Development and Discontent Anthology of Abstract PDF

National Seminar on "Dynamics of Development and Discontent"
27th - 28th September - 2013, Tufanganj Mahavidyalaya, Tufanganj, Coochbehar .
Abstract
Empowerment of Rural People Through MGNREGA with Special Emphasis to Women in Morigaon, Assam
Dr Utpal Kumar. De*
Inclusive development and welfare of people across communities and gender has become an important issue in recent time. Because of failure of several top down approaches to percolate the development activities undertaken at the upper level towards the bottom lair the 73rd Amendment of the Constitution has been introduced in India to empower people to participate increasingly in their own developmental activities through local self government. Further, it is extended through the people's participation in recently launched MGNREGA programme, where people across socio-economic groups can take part. Special provisions have been kept to have better working conditions for women and thus to encourage them to be involved in various activities under it and also in the decision making process. It is presumed to improve the standard of living of the rural people through their empowerment economically, socially and politically. The current paper tries to examine the process of participation and level of empowerment (using various indicators), especially of women through their participation in MGNREGA activities in Morigaon district of Assam after it is lunched in 2006. The analysis is made on the basis of primary data collected from 600 respondents (300 participants and 300 non-participants) in 2012 on various socioeconomic characteristics and its economic, social and political impacts on them.
* Department of Economics, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong, Email: utpalkde@gmail.com
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Abstract
MRGNERG; Opportunity and Challenge

Nivedita Mishra Thapliyal*
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) initiated in 2006 is considered to be a landmark event in the history of poverty reduction strategies in India. The scheme intends to provide employment to the rural poor during the lean agricultural season. In addition to providing income when no work is available, the programme also aims to create village assets and bring about inclusive and sustainable development. Further, the attempt has been made in providing adequate employment to women at equal wages. The programme involves one third of women as worker. The programme has not only reduced the migration by providing additional income during lean season but also provided food security and improved infrastructure development in the rural areas. There are certain anomalies which require to be taken care off to best implement the programme.
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* Jr. Project Consultant, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun

Abstract
Employment Guarantee Act and Neo-liberal Governmentality in India

Dr. Dayabati Roy*
It seems to be a truism that inequity, identity and opposition are the inherent features of socially uneven societies. But the question is whether or how these features are (re)constructed, obscured and/or becoming marked against the backdrop of neo-liberal reforms. The paper seeks to explore the socio-political processes by which this inequity is taking new shape and recreating confrontation, conflict and social change in consequences of implementation of poverty alleviation programmes like MGNREGA in the rural setting of West Bengal. Drawing upon the findings of qualitative field survey conducted in southern parts of rural West Bengal, specifically in Singur, in the period of 2010-2011, the paper reveals a new pattern of politics is emerging at the margin as part of neoliberal governmentality. While the state agencies along with Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and political parties, tries to intervene in the poverty alleviation programmes aimed at to level the inequity in line of globalized notion of governance, the governed citizens, in response, do conceive, perceive and redefine the issues of social justice in a newer way.
* Centre for Global South Asian Studies, Department of Cross-Cultural and Regional Studies, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. Email; dayabati@hum.ku.dk
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Abstract
Guarantee of 100 days Work under NREGA : A Violation of Human Rights and Wrong Step of Drainage of Public Money
Harasankar Adhikari*
Indian Constitution ensures equal opportunities for all regardless of race, caste and other parameters. The Govt. Policy has been aimed to determine the same. But after 67 years of Independence it is only a paper made guarantee and each day the difference between rich and poor is increasing. The various political parties are taking it as an opportunity to acquire the captive vote. Their struggle for vote has been the prime issue for which they are creating gap between man to man. There were so many policy and programme undertaken since its Independence to narrow the gap between poor and rich aimed to ensure the equal opportunities to all. But unfortunately perhaps no such initiative had been succeeded because of its wrong root. Like that Guarantee of 100 days work for below poverty line was a recent. Being a citizen of Indian why a poor people would get a job for only 100 days in a year and why he or she does not deserve for 365 days. Secondly the distribution pattern had also been much politicalized where the needy one was out of this opportunity. Thirdly the work assigned under the scheme was drainage of public money unfruitfully which might generate alternative earning for rest 265 days of a year. The present paper would discuss the above issue critically through case study in a Panchayat of East Midnapore district of West Bengal. The ultimate result has been reflected as a violation of human rights generated by the Govt. policy and misuse of voting rights only to fulfill the political gain.
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* Professionally trained social worker associated with development works in West Bengal. Email;jaoya123@yahoo.co.in

Abstract
Social Audit in MGNREGA Through a Decentralized Participatory Institutional Framework : the Case of Odisha
Bishnu Prasad Mohapatra*
Social Audit in the recent development scenario has conceived as a key instrument of social accountability. Eventually, the implementation of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) in India, for providing alternative livelihoods to the rural poor has widely recognised essence of 'social audit' for ensuring accountability and transparency in implementation process. MGNREGA, which was implemented through legislation in 2005, is believed to have potential for addressing income needs and unemployment problems in rural India, if transparency in implementation would be maintained through an appropriate institutional mechanism. Keeping this in mind, the transparency and public accountability rules have been framed as a part of MGNREGA. Social audit is a process whereby government programs are monitored directly by the people concerned. The process has the potentiality to implement development programs more effectively within a prescribed institutional framework. Taking the cognizance from the fact, the provision included in MGNREGA with an objective to foreground accountability through a decentralised participatory institutional framework. Under such provision, powers have been vested to local self-governing institutions (LSGI) for ensuring accountability in each stage of implementation, by organizing 'Gram Sabha'(village assembly). Gram Sabha under the banner of 'Social Audit Forum/Committee' is empowered to organize village level meetings as public hearing through a well designed activity plan. However, organisation of such process in a diversified socio-cultural and political scenario and within so called decentralised institutional framework (local self-governing institution framework) has faced stiff challenges in India. In the case of Odisha, implementation of Social Audit in MGNREGA by local self governing institutions have propounded the saga of people's participation in the development programs, notwithstanding bottlenecks lies in implementation of this process. Considering the important macro and micro level development, the present paper has attempted to provide an analytical glimpse of the implementation of Social Audit in Odisha with reference to MGNREGA while highlighting the current institutional arrangements and challenges faced by the local self governing institutions in organizing such a gigantic task. The analysis of the study is based on field level evidences in some tribal districts in Odisha (Sundargarh and Korapaut) with providing macro level data available at the District and State level agencies. The paper highlights the three broad dimensions of Social Audit i.e. historical perspective, Current implementation & institutional arrangements and impact with necessary policy prescriptions. The paper concludes with a set of policy recommendations based on findings and keeping the current institutional arrangements at the bottom level, which can ensure the effective implementation of 'Social Audit' by adding strength to local self governing institutions.
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* V isiting Fellow, Centre for Economic and Social Studies, Hyderabad. Email; bishnuprasad_123@yahoo.com
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Abstract
Right to Work' for Rural Poor; An Account of Opportunity and Adversity

