading should be feasible.
2475-year return period.
A road tunnel is often required to withstand a more frequent earthquake (i.e. a lower level
earthquake) with minimal damage. Also, design road tunnels to be capable of being put
immediately back into service after inspection following a lower level design earthquake as defined
in Table 15.1. After the event characterized by the accelerations of Table 15.1, damage should be
minor, and there should be no disruption to traffic.

Table 15.1: Spectral Response Accelerations Based Upon a 475-Year
Return Period for the Abu Dhabi Emirate
Peak Horizontal Ground
Acceleration
Coefficient, PGA
Short-Period (0.2 sec) Value
of Spectral Acceleration
Coefficient, S
s

Longer-Period (1 sec) Value of
Coefficient, S
1

0.04 0.102 0.039

475-year return period.
15.8 Tunnel Types
15.8.1 Cut-and-Cover Tunnels
This type of tunnel is constructed in a trench excavated from the surface and is appropriate for
shallow depths in suitable soils. Special cases include:
- Use of temporary contiguous pile or diaphragm walls (contiguous piles or diaphragm walls
should not be used as the permanent wall of the tunnel. It is not possible to waterproof
these walls. They are used only as temporary walls, such that a structure waterproofed on
the outside be constructed from within the temporary diaphragm-walled tunnel); and
- Top down construction.

Page 175

Design considerations for cut-and-cover tunnels include the:
- Ease with which the soil can be excavated,
- Depth of water table below the natural surface,
- Availability of the surface material being removed for backfilling during the construction,
- Period and the consequences for the subsequent land use,
- Need to dewater/pump the excavation,
- Stability and earth pressure on the sidewalls and loads and surcharges on the tunnel roof,
- Temporary construction loads,
- Uplift forces, and
- Access restrictions.
In sections of cut-and-cover tunnel in soft ground conditions, settlement adjacent to the structure
may occur. Account for control over this type of settlement by limiting the deflection of the
embedded wall (contiguous pile wall or diaphragm wall) by propping, tie backs, or similar
measures.
15.8.2 Mined or Bored Tunnels
References: MRT Chapters 6 through 9
Construct mined or bored tunnels, sometimes called driven tunnels, where there is sufficient
ground cover.
Typical mined tunnelling approaches use road headers, excavators, or drill-and-blast excavation
techniques.
For mined tunnels, a primary support is often required before the secondary lining is placed. The
lining may comprise cast-in-place concrete, precast segments, or shotcrete (with or without rock
bolts depending on the material excavated). The cost of liners can vary widely depending on the
soil types, presence of swelling clays, soft rock, and/or water.
Typical bored tunnels use single shield, double shield, earth pressure balance, slurry shield, and
compressed air tunnel boring machines (TBMs).
In tunnels excavated using a tunnel boring machine (TBM), a liner (often pre-cast segmental
concrete) is placed continuously behind the TBM as it advances creating a circular cross-section.
For bored tunnels, the timing of the placement of the liner behind the TBM will depend on the
integrity of the material being excavated. The TBM may grip the sides of the tunnel (gripper) or
thrust off the liner (using hydraulic rams) as it advances. There are many different types of TBMs
for various situations.
Where soft ground conditions are common, earth pressure balance machines, slurry shield tunnel
boring machines, and mixed shield TBMs have been used.
In these shielded machines, the cutting head is enclosed within an air/watertight bulkhead that
stabilises the excavation face. Behind the sealed bulkhead, the rest of the tunnelling operations
remain under normal atmospheric pressure.
Tunnelling materials (e.g. earth, rock, clay, water, bentonite, lubricants) are directed through the
TBM cutting head and out the rear end. In addition to the TBM itself, there is a considerable