Dr. Amal Mandal *
Developmentalism in India is continually haunted by two disconcerting drifts. Plethora of development programmes with grand agenda, whooping allocation and euphoria had more often failed to make significant headway in almost any front. In the face of awful outcome, those programmes had, almost as routine, been changed, integrated or replaced by new ones without, of course, attending and correcting demonstrative design as well as delivery deficits. Together with the ingrained 'paternalistic populism', another impression is that there is vested interest in perpetuating poverty and other form of afflictions, as impoverishment affords the opportunity to play patronage politics or a role of dispenser to the constituency. The 'Rights' based strategy framework of MGNREGA marks a paradigm shift from a supply side to demand driven delivery approach to social security of rural poor. This scheme indeed a 'law of Rights'- avouches employment as per demand, puts obligation to state for paying allowance/compensation in case of failure to fulfill demand of work /wage payment within stipulated timeframe. Legal space allowing engagement of and critique by civil society etc. deepens democratic base for development process. The alarming trends in the poverty and employment front make a strong case for MGNREGA. About 77% (80 crore) people have per capita expenditure of around Rs.20 per day (2007). Growth of employment has dipped to only 1.07% per annum (1994-2000) and the rate of unemployment in rural India went up to 7.2% (2000), due mainly to decline in public spending on rural employment programmes. But the gut issue remains how far or whether MGNREGS has opened up or entrenched ameliorating avenues. This paper intends to take stock of the extent of outreach and outcome of MGNREGS. In between two contrasting contentions i) a thread of optimism concerning creation of vital rural infrastructure, addressing socio-economic development concerns including empowerment & distress migration and ii) waning rates of per household employment and completion of works undertaken, emphasis on non-durable asset creation, hiatus with other development programmethis paper harps on the fact that mere statutory proclamation is unlikely to script a new visage or to impact fundamental breakthroughs. For actualising the avowed objectives or potentialities of the scheme few deficiencies and challenges (like design discrepancy, procedural hassles and implementation aberrations) require to be redressed squarely and comprehensively.
* Associate Professor of Political Science, Tufanganj College. Cooch Behar. Email; amalcob@rediffmail.com
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Abstract
Rural Livelihood and MGNREGA: Reviewing Two Sides of The Developmental Coin
Sarmistha Saha*
This paper places MGNREGA within the broader social protection discourse in its first section. It looks at how gender concerns have been addressed within public works like MGNREGA guidelines. The last section of the paper reveals some preliminary findings from fieldwork in West Bengal .It suggest that the level of women's participation in MGNREGA has strongly influenced the livelihood of the household in rural areas. The net impact has extended beyond the transfer of income to: enhanced savings; an upward movement of the female work participation and an increase in men's contribution to household management together with the phenomena of choosing the elder girl child of the household for household work substitution. This study has adopted two methods of research. First, the review of available literatures to understand the place of MGNREGA in India's social protection discourse. Second is the extensive field survey in two blocks of Burdwan district, West Bengal. Data source of the study refers to both primary and secondary data sources. For secondary data and maps, the study refers to the government website of MGNREGA, www.nrega.nic.in .Various related data has been collected from the website of Ministry of Rural Development, www.rural.nic.in. Secondary data of Gram panchayat level is collected from panchayat offices in the time of the field survey of the respective villages. Apart from that, maps and local level data presented by various NGO's and Institutes like IHD,ISST etc are used for the analysis of rural livelihood. Census data of 2001 is used for the detailed understanding of the various aspects of population. NFHS 3 data has been used to fix the indicators of livelihood for primary survey. Primary data has been collected from the field survey on the basis of a structured questionnaire.
* Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Michael Madhusudan Memorial College, Durgapur & Research Scholar, Jawaharlal Nehru University. Email: sarmis2008mailbox@gmail.com
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Abstract
MGNREGA: The Engine of Economic Growth

Amit Banerjee*
MGNREGA is a measure of social security. This is significant when, according to the report of the Second National Commission on Labour nearly 93 per cent of the work force is in unorganised sector. Despite passage of more than six decades after independence, social security net remains a teasing illusion for the teeming millions and Constitutional mandates act like paper promises. MGNREGA aims to promote sustainable development of agricultural economy, empowerment of rural poor through rights based law and advance principles of transparency and grassroots democracy. MGNREGA focuses on causes of chronic poverty to alleviate poverty in a sustainable/environmentally friendly way. The Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012) regards MGNREGA as one of the main mechanisms to rapidly reduce poverty in India. MGNREA ensures that rural India ceases to be starving India. The right to work, right to food and a decent standard of living are three key ingredients that MGNREA ensures. This rights based framework has led to a major decline in labour exploitation in rural public works. Sadly, MGNREGA is marked by corruption. Cash payments have been replaced by cheques. But the moot question is that banks do not exist in remote areas and hence whether the poorest of poor or the excluded majority can avail of this benefit. MGNREGA prevents internal migration since rural livelihood has improved. MGNREGA is India's latest and largest workfare program. MGNREGA is an important tool to combat present economic recession, reminiscent of the Great Depression of 1929. State intervention to combat the present economic crisis is no doubt a heroic effort. MGNREGA is, indeed, a socialist approach in a liberalised economy. The object is ultimate social justice and social security. There are gross aberrations of Indian democracy and the cancer of casteism and communalism widely prevail. The second generation of economic reforms will not only usher in a new India but effective steps need to be taken to remove the discontent amongst vast segments of the population. The MGNREGA is, indeed, a step in the right direction. Maoists flourish in the dense jungles of eastern and central India where human development levels are amongst the lowest in the world. MGNREGA is an instrument of social change where development deficits have given rise to discontent. The right to food, right to work and right to water are closely interrelated.
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* Assistant Public Prosecutor, Judicial Department, Government of West Bengal. Email; amitbndhpdh5@gmail.com

Abstract
MGNREGA: Progress and Some Emerging Challenges

Dr. Sujit Kumar Paul* Anindya Mitra**
Abstract: Since its inception in 2005, the MGNREGA has created an impressive impact on the rural life of India. It deals with various socio economic aspects of the rural community. However, implementation of MGNREGA remains uneven and patchy across States and districts, but there is evidence to suggest that MGNREGA has contributed a lot to uplift the socio economic status of the rural people and giving them a new sense of identity and bargaining power and many others. The main focus of this paper is to enumerate the major progress areas and impact of MGNREGA and recognize some challenges with regard to its implementation that need to be addressed meaningfully.
* Associate Professor, Department of Lifelong Learning and Extension, Rural Extension Centre, Visva-Bharati ** Project Fellow
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Abstract
Impact of Globalization: Paradigm of Development, Displacement and the Marginal People in India
Dr. Notan Bhusan Kar*
The term 'development' generally refers to the economic growth of a man or a society of a country or in other word 'development' has been associated with systematic growth, evolution, advancement and progress of a population in a country as a whole. In India, during the first stages of development after independence, 'the planning commission' laid emphasized on many mega projects like construction of dams, large industries, large irrigation projects, large townships etc. For these very large amounts of land, forests, water, mineral resources were needed and in fact these were mostly acquired by the Governments from the marginal people or weaker sections. No doubt this model of development had helped the country to emerge as a strong economic and political power in the world. Since 1991, Globalization had started in India which is a part of 'New Economic Policy' and after that the paradigm of development are completely being changed. This globalization has intensified the displacement of marginal people from their land and inhabitants because of land, forests, and mineral resources are needed to carry forward developmental programmes. Now a day in the name of industrialization or setting up of 'special economic zone' (SEZ) or extraction of mines, governments are allowing multinational companies (MNCs), allotting them land, mines, forests resources etc without any question. These lands, forests are often taking from the marginal people forcibly. This type of developmental paradigm is generating wider socio-economic inequalities among the people in India. Post globalization era development paradigm has increased conflicts between marginal people and state. Somewhere in India acquirement of land and other resources for the multinationals are not made easy due to people insurgence or mass resistance and ultimately these conflicts has converted in bloody war between the marginal people and state. This paper mainly attempts to examine the impact of globalization which relates to paradigm of development with induced displacement that is being implemented and the consequences of the plight of the marginalized people in India. The methodology is used in the research work based on primary and secondary sources.
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* Independent Researcher and Writer based in Kolkata. Email : notanbhusankar@gmail.com

Abstract
Financial Literacy: A Paradigm of Development- A Case study in India

Dr. Joydeep Biswas *
The importance of financial inclusion, based on the principle of equity and inclusive growth, has been drawing considerable attention of policy makers internationally. Indeed, achieving universal financial inclusion is a global objective and has multiple dimensions. The global financial crisis has brought the need for financial inclusion into greater focus worldwide. It is argued that widespread incidence of financial exclusion was one of the factors that precipitated the financial crisis so as to further generated discontent. As financial markets become more sophisticated and household undertakes a growing share of risk and responsibility for financial decisions, financial literacy is necessary to ensure sufficient consumer protection for the smooth functioning of the financial markets and the economy. Financial inclusion, financial literacy and consumer protection are the three major pillars of financial stability. While financial inclusion operates from the supply side, providing the financial market and services that people demand, financial literacy stimulates the demand side, making people aware of what they can demand such as knowledge of financial products and services, credit absorption capacity, etc. The supply side issues cover financial markets, network of banks and other financial institutions, appropriate design of products and services, etc. The availability of need-based financial products, emergency credit, liquidity, distances, pricing and entrepreneurial credit are important aspects in the context of financial education of customers. Necessary monitoring framework should cover transaction, customer, products and services at the micro level and monitoring at the macro level should address the assessment of the outcome of policy, viability of delivery models among others. Given this backdrop, some imperative questions arise. Does financial literacy policy is an outcome of discontent arising out from the society to whom the benefits of financial development did not trickle down? What potential sequencing pattern of the financial development may be at work to reduce the discontent of the target group under financial inclusion policy? The present paper is a country-specific study focusing on India. The study is to analyse the post 2007-2008 period and to propose an alternative sequencing pattern for the financial inclusion that may help the society to harness the benefits of financial development.
* Assistant Controller of Examinations, University of North Bengal. Email: yojpeed@yahoo.co.in
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Abstract
Sustainable Development: Transition of Livelihood Patterns From Traditional To Modernity Among The Tribals
Dr. Sujit Kumar Paul*
A livelihood approach understands poverty as more than just insufficient income. The Sustainable Livelihoods approach favoured by DFID defines livelihoods as 'the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living'. The livelihood pattern of the population throws a searching light on the economic and social life of the area. Livelihood means the occupation that generates income. Tribal population constitutes a considerable percentage in our country. Since independence, considering the general socio-economic backwardness of the tribal communities, Government of India has been planning and launching programmes to develop and integrate them with the mainstream of Indian national life. Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for the overwhelming majority of the tribal population in the country. Agricultural modernization has since long been introduced in the tribal areas of West Bengal in India, primarily with a view to raise the level of income, standard of living and lifestyle of the tribal people. In the present research work, attempts have been made to study the extent and nature of socio-economic and socio-cultural changes among the tribal cultivators due to agricultural modernization. Besides studying the economic and social interaction of the people, attempt has also been made to grasp the nature of the tribals' outlook on life in the changing context.
* Associate Professor, Department of Lifelong Learning and Extension, Rural Extension Centre, Visva-Bharati. Email; sujit_kakali@rediffmail.com
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Abstract
The Consequences of Trade and Development on Environment: A Neo-Neo Debate Perspective