Page 176

amount of material transportation equipment that removes these products, recycles the bentonite,
and delivers power and hydraulics, water, chemicals, pre-cast segments, or other materials for the
lining.
Air, water, lubricants, and chemicals can be lost through the tunnel face, side, and tail. This
requires continuous monitoring of face pressure, rate of advance, quantity of excavated material,
and chemical usage to maintain face integrity, skin, and tail seal.
15.8.3 Immersed Tunnels
Select the immersed tunnel construction for underwater crossings where conditions are suitable.
This may occur where it is not appropriate to use bored tunnels under the water (depth required,
material properties).
Precast reinforced concrete sections of the tunnel are manufactured in a dry dock, floated and
towed to their location above a dredged channel, sunk into position, and joined to previous
sections. Additional cells are often used to create extra buoyancy during placement, and these
cells may then be used for other functions such as placement of tunnel services and evacuation.
Note that a tunnel of this type with no cell would rarely be acceptable and, then, only for short
tunnels.
15.9 Tunnel Lining
Reference: MRT Chapter 10 and BDS Article 12.13
Design steel tunnel liner plates in accordance with BDS Article 12.13. Construction should conform
to Section 25 of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications (BCS) (44).
Use Chapter 10 of the MRT to design cast-in-place concrete linings, precast segmental concrete
linings, and shotcrete linings.

Page 177

16 BRIDGE EVALUATION
16.1 Load Rating
16.1.1 General
The AASHTO Manual for Bridge Evaluation (MBE) (45) serves as a standard for bridge inspection
and rating. This Section is a supplement to the MBE with respect to bridge rating, in particular,
Section 6A on ratings using the Load and Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR) methodology.
The LRFR methodology includes three levels of load rating:
- design load rating,
- legal load rating, and
- permit load rating.
16.1.2 Importance of Load Rating
The load rating of bridges is an important function in the Abu-Dhabi Emirates. It allows the
evaluation of existing structures in a comparative manner. Bridges designed to former standards
are compared to contemporary standards, in conjunction with an appraisal of the bridge condition.
Load rating is also used to post bridges with insufficient load-carrying capacity and also to evaluate
permit overloads on structures; see Sections 16.3 and 16.4, respectively.
16.1.3 Methodology
Load rate all bridges by the Load and Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR) methodology in Section 6A
of the MBE. The use of this single methodology is intended to provide uniformity in ratings.
The LRFR bridge-rating methodology is fully consistent with the BDS bridge-design methodology.
16.1.4 Thresholds for Re-Rating Existing Bridges
Re-rate a bridge to determine the new load-carrying capacities when a bridge inspection reveals a
quantifiable change in the bridge condition from deterioration or damage (e.g. increased metal
section loss). If the load-carrying capacity falls below certain limits, the bridge must be posted; see
Section 16.3.
16.1.5 Limit States for Load Rating
Use all of the limit states included in MBE Table 6A.4.2.2-1 to load rate bridges in the Abu Dhabi
Emirate.
The researchers who developed the original draft of the MBE included all of the appropriate limit
states necessary to operate highway bridges. Upon adoption, AASHTO made several of the limit
states (those shown as shaded cells in MBE Table 6A.4.2.2-1) optional for political reasons.
16.1.6 Dimensions
Dimensions should be as shown in the as-built plans unless measured dimensions, as part of a
visual inspection, deviate significantly from these plan dimensions. With reported deterioration, the
Evaluator may reduce the structural dimensions of a deteriorated component based on
engineering judgment derived from a visual inspection of the bridge to discount deteriorated
material.

Page 178

n n s c R C =

Base the section properties of composite girders on the full depth of the composite deck slab
unless deterioration is noted.
16.1.7 The LRFR Load-Rating Equation
Reference: MBE Article 6A.4.2.1
Use the following general equation for rating factor, RF, to determine the load rating of each
component and connection of the bridge for each force effect (i.e. axial force, flexure, shear). The
equation is used for all three levels of the LRFR methodology:

Equation 16.1
For the strength limit states:

Equation 16.2
Where:

Equation 16.3
For the service limit states:

Equation 16.4
where: RF = rating factor
C = capacity
f
R
= allowable stress specified in the BDS
R
n
= nominal member resistance
DC = dead-load effect due to structural components and attachments
DW = dead-load effect due to wearing surface and utilities
LL = live-load effect
IM = dynamic load allowance