Komal Kaushik Baral *
The paper problematizes the contemporary paradigm of development which is more material; which gives more importance to trade and economy rather than environment. Man's/state's excessive desire towards development, starting with Industrial Revolution has had a negative consequence on environment. The paper seeks to probe deep into the debates concerning trade, development and environment, such as, trade-environment dichotomy, dichotomy between developed and developing countries, the question of IPR (Intellectual Property Rights), and technology transfer. All these will be dealt with the prism which Neo-Neo debate offers, that is the debate between Neoliberalism and Neorealism. In doing so, the paper highlights as to why the questions concerning environment has acquired the attention of academicians and politicians alike in recent times. As such, environmental degradation has become a burning issue in the contemporary times and falls into larger ambit of human security or non-traditional security. The paper also highlights changing dynamics of security, especially after 1990s and with the gaining momentum of globalization. Under the larger ambit of human security, the paper focuses on environmental security and its problems and prospects. In crux, the paper gives a brief overview of environmental degradation, contemporary debates on environment, the problems inherent in it and the way ahead. This, as stated earlier will be dealt theoretically through the Neo-Neo debate and the issues it deals such as- 1) Nature and consequences of anarchy, 2) relative gain/absolute gain, 3) international institutions and regimes, 4) intentions and capabilities, 5) international cooperation.
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* Research Scholar, Department of International Relations/ Politics, Sikkim University. Email: keepthefaith_05@yahoo.co.in

Abstract
Multidimentional Poverty: An Index For Districts of West Bengal

Dr. Tarun Sengupta* Debasis Bandyopadhyay**
Poverty has traditionally been measured in one dimension, usually income or consumption, where a basket of goods and services considered the minimum requirement to live a non-impoverished life is valued at the current prices. People who do not have an income sufficient to cover that basket are deemed poor. Poor people themselves define their poverty much more broadly to include lack of education, health, housing, empowerment, employment, personal security and more. No one indicator is uniquely able to capture the multiple aspects that contribute to poverty. For this reason, since 1997, Human Development Reports (HDRs) have measured poverty in ways different than traditional income-based measures. The Human Poverty Index (HPI) was the first such measure, which was replaced by the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) in 2010. The MPI is an index designed to measure acute poverty. Acute poverty refers to two main characteristics. First, it includes people living under conditions where they do not reach the minimum internationally agreed standards in indicators of basic functioning, Second, it refers to people living under conditions where they do not reach the minimum standards in several aspects at the same time. The MPI combines two key pieces of information to measure acute poverty: the incidence of poverty, or the proportion of people (within a given population) who experience multiple deprivations, and the intensity of their deprivation - the average proportion of (weighted) deprivations they experience. The MPI includes three dimensions: health, education, and the standard of living. The dimensions mirror the HDI. The multidimensional deprivation is measured in MPI. Here in this paper we try to capture the multidimensional deprivation for 19 districts of West Bengal. Compared to India the MPI for WB is slightly higher but not at all impressive and that leaves so many questions for the success of inclusive growth strategy. Here in calculating the MPI we follow the UNDP approach and the Alkire& Santos Method (2010). In this way The MPI for the Districts of West Bengal reflects both the incidence of multidimensional deprivation, and its intensity how many deprivations people experience at the same time.
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* Asst. Prof. in Economics, South Malda College, Malda. Emil- senguptatarun@yahoo.co.in ** Debasis Bandyopadhyay, Asst. Prof. in Commerce, Dumkol College, Murshidabad.

Abstract
Participatory Practices in Rural Areas: A Study of Gram Panchayats of West Bengal

Debabrata Samanta* Narayan Chandra Nayak**
Democratic representation is the basic and essential feature of self government. There is a significant shift in the discourse of people's participation in the recent past, which has moved this development paradigm from margin to mainstream. The primary goal of participatory development is to involve local communities and all other stakeholders by creating 'invited space' for participation. West Bengal has a long history of decentralized and participatory governance. During recent past government of West Bengal has taken several initiatives to create 'invited spaces' for participation to strengthen local level decision making process and make it more inclusive. There is also an ongoing effort in West Bengal to strengthen participatory governance through PRI. The present paper analyses the existing participatory practices in the Gram Panchayats of West Bengal and the nature of the functions of the invited space. The study, based on the self evaluation data set of 120 Gram Panchayats of West Bengal across 10 Districts, finds that though panchayat system has emerged as an institution of democratic governance in rural West Bengal, there is poor and declining participation of people in different invited spaces. The possible reasons for poor participation may be inter alia failure on the part of the Gram Pachayats to involve the members in decision making, unmatched political affiliation, and poor political mobilization. It is found that with the increase in education level, participation rate improves, and with the latter, the fund utilization rate rises. Improved participation remains a key instrument that needs attention.
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* Assistant Professor, Chandragupt Institute of Management Patna. ** Associate Professor, Department of Humanities & Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.

Abstract
Development Philosophy in the East: Reflections on Bhutan

Swatahsiddha Sarkar*
The idea of development, originally the cup of tea of the economists, flourshied through the invocation of 'growth optical' has revealed its costs as intrinsic to the process itself. The inescapable economic, cultural and ecological sufferings of a growth centric development doctrine have shattered the present and the future of human destiny. All round global plea to make development more culture sensitive and culture specific has been raised from the part of the global literati and civil society for securing a minimal escape from what has now become a 'predestined ruin' the real achievement of growth perhaps. Lately of course, the advocacy for a critique of mainstream developmentalism has become a fait accompli across the social science disciplines in contemporary times. Alternative discourses of development thriving on grass roots movements and intellectual currents like sustainable development, eco-development, ethno-development, endogenous development, and post-development scholarship have undoubtedly enriched the praxis of development. Nevertheless the global trajectory of the discourse of development ranging from hey days of growth centricism towards the attainment of a 'benign human' face (through the fusion of human needs, quality of life, capability, entitlement, ecological concerns etc.) unabashedly confirms that the philosophy of development has been fundamentally Western both in its articulation and also in terms of its propagation. Though the growth of Latin American and South Asian scholarship has gained some prominence in this venture but the prospect for an Eastern Philosophy of development is still rather bleak. It is in this context of utter pessimism a very tiny nation called Bhutan has shown some rays of hope by re-socializing the development discourse through the paradigm of what it calls 'Human Happiness'. The present paper seeks to highlight the potency of Bhutan's perspective of development as a viable Eastern way to contribute in the philosophy of development, which has exclusively been Western till date.
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* Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, University of North Bengal, .
Email: ss3soc@gmail.com