DC
= dead-load load factor for structural components and attachments

DW
= dead-load load factor for wearing surface and utilities

LL
= evaluation live-load load factor

c
= condition factor

Page 179

s
= system factor

n
= BDS resistance factor

The application of the condition and system factors, considered optional in the MBE, are
mandatory for load rating in the Abu Dhabi Emirate.
The researchers who developed the original draft of the MBE included the condition and system
factors as appropriate to operate highways bridges. Upon adoption, AASHTO made these factors
optional for political reasons.
16.1.8 Analytical Methods for the Load Rating of Post-Tensioned Box
Girder Bridges
Perform load rating in accordance with AASHTO MBE Article 6A.5.11.
16.2 Design Load Rating
Reference: MBE Articles 6A.1.7.1 and 6A.4.3
Design-load rating is the first level of rating in the LRFR methodology. Rate all bridges at this level.
Specify the design live load (ADVL) as in Chapter 2.
The design-load rating is used to assess the bridges adherence to the applicable design standard.
Two levels of reliability are included in the design-load rating level reflected by two different live-
load load factors for application in the general LRFR load-rating equation. Bridges with adequate
design-load capacity (i.e. RF > 1) at the inventory level require no further evaluation.
The two levels of design-load rating are analogous to the traditional inventory and operating levels.
16.3 Legal-Load Rating and Load Posting
Reference: MBE Articles 6A.1.7.2, 6A.4.4 and 6A.8
16.3.1 Legal-Load Rating
Legal-load rating is the second level of load rating in the LRFR methodology. Rate bridges that do
not have sufficient design-load capacity (the first level of rating in the LRFR methodology) at the
legal-load level to determine any need to post or strengthen the bridge.
Legal-load rating provides a single safe load capacity for the ADVL model of Chapter 2. Use the
generalized live load factors for routine commercial traffic for the ADVL model.
These legal-load ratings are used in decision-making for bridge posting or strengthening.
16.3.2 Load Posting
Close the bridge when it is not capable of carrying a minimum gross live-load weight of 5 tons.
The bridge need not be posted when the rating factor, RF, calculated for the ADVL is greater than
or equal to 1.0. Otherwise, use the posting load as the rating factor, RF, times 45 tons.

Page 180

16.4 Permitting and Permit-Load Rating
Reference: MBE Article 6A.1.7.3 and 6A.4.5
16.4.1 Permitting
Permits can be issued for single trips, multiple trips, or on an annual basis. Routine or annual
permits are usually valid for unlimited trips over a specified period of time for vehicles of a given
axle configuration within specified weight limits. Special or limit-crossing permits are usually valid
for a single trip or limited number of trips of a vehicle of a given axle configuration within specified
weight limits. Special permits may be allowed to mix with normal traffic or may be required to be
escorted in a manner that controls their speed, position, and proximity with regard to other traffic.
The Department of Transport has prepared permitting procedures for exceptional vehicles to be
followed by applicants.
16.4.2 Permit-Load Rating
Permit-load rating is the third level of load rating in the LRFR methodology. Only consider those
bridges that have sufficient load-carrying capacity for the Abu Dhabi legal load for permit-load
rating.
Apply a live-load factor of 1.20 to the specific permit load for permit-load rating.
The calibrated load factors specified in MBE Article 6A.4.5.4.2a for use in the general LRFR load-
rating equation are specified for both types of permits mixing with or without traffic as a function of
ADTT. These load factors are intended to be used in conjunction with the AASHTO approximate
analysis method using distribution factors. Refined analysis is required in the Abu Dhabi Emirate
for load rating. Thus, the specified load factors in MBE Article 6A.4.5.4.2a are not applicable in the
Abu Dhabi Emirate.
16.5 Load Testing of Bridges
Reference: BDS Article 4.8.2 and MBE Section 8
16.5.1 General
The purpose of the load testing is to evaluate the structural performance and functional adequacy
of the bridge tested as an exact full-sized model with an appropriate margin of safety.
16.5.1.1 Classifications
Two basic types of load tests are available for bridge evaluation diagnostic tests (see MBE
Article 8.8.2) and proof tests (see MBE Article 8.8.3). Diagnostic tests determine certain response
characteristics of the bridge, or validate analytical procedures or mathematical models. Proof tests
establish the maximum safe load-carrying capacity of a bridge, where the bridge behaviour is
within the linear-elastic range.
Load testing may be further classified as static load tests (see MBE Article 8.4.1) and dynamic load
tests (see MBE Articles 8.4.2). A static load test uses stationary loads to avoid bridge vibrations.
The intensity and position of the load may be changed during the test. A dynamic load test uses
time-varying loads or moving loads that excite vibrations in the bridge. Dynamic tests measure
modes of vibration, frequencies, dynamic load allowance, or obtain load history and stress ranges
for fatigue evaluation.
Diagnostic load tests may be either static or dynamic tests. Proof load tests are mostly static tests.

Page 181

16.5.1.2 Definitions
Design Live Load means the ADVL including the corresponding dynamic load allowance (IM) and
multiple presence factors.
Test Load means the actual loads used at each stage of testing.
16.5.2 Load Testing Calculations
Predetermine the Test Load patterns and positions on the bridge deck so as to simulate load
effects due to the Design Live Load. The amount and configuration of the Test Load spectrum
increments applied during the test should produce internal forces (bending moments, shear, and
axial forces), reactions, and deflections, at critical sections, equal to the corresponding Design Live
Load values used in the bridge design. Place the Test Load mutually in standard width design
traffic lanes, spaced across the entire bridge roadway width measured between curbs at pre-
marked locations. The Test Load shall be positioned within the lane so that the maximum effect is
achieved. Pre-cast concrete blocks may be used as truck loads to achieve the required axle loads.
Lorries loaded with aggregates may also be used if the required axle loads can be achieved.
Concentrated loads can be applied to the deck by jacking against dead weight. Perform the load
testing for all spans.
During the test, increase the Test Load incrementally to achieve the predetermined maximum live
longitudinal and transverse positive and negative (if any) moments in mid-spans; maximum live
longitudinal negative moments and maximum live transverse negative and positive moments at
internal supports; and maximum live-load reactions at supports.
Provide the theoretical bending moment, shear, and deflection diagrams and reactions for each
Test Load increment. Do not allow their values to exceed the corresponding values under Design
Live Loads.
Calculate and check longitudinal flexural stresses along the bridge at critical sections, so that they
do not exceed the maximum stress limits of the bridge at any time during the test.
16.5.3 Load Testing Method Statement
Perform the load testing after the bridge construction is completed and all of the superimposed
dead loads (pavement layers, parapets, footway, etc.) are applied.
Apply the Test Load gradually in increments before reaching the final total amount, in a period not
less than five hours. Apply the maximum Test Load for a minimum period of twelve hours, and
perform the unloading gradually for mid spans but immediately for supports.
After each Test Load, measure the incremental deflections accurately and at a sufficient number of
points (at least two points every one fifth of each span) to produce sufficient data to plot the
theoretical and measured deflected shapes of the structure.
Take deflection measurements at piers and abutments for each Test Load increment, and for the
recovery case, to verify that the differential settlements or rotations of the supports do not exceed
the corresponding design values.
Measure elastic deflections after the removal of each Test Load increment to check recovery such
that any permanent deflection is minimal and within limits. The ratio of permanent irreversible
deflection to the total deflection should not exceed 0.2.