Abstract
Microfinance: Rescuing or Betraying Gender from the Poverty Trap? Case Studies of Coochbehar District in West Bengal
Dr. Tanusree Chakraborty*
The perception is growing around the globe that poverty is becoming increasingly feminized. In both developing and transition economies, microfinance has increasingly been positioned as one of the most important poverty reduction and local economic and social development policies. Its appeal is based on the widespread assumption that simply 'reaching the poor' with microcredit will automatically establish a sustainable economic and social development trajectory animated by the poor themselves. There exist broadly two very different systems for financial intermediation. One is Self-Help Group System and another one is Microfinance Institution System. To truly understand the complexity of the concept of gender poverty trap and local economic and social development policies and its relation with women's empowerment and role of Microfinance to address this intricacy, the paper makes an effort to assess the benefits of microfinance through Self-Help Group System on women's empowerment and role of Microfinance Institution System on the basis of primary survey undertaken in the district of Coochbehar in West Bengal. Strengthening women's financial base and economic contribution to their families to communities has a role to play in empowering them. It is unlikely that only one intervention such as the provision of credit only will completely alter power and gender relations. Women often value the non-economic benefits of a group lending programme that is SHG programme as much or more than the credit. Some of the most valued include expanded business and social networks, improved self-esteem, increased household decision-making power, and increased respect and prestige from both male and female relatives and community members. When loans are channeled through women's groups and combined with more investment in social intermediation, substantial shifts in decision-making patterns do emerge. At the same time this paper argues that Microfinance Institution Model may well generate some positive short run outcomes for a lucky few of the 'entrepreneurial poor', the longer run aggregate development outcome very much remains moot. Microfinance may ultimately constitute a new and very powerful institutional barrier to sustainable local economic and social development, and thus also to sustainable poverty reduction. This paper may suggest that the current drive to establish the central role of microfinance in development policy cannot be divorced from its supreme serviceability to the neoliberal agenda.
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*Research Associate, Women Studies Research Centre, Calcutta University. Email; tchakraborty31@gmail.com

Abstract
Interrogating Gender Inequities: A Study of Rural Household

Dr. Panchali Sengupta*
The participation of women in 'productive' or economic labour activities has always been visibly lower than that of men, whether in rural or urban areas. However in the view of gender researchers, also reiterated by the National Commission on Labour, the economic contributions made by women as a labour category are grossly underestimated. Undervaluation of women's work also manifests itself in persisting wage-disparity, differential access and control over resources, lack of equivalence in infrastructural support, and above all through disparity in gender work burdens. Proper valuation of women's work thus requires fundamental labour research. Fuller accounting of the many labour contributions made by rural women also helps to clarify their significance within development processes. Nevertheless, despite its obvious productive and social worth, much of women's work remains invisible within national accounting and census frameworks, emphasising their urgent need for redesign.
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* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, St. Joseph's College, Darjeeling. Email; psg_slg@yahoo.co.in

Abstract
Development, Gender Discrimination and Women: A Perspective

Koyel Basu*
Development as a concept and process is constructed, contested and dynamic. Analyzing and grappling with the very concept of development is a critical challenge because it is in crisis. It is in crisis because more often than not it is giving poor results. It is unable to address most of the peoples' needs and human rights. This seminar paper questions how women's' human rights fits into the development agenda. Are women discriminated? Assuming that most certainly they are, the paper questions what type of development would best support women's human rights. While the rhetoric of gender equality began to enter the development agenda, it did not lead to equality for all in practice. Trickle-down economic growth has often left women marginalized. Even in cases where economic growth has embraced women it had not come in hand in hand with gender justice. Women are often relegated to second-class citizenship and subordinated status through gender discrimination, threats and violence. This seminar paper tries to establish the connections between the struggle for gender equality and the nature of the development within which it is embedded. Women have extensive experience in survival and resistance strategies where they have not been equal partners or beneficiaries of the development process. This seminar paper highlights these resistances. At the end of the day, these struggles pin-point that development is not only about ideological purity. It is also about experiencing the reality to put up a fight with it.
* Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, Jangipur College.

E-mail: koyelbasu@hotmail.com
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Abstract
Role of Microfinance for Women Micro-entrepreneurship Development

Aparna Biswas*
Women entrepreneurship development is one of the crucial issues of contemporary development agenda in many developing countries. Entrepreneurship development among women is one activity which can make the women active participant in the development process which is needed for the comprehensive socio economic development of a country. In India different programmes have been introduced for micro-entrepreneurship, dvelopment with special emphasis to women .Microfinance programme is one of them that provide credit to the poor women and create an opportunity to start income generating activity. Different studies reveals that during last one and half decades many poor women have come forward to set up micro enterprises such as dairy raising, poultry rearing, petty business, handicrafts, and so on. The paper investigates the influencing factors of women micro-entrepreneurship development and seeks to find out how far microfinance programmes can make the rural poor women to generate income through entrepreneurial activity and also try to identify several hindering factors that create an obstacle to run an enterprise by rural women. Access to credit combining with access to skill training provided by microfinance programmes are inspiring factors in participating micro-entrepreneurship but lack of education, lack of entrepreneurial skills and management skills, lack of information, access to business support, lack of self-confidence, finding the right contacts for business venture, combining family and enterprise works and worried about societal acceptance are the major challenges that women entrepreneurs faced at starting micro-entrepreneurship as means of self-employment.
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* Asst. Professor, Dept. of Economics, Mathabhanga College, Cooch Behar, Email; ap.biswas@gmail.com