Page 182

Provide and plot comparison tables and linear relationship between theoretical and measured
deflections for each Test Load increment to determine the slope of the compatibility line.
The general and structural safety of the bridge during the testing is the responsibility of the
consultant. The consultant should make sure that the elastic limit of the bridge is not exceeded and
no damage is done to the bridge or its components during or due to the test. Prestress steel, in
case of prestressed concrete, should not suffer any excessive losses due to faulty overload.
Submit the Load Testing Method Statement of bridge at least two months before the testing date. It
should include, but be not be limited to, the following:
- the current status (or the status at testing time) of bridge to be tested;
- traffic management;
- load testing procedure;
- bridge deck discretization (measurement reference positions);
- dial gauges locations, sensitivities, etc., Deflected Cantilever Displacement Transducers
(DCDT) gauges, Linear Variable Displacement Transducers (LVDT) gauges and Demec
gauges;
- type of truck to be used in the test, its load capacity, load to be used in the test and wheel
load after each Test Load increment;
- loading test truck configurations in the longitudinal and transverse directions for each Test
Load increment;
- bridge deck moment influence lines for each test node;
- the bending moment, shear force, and theoretical deflection diagrams and support
reactions due to the Test Load;
- a comparison between Design Live Load moments, shears, reactions and deflections and
their corresponding Test Load values at test nodes for each Test Load increment; and
- any additional information the consultant may find useful for the execution of the Load
testing.
Perform bearing performance inspections to check that no additional restraint is present. Ensure
that the vertical deflections and compression of bearings and differential translations (i.e.
temperature induced movements at expansion joints) are well below the design (or manufacturers)
limits. Determine the bridge deck temperature by means of thermocouples.
16.5.4 Load Testing Analysis Report
Submit a comprehensive Load Testing Analysis Report two weeks after the load testing is
completed. This report should include, but not be limited to the following:
- a summary of all items mentioned above in the Method Statement;
- the Interpretation of the test results;

Page 183

- loading diagrams for all Test Load increments and the unloading cases;
- a table containing measured vs. theoretical deflections for each Test Load increment;
- longitudinal measured and theoretical deflection curves along the bridge centerline for each
Test Load increment;
- graphs showing the measured and the theoretical deflections;
- any local effects; and
- final analysis, conclusions and requirements for the bridge load testing.

Page 184

17 REFERENCES
(1) AASHTO. LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 6
th
Edition, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, USA, 2012.
(2) Highways Agency. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 1 - Highway
Structures: Approval Procedures and General Design, Section 1 - Approval Procedures,
Part 1 - BD 2/05 Technical Approval of Highway Structures, Highways Agency, London,
UK, 2005.
(3) ASCE. Minimum Design Loads for Building and Other Structures, ASCE/SEI 7-10,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, USA, 2010.
(4) AASHTO. Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design, American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, USA, 2011.
(5) Pascucci, V., M. W. Free and Z. A. Lubkowski, Seismic Hazard and Seismic Design
Requirements for the Arabian Peninsula Region, Proceedings of The 14
th
World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Beijing, China, October 12-17, 2008.
(6) Hambly, E. C., Bridge Deck Behaviour, 2
nd
Edition, Taylor & Francis, London & New York,
1991.
(7) OBrien, E. J., and D. L. Keogh, Bridge Deck Analysis, Taylor & Francis, London and New
York, 1999.
(8) Caltrans. Seismic Design Criteria, Version 1.4, California Department of Transportation,
Sacramento, CA, USA, June 2004.
(9) ACI. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete and Commentary, ACI 318-11,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, USA, 2011.
(10) NCHRP. Martin, B. T., and D. H. Sanders, Verification and Implementation of Strut-and-Tie
Model in LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, NCHRP 20-7, Task 217, Final Report,
National Academies, Washington, DC, USA, November 2007.
(11) Portland Cement Association. Mitchell, D., M. Collins, S. Bhid and B. Rabbat, AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications Strut-and-Tie Model Design Examples, PCA EB231,
(PCA), 2004.
(12) PCI. Bridge Design Manual, 3
rd
Edition, Prestressed/Precast Concrete Institute, Chicago,
IL, USA, 2012.
(13) Prestressed/Precast Concrete Institute. J. Schlaich, et al, Towards a Consistent Design
of Structural Concrete, PCI Journal, Vol. 32, No. 3, Chicago, IL, USA, 1987.
(14) ACI. Details and Detailing of Concrete Reinforcement, ACI 315-99, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, MI, USA, 1999.
(15) AWS. Bridge Welding Code, AASHTO/AWS D1.5, American Welding Society, Miami, FL,
USA, 2010.

Page 185

(16) AWS. Structural Welding Code Reinforcing Steel, AWS D1.4, American Welding
Society, Miami, FL, USA, 2011.
(17) AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration. Guidelines for Design for Constructibility,
G12.1-2003.
(18) FHWA. Uncoated Weathering Steel in Structures, Technical Advisory T5140.22, US
Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, USA,
October 1989.
(19) FHWA. Forum on Weathering Steel for Highway Structures: Summary Report, FHWA
Report TS-89-016, US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, DC, USA, July 1989.
(20) AISI. Performance of Weathering Steel in Highway Bridges: A Third Phase Report,
American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, DC, USA, 1995.
(21) AWS. Structural Welding Code-Steel, AWS D1.1, American Welding Society, Miami,
FL,USA, 2010.
(22) FHWA. Manual for Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Orthotropic Steel Bridges,
United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Washington,
DC, USA, 2012.
(23) ADSC. Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures and Design Methods, TL4, ADSC: The
International Association of Foundation Drilling, Irving, TX, USA, 1999.
(24) FHWA. Samtani, N. C., E. A. Nowatzki, E.A., and D. R. Mertz, Selection of Spread
Footings on Soils to Support Highway Bridge Structures, Publication No. FHWA-RC/TD-10-
001, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, February 2010.
(25) FHWA. Moulton, L. K., H. V. S. GangaRao, G. T. Halvorsen, Tolerable Movement Criteria
for Highway Bridges, FHWA RD-85-107, US Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, DC, USA, 1985.
(26) FHWA. DiMillio, A. F., Performance of Highway Bridge Abutments on Spread Footings on
Compacted Fill, FHWA RD-81-184, US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC, USA, 1982.
(27) NCHRP. Barker, R.M., J.M. Duncan, K.B. Rojiani, P.S.K. Ooi, C.K. Tan and S.G. Kim,
Manuals for the Design of Bridge Foundations: Shallow Foundations, Driven Piles,
Retaining Walls and Abutments, Drilled Shafts, Estimating Tolerable Movements, Load
Factor Design Specifications, and Commentary, NCHRP Report 343, National Academies,
Washington, DC, USA, 1991.
(28) Highways Agency. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 1 - Highway
Structures: Approval Procedures and General Design, Section 3 - General Design, Part 12
- BA 42/96 Amendment No.1 The Design of Integral Bridges, Highways Agency, London,
UK, 2003.
(29) NJDOT. Design Manual for Bridges and Structures, New Jersey Department of
Transportation, Trenton, NJ, USA, 2010.

Page 186

(30) US Navy. Foundations and Earth Structures, NAVFAC DM 7.2, Department of the Navy,
Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Alexandria, VA, USA, May 1982.
(31) FHWA. Geotechnical Engineering Circular No. 2 Earth Retaining Systems, FHWA-SA-96-
038, United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, DC, USA, 1996
(32) FHWA. Geotechnical Engineering Circular No. 4 Ground Anchors and Anchored
Systems, FHWA-IF-99-015, United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC, USA, 1999.
(33) FHWA. Geotechnical Engineering Circular No. 7 Soil Nail Walls, FHWA-IF-03-017,
United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Washington,
DC, USA, 2003.
(34) FHWA. Earth Retaining Structures: Reference Manual, FHWA-NHI-07-071, US Department
of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, National Highway Institute, Washington,
DC, USA, 2007.
(35) FHWA. Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and
Construction Guidelines, FHWA-SA-96-071, United States Department of Transportation,
Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, USA, 2000.
(36) AASHTO. Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design, 3
rd
Edition, American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, USA, 2010.
(37) FHWA. Seismic Retrofitting Manual for Highway Structures: Part 1 Bridges, FHWA-HRT-
06-032, United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
(38) AASHTO. LRFD Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges, 2
nd
Edition,
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC,
USA, 2009.
(39) AASHTO. Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires,
and Traffic Signals, 5
th
Edition, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Washington, DC, USA, 2009.
(40) AASHTO. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling
and Testing, 31
st
Edition, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Washington, DC, USA, 2011.
(41) AASHTO. Technical Manual for Design and Construction of Road Tunnels - Civil Elements,
1
st
Edition, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
(42) Highways Agency. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 2 - Highway Structures
Design (Substructures and Special Structures) Materials, Section 2 - Special Structures,
Part 9 - BD 78/99 Design Of Road Tunnels, Highways Agency, London, UK, 1999.
(43) Austroads. Guide to Road Tunnels Part 1: Introduction to Road Tunnels, Austroads
Publication No. AGRT01/10, Austroads, Sydney, AU, 2010.