Abstract
Microfinance and Women Empowerment An Empirical Investigation of SHG Beneficiaries of Coochbehar District in West Bengal
Dr. Soumitra Sarkar* Nishit Baral**
Group based modern microfinance program has been considered as a sharp weapon to battle against the hard core problem of rural poverty and it will contribute significantly to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Keeping this great objective in view, the policy makers have followed the idea as propounded by the noble laureate Professor MD Yunus. At present, the microfinance is working in a complex environment with different models, though SHG model is predominant. Empowerment of women in all respect is the focal point of the SHG movement. Micro enterprises in different trades like animal husbandry, paper plate making, jute product making, sola pith, Sital pati making, soft toy making, bamboo products making, tea and pan stall etc. have been developed by the SHG beneficiaries in the rural areas with the help of financial and non financial assistance from the modern microfinance system. All of them are engaged in their locality and market of their products is confined to the village market. As a result, the women beneficiaries are facing problems in selling their products and huge amount of unsold goods are thus piled up which leads to financial crunch for them to run their micro enterprises and it has significant negative impact on the empowerment of women beneficiaries. This paper will delve into the operating system of SHG movement and women empowerment in Cooch Behar district in details with the help of 250 sample SHGs through the questionnaire survey and case studies of real life situation of the vulnerable rural women beneficiaries.
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*Assistant Professor, Alipurduar College, Jalpaiguri, Email: soumitrasarkar46@gmail.com ** Assistant Professor, University B.T Evening College, Cooch Behar

Abstract
Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and Women Empowerment- a Study in Cooch Behar District of West Bengal, India
Dr. P. K. Pal*
Rema Das**
Empowerment is an abstract, multidimensional and multi-level concept that can be both a process and outcome. It can be defined as the process of increasing the assets and capabilities of individuals or groups to make purposive choices and to transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes. Whether, a Self Help Group (SHG) is a small economically homogenous affinity group of 10 to 20 persons who come together to save small amounts regularly, mutually agree to contribute to a common fund, have collective decision making, or resolve conflicts through collective leadership and mutual discussion. The present study was undertaken in Cooch Behar district of West Bengal, India to assess the impact of Self-Help Groups (SHGs) on empowerment of women. 60 SHG members and 30 non-members were selected from 10 villages from Cooch Behar-I and Cooch Behar-II blocks of the district. A pre-tested schedule was employed to collect the relevant information by personal interview method. To assess and compare between the members' and nonmembers' status of empowerment, an Empowerment Status Index (ESI) was developed in the study with different indicators of empowerment. Indicators were selected from the recommendations of different authors. From the study it was found that the empowerment status of the SHG members was higher than the non-members and empowerment is positively correlated with the efficiency of the group.
* Assistant Professor, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari , Email: pkpalubkv@gmail.com ** PG Student, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya
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Abstract
Critiquing the Narratives of Development from Gender & Community Perspectives : A Case Study of the Muslim Women of Selected Villages of Malda
Seema Ahmed* Mursed Alam**
India, a developing nation often brags of an upsurge in its socio-cultural and economical condition. While market economy, globalization, consumer goods-all dominate the Indian economy, a large portion of the Indians (basically rural) suffers from the unavailability of the basic needs of life. Women form a majority in this respect. The National Policy for Women's Empowerment announced in 2001 tried to achieve the all-round development and empowerment of women. But they remained alive only in the pages. The comparative condition of the Muslim women is of greater concern. Our attempt in this paper is to advance a critique of the lopsided developmental project of India by zooming in on the miserable condition of the Muslim women/community underscored by their socio-political and economic-educational condition. However, we would restrict our attention within Malda, a MID district harboring more than 50% Muslim population. A case study of selected villages of Malda has highlighted the remoteness of the living condition of Muslim women. They are suppressed by both being a woman and the rules and regulations of the local religious moulanas. Child marriage is the commonest obstacle in having adequate education. Girls hardly cross the threshold of class X. Dowry follows in every nook and corner of these villages. Early marriage results in early child birth causing the ill health of the mother and malnutrition of the child and there is no birth control. Infant and maternal mortality is escalating. Women serve the household and the girl child takes lahaari (meal) to the field to their father or brother causing absence in the school. Females rarely take family decisions and participate in earning. In such an atmosphere they don't have true political awareness. In our paper we would take stock of these issues affecting/aggravating the empowerment/development of Muslim women/community and would try to suggest few preventive measures so that the hypothesis of development gets a people/ gender/community-centric and holistic dynamics.
* Assistant Teacher, Jagannathpur High Madrasah,Malda. Email:seemaahmed14@gmail.com ** Assistant Professor, Deptt. of English, Gour Mahavidyalaya
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Abstract
Reflection of Gender Discrimination and Depravity in Mainstream Hindi Films (1955-1975) : An Analysis
Pallav Mukhopadhyay*
Has the reflection of gender discrimination and depravity changed over the years in mainstream Bollywood Hindi films? In the 1950s and 1960s, the Indian heroine epitomized by Meena Kumari was a silent, suffering entity who believed she was to be seen and not heard; so deep was her feeling of unworthiness, what the men in India wanted their women to be. The 1970s, which belonged to Hema Malini at one end and Zeenat Aman at the other, reflected the two sides of the Indian woman - one traditional and the other western but still a part of a man's world fulfilling his needs for romance, sexual gratification and procreation. The films of the decades of 1950s to 1970s were simple. It began and ended with whether the man would marry her or not. Majority of them had no connection with real life, yet they were so thoroughly entertaining, with their goody-goody heroines yearning for the hero's glance. This paper has tried to investigate the nature of gender discrimination and depravity and the portray and position of women characters in the popular films like 'Mother India', 'Bandini', 'Dil Ek Mandir', 'Gumrah', Teen Deviyan', 'Teesri Kasam', 'Mamta', 'An Evening in Paris', 'Aradhana', 'Dastak', 'Purab Aur Pashim', 'Abhinetri', 'Caravan', 'Hare Rama Hare Krishna', 'Anubhav', 'Guddi', 'Victoria No. 203', 'Amar Prem', 'Abhimaan', 'Rajnigandha', 'Kora Kagaz', 'Deewar', 'Chhoti Si Baat', 'Aandhi' etc. as case studies. The paper has tried to enquire whether the portrayal of women in the films of directors like Yash Chopra, Nasir Hussain, B. R. Chopra, Dev Anand, Manoj Kumar, Asit Sen, Subodh Mukherjee etc. is different with the counterparts of the directors like Mehboob Khan, Bimal Roy, Hrishikesh Mukherjee, Basu Bhattacharya, Basu Chatterjee, Gulzar, Shakti Samanta etc. by following the analytical approach. Mainstream Bollywood Hindi films are male dominated during 1955-1975. The women characters were looked down upon. The birth of a female child has been regarded as a disaster in the Hindi films especially in family melodrama. There is also the disgusting practice of dowry in majority of the family films. The films of this period exhibits that women are doing a variety of professions. The films exhibit that most women characters do not have real freedom. The male dominated narratives cast women driven by remnants of feudal and medieval practices and mentality. There is dearth of greater gender equality. Women utilizing every opportunity to advance their rights, resisting all attacks on them this types of characters did not get priority in the films of that period. The era has witnessed that mainstream popular Hindi films objectify women for its commercial outlook. Majority of the films of that period did not uphold the rights of the oppressed and exploited sections of women in the society.
* Assistant Professor, Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, West Bengal State University, Email; pmy_m@rediffmail.com
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Abstract
Women and Development: Revisiting the Towards Equality Report