Page 187

(44) Austroads. Guide to Road Tunnels Part 2: Planning, Design and Commissioning,
Austroads Publication No. AGRT02/10 Austroads, Sydney, AU, 2010.
(45) NFPA. Standard for Road Tunnels, Bridges, and Other Limited Access Highways, NFPA
502, National Fire Protection Association, 2008.
(46) AASHTO. LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, 3
rd
Edition, American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, USA, 2010.
(47) AASHTO. Manual for Bridge Evaluation, 2
nd
Edition, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, USA, 2010.

Page 188

APPENDIX A
BRIDGE DESIGN CHECKLIST

Page 189

PROJECT INFORMATION

- Project Name: - Designer:
- Bridge Name: - Checker:
- Highway No.: - Drafter:
- Location: - Reviewer:

- NOTE: Each task, when applicable & completed, is Checked (Y, N, N/A), Dated and Initialled by the
Designer, Checker and Reviewer.

Type, Size, & Location Tasks
Y N N/A Designer DATE Checker DATE Reviewer DATE
CONCEPT DESIGN
Data Collection
Project Scope
Vicinity Map or Data
Geotechnical Report
Hydraulic Report
Grade & Alignment
Location Narrative
Concept Design Report (AIP)
Title Block w/ location, bridge number
General Background:
Project Development & Justification
Right-of-Way Restrictions
Permits and Restrictions
Utility Conflicts or Restrictions
Railroad Clearances & Restrictions
Geometry and Layout:
Roadway Width, ADT, Grades &
Alignment

Sidewalks, Bridge Railings &
Protective Screening

Hydraulics:
Waterway Openings, High Water
Elevation and Clearances

Embankment or Bent Protection
Floodway Information, when
appropriate

Foundations:
Piling, Drilled Shafts, Spread
Footings

Fills, Surcharges
Settlement
Lateral Earth, Seismic Loads
Liquefaction Potential
Structure Features (discussion items):
Span Length & Span Arrangements
Type of Superstructure
Type of Bents & Location
Stage Construction & Detour
Requirements

Design Concepts
(decision/assumptions):

Building a New Bridge vs. Widening
Existing One

Use a Bridge vs. Culvert
Foundation Support Assumptions

Page 190

Design Concepts
(decision/assumptions) (Continued)

Assumed Pile or Drilled Shaft
Bearing Capacity Loads

Assumed Lateral Soil Pressure
Against End Bent

Seismic Load Assumptions
Environmental Assessment
Considerations:

Project Timing and Chronology
In-Water Work Period
Bird Nesting
Proposed Treatment of the Runoff
Number & sizes of bents/footings
added for new bridge. Discuss
construction of new footings, bents
& piles.

Type of isolation methods used
during construction (i.e., coffer dam)

Extent and duration of in-water work
(i.e. heavy machinery in wetted
channel)

Amount or extent of fill or riprap
Concept Drawings
Alignment Data
Roadway Width
Intersection Stations & Angles
Span Lengths & Numbers
Angles between Bents & Centerline
Existing Structures
Right-of-Way Lines
Demolitions
Utilities
North Arrow
Location map (w/North Arrow, Project
Location Arrow and Nearest Town)