Sanchayita Paul (Chakraborty)*
Gender discrimination still remains as an important point of concern in the broad perspective of development in India. After arriving on the verge of 40th anniversary of the pioneering Towards Equality Report, which was published in 1974, it is significant to revisit the Report which mirrors first the shocking decline in women's development, even after independence. This Report triggers off various women's movements demanding changes in development policies and government strategies to bring in a pro-women development model. But in spite of some strategic adjustments, the situation of women's development changes a little. After the advent of liberalization and the global economic forces, women as economic beings have undergone a neo-imperialist patriarchal process of subjugation and marginalization. The promotion of consumerist life-style through the mass media advertise a model of pseudo-development of women's condition as such life-style trap women into the stereotype of being only the objects and subjects consumerism, which denies the inclusive development of women as economic beings and as individuals. This ultimately leads to the increasing sexual violence both in the public and the private sphere. Though various women's organizations and the women's movements continue to critique this model of development promoted by globalization and the macro-policies of the government which reinforce the marginalization of women in the processes of development, the gender depravity tightens its hold in the whole scenario of development. This paper will incorporate the theoretical discussions of Vina Mazumdar and Mary E. John on these issues in this perspective of gendered development. It will try to envisage the future lying ahead for women who are struggling to find a space in the model of sustainable development. This paper will revisit the path breaking Towards Equality Report by engaging with the present dynamics of women's development and their discontents.
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* Ph.D Student, University of North Bengal. Email; sanchayita.dhritiman@gmail.com

Abstract
Subaltern Sections and The Issue of Development: The Case of Women Involvement in Decision Making Process
Saikat Roy*
In the present postmodern world the process of development cannot be precede without proper involvement of every section of the society. Hence, it is important to take into consideration the position of women in the developmental process. The gender division of labour forces women to be confined to the private sphere of life and to perform domestic roles as wives and mothers. The male hegemony prevails in the decision-making process both in private as well as public domains. Theoretically Politics should be a democratic, participatory, accountable and transparent political system can help to bring about a just, humane and equitable society. Political system should incorporate the interests of and be accessible to all sections of society, of which women constitute half of the population. Status of women in politics can be defined as the degree of equality and freedom enjoyed by women in the shaping and sharing of power and in the value given by society to this role of women. The role of women in decision-making was central to the advancement of women around the world and to the development of humankind as a whole. There is no dearth of constitutional provisions or government initiatives in favour of women. The present day women are undoubtedly dynamic, innovative, Challenging and progressive in their outlook. They are leaving their footprints in every spheres of life like, politics, education, corporate world, science and so on. It is painful to know that she is making her presence felt in every sphere of activity but they have very limited power in their hand to promote development. History has recorded the performance some of the outstanding women political leaders of nations like Indira Gandhi of India , Golda Meyer of Israel, Srimavo Bandaranaike of Sree Lanka, Margaret Thacher of UK, Benazir Bhutto of Pakistan, Khaleda Zia and sheik Hasina Wazed of Bangladesh, who contributed to the liberal thinking on women as leaders in men's world. Each of these women had faced as much crisis, political friction and turbulence as any male leader, but they survived all with grace and dignity. It is high time to recognize women's real position in the public sphere. This paper seeks to locate the place of women in the process of development and their position in the decision making process.
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* Ph.D Scholar, University of North Bengal. Email; saikatnbu@gmail.com

Abstract
Gender Disparity and Its Impact on Girl Child Education

Taranath Dhamala*
In light of India's commitment to the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) of universal primary education, its major challenge is gender disparityand the resulting financial and societal blocks that prevent access of girls to primary education. The Indian National Policy on Education 1986 was announced and it was modified in 1992 giving greater priority to universal elementary education in India. Despite all these efforts there is a considerable gender gap in literacy status. According to 2011 census literacy among men and women was 82.14 and 65.46 percent respectively. In a society as deeply stratified as India, disparities in education can be observed through various distributions, such as caste, religion and gender, among others. It is interesting, however, that even within such disadvantaged communities; a consistent feature is widespread gender disparity in educational attainment. For scheduled caste and scheduled tribe girls, the gender gap in education is almost 30 per cent at the primary level and 26 per cent at the upper primary stage. In India's most depressed regions, the probability of girls getting primary education is about 42 per cent lower than boys, and it remains so even when other variables, such as religion and caste, are controlled. Girls' education is a human right, provides economic and social benefits, and is an international objective (Birdsall, Levine, and Ibrahim 2005). Most countries have responded to this objective. Since 1960, primary school enrolment rates in the developing world have risen steeply for both boys and girls, with girls' participation converging with that of boys'. Yet, the most recent estimate finds that about 57 million children of primary school-age were out of school (down from about 102 million in 2000), and a majority of them were girls (MDG Report 2013). In 2011, 57 million children of primary school age were out of school, down from 102 million in 2000. The study conducted on Status of Girl Child Education at nine sample panchayat under nine development blocks of Uttar Dinajpur District of West Bengal under West Bengal Civil Society support Progrmme (WBCSP) reveals that many forces combine to spell an early end
27