Live Load Loading (sketch and note)
Elevation Datum
Existing Ground Line
High Water Elevation
Proposed Ground Line
Hydraulic Data
Roadway Clearances
Footing Elevations & Pile Types
Datum Elevation
Concept Cost Estimate
Based on rough calcs per square meter
Using projected quantities for tall abuts
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
General
Detours/Traffic Staging
Type of Bridge Railing
Expansion & Fixed Joints
End Slope & Protection
Typical Bent Section
Guardrail Transitions
Plans
Plan & Elevation Drawings:
Footing Plan shown
Alignment & Bearing shown
Skew Angles shown
Bent Fixity (free, exp., hinge, etc.)
shown

Page 191

Plans (continued)
Slope Paving shown
Footing Elevations
Pile Bearing or min. Tip Elevation
shown

Drainage provided for
Stationing shown
Clearances shown
Railroad
Navigation
Highway
Location Map shown
Existing Structure shown
Utilities shown & located
Grade Line Diagram shown
Elevation Datum shown
North Arrow shown
Hydraulic Data & High Water Mark
shown

Superstructure Details:
Deck Elevation Shown
Bearing Devices Shown &
Detailed

No. of Bearing Devices Given
Expansion Allowances Shown
Joints Shown & Detailed
Beam Details:
Beams Located & Dimensioned
Beam Cross Sections Shown
Prestressed Beam Details
Shown

Interim Bars Shown @ Top of
Stem

Bar Extensions Adequate
End Anchorages of Longitudinal
Bars Sufficient

Post-tensioning Data Included
Pier Details:
Column Steel properly dim.
w/splices

Neg. moment at X-Beam
Reinforced

Footing Elevations Shown
Skew Angles Shown
Hinges Shown & Detailed
Seismic Restraints Shown &
Noted

Page 192

Detailed Design Y N N/A Designer DATE Checker DATE Reviewer DATE
Plans
Plan & Elevation Drawings:
Footing Plan shown
Alignment & Bearing shown
Skew Angles shown
Bent Fixity (free, exp., hinge, etc.)
shown

Slope Paving shown
Footing Elevations
Pile Bearing or min. Tip Elevation
shown

Drainage provided for
Stationing shown
Clearances shown
Railroad
Navigation
Highway
Minimum Construction Clearances
shown

Bridge Rail Ends shown
Location Map shown
Detour shown
Existing Structure shown
Utilities shown & located
Grade Line Diagram shown
Elevation Datum shown
General Notes complete
Accompanying Drawings shown
correctly

North Arrow shown
Hydraulic Data & High Water Mark
shown

Superstructure Details:
Deck Elevation Shown
Bearing Devices Shown &
Detailed

No. of Bearing Devices Given
Expansion Allowances Shown
Camber Diagram Shown
Joints Shown & Detailed
Stage Construction Detailed
Pour Schedule Shown
Concrete Finish Sketch Shown
Beam Details:
Beams Located & Dimensioned
Beam Cross Sections Shown
Prestressed Beam Details
Shown

Interim Bars Shown @ Top of
Stem

Bar Extensions Adequate
End Anchorages of Longitudinal
Bars Sufficient

Post-tensioning Details/Data
Included

Page 193

Detailed Design Y N N/A Designer DATE Checker DATE Reviewer DATE
Plans (continued)
Pier Details:
Column Steel properly dim.
w/splices

Neg. moment at X-Beam
Reinforced

Footing Elevations Shown
Skew Angles Shown
Utility Holes Shown & Noted
Hinges Shown & Detailed
Seismic Restraints Shown &
Noted

Guardrail Connections at End
Bents

Concrete Finish Shown
Specifications
Prepare & Assemble:
Specifications
Supplemental Specifications
Special Provisions
Bid Item Names Check
Bid Item Quantities Check
Specials Verify & Review
Cost Estimates
Calculate Quantities for All Materials
Construction Time Estimate:
Graph Format
Critical Stages Shown
Calculation Books Design
Analysis & Design of bridges
structural components

Documentation of work with:
Hand calculations
Computer output
Detailed notes

Road Structures Design Manual - DOT

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Road Structures Design Manual - DOT

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DOCUMENT NO: AD-D-06

You might also like