Abstract
to education for girls, poverty is most important among them. When a poor family considers how much a daughter can help in cleaning, cooking, collecting wood and water, and looking after younger children, and the possible low opportunity there will be for her to get a paying job even if she is educated, then the returns rarely seem to warrant the expenditure. Even when girls are enrolled, the burden of domestic chores stands in the way of educational progress. The study found that the single most important factor in poor performance was the time and strain imposed by the child's workload. Close behind poverty follows tradition and perhaps the strongest tradition of all is the idea that sons should be educated because they will be the bread winners of their own future families, and the supporters of their aging parents. A girl's work is considered less likely to bring in monetary income and in cultures where marriage means that a daughter becomes part of her husband's family, the incentive to educate girls is weaker still. An authenticated survey reports reveal that the right to basic education is denied to Girl Children in many parts of India leading to the denial of almost every basic right for them in life. The only solution to this alarming situation is to make basic education compulsory for every girl child in India. But with the given situation, even if education is made a fundamental right of every child in India, it will be a long time before we are actually able to achieve maximum results and that too for the girl child. The alternative is to make education for all a Social Movement - a complete revolution in itself. Therefore more focused attention would be required to provide access and facilitate the retention of girls and children belonging to the deprived and first generation learners' towards nation building.
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* Welfare Officer, Balurghat District Correctional Home, Dakshin Dinajpur, Email dhamala29@gmail.com

Abstract
State of Physical Progress and Utilisation of Funds of SHG's under SGSY scheme: A comparative perspective
Nishit Baral*
The government has taken various schemes to uplift the disadvantage section of society to bring them into the main segment of the country. One of such scheme is Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY), the largest credit-based poverty alleviation curriculum in the world. Success of this project not only depends on flourishing number of SHG groups but also how long these groups are survived and transformed them into economic enterprises. With the objective of enquiring physical outreach and financial dependency of swarojgraries ,this paper will compare the performance of SGSY scheme of two areas of North Bengal region, namely Coochbehar and Darjeeling (other than hill area)district. The socio economic formation of Cooch Behar district is profoundly concentrated with more number of rural population, which has more percentage (52%) of SC people, whereas Darjeeling district's total SC and ST((31% approx) population percentage is much lower. With this socio economic framework, the present study is carried out with the help of secondary data. The data identified that there has been tremendous growth in the number of SHGs and the amount of fund disbursed to the swarojgraries in Coochbehar district as compared to plane area of Darjeeling district during the study period. The study shows that more than 95 percent of government funds has been utilised as against fund sanctioned for Coochbehar district, whereas the plane area of Darjeeling district's utilisation of sanctioned fund has showed an irregularity and which is below the percentage of Coochbehar district. The study concludes that there is a need to diversify self help group activities and to involve swarojgaries into micro enterprise movement for both the areas.
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*Assistant Professor in Commerce, University BT and Evening College, Coochbehar. Email: nishitbaral@gmail.com

Abstract
Meitei Resistance and State Response: Case Study of Manipur

Dr. Nandini Basistha*
From the days of merger of Manipur with the Union of India, it is a cauldron of unrest. With other groups, the largest tribe of the valley districts, the Meiteis also can be accused for continued combat with the country and making stability of state at stake. But what compels them to take the violent pathway! Is it marginalization of the community or militarization of the state? Actually every resistance movement is an effect of compound of causes, so is Meitei resistance. Before the advent of colonialism, Meitei had emerged as a stable community, having a common cultural tradition, political history and economic life. Unlike many other tribes of Northeast India, Meiteis maintained their separate existence from pre historic time. This feeling of oneness has created a sense of separate identity within the Meiteis and they love their independence. But the forcible merger of their territory with Union of India and made them a part of Assam shattered Meiteis' identity and ushered identity politics of separatism. Identity politics always threatens pluralist notion of India and state respond to this matter in different ways. At one level while it tries to impose Indian hegemony on the identity-seekers by gradual militarization, on the other hand it tries to appease them by dose of development as it does in Manipur. Giving partial autonomy as per federalist democratic structure also tried in Manipur to turn their mindset towards democratic path. But apparently all failed to mollify the Meiteis and the state versus community conflict continues. After depicting causes, characteristics and changing dimensions of Meitei resistance movements, I delve upon state responses in this paper. Why and how the dilemma between Meitei versus state created and continued ever since the merger of Manipur is the main crux of my paper.
* Senior Research Fellow, Rajiv Gandhi Chair in Contemporary Studies, University of Allahabad. Email: nbasistha@gmail.com
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Abstract
Land for Industrialization: Lesson from Singur

Dr. Bhola Nath Ghosh * Dr. Utpal Kumar De **
Industrialization, especially large scale industrialization is now conceived to be indispensible for faster development of any region. The realisation came out of limited agricultural progress in India during last few decades and rising contribution of tertiary sector to GDP that cannot sustain progress of an economy without industrial production activities. However, the establishment of large scale industrial projects is contingent upon the availability of large contiguous land in suitable locations. Given the constitution of India, individuals have the right to possess and operate lands for the purpose of cultivation, dwelling and other purposes and now it has become almost impossible to acquire vast stretch of land for setting up large industries in West Bengal. It has become more difficult due to fragmentation of land holding. Prevalence of large number of small and marginal farmers in a cluster forces the industrialists to negotiate with all those farmers and the problem is compounded with the existence of registered or unrecorded share tenants. In case of negotiation and compensation the tenants in most cases are not consulted or not benefitted as they are not the actual owners of land. It thus necessitate intervention of the State Government in the negotiation process and look after the welfare aspects of the poor farmers by accommodating them with the process of industrialisation. Land is the most important natural resource for human survival and development. Naturally acquisition of land by the State or Central Government should be dealt with utmost caution, because it not only displaces authorized persons from their lands but also has other traumatic psychological and socio-cultural consequences. The efforts of the Government of West Bengal in recent past towards helping large industrialists by acquiring lands from the peasants have resulted into bitter consequences and raised a number of questions. The live example is Singur. This paper provides an elaborate review of the events in Singur, West Bengal and discusses the process of land acquisition as well as its socio-economic implications.
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* Sociological Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, Email:bholanathghosh@hotmail. com **Department of Economics, North Eastern Hill University

Abstract
Development, Discontent and State: Bodoland Movement in Assam

Dr. Dilip Kumar Kundu*
This paper reflects on the trajectory of postcolonial development in Assam which eventually led to serious ethnic discontent and violent movement for separate Bodoland in the plains tribal dominated areas of the state. The growth oriented approach to development adopted by the post-colonial state could not ensure human development for the disadvantaged and marginalized sections of people, specially the plains tribals of Assam. In societies which were under colonial rule for a long period of time some ethnic communities are historically backward than others. They have fallen prey to systematic disadvantages as a result of asymmetrical development in the postcolonial period. In the process they lag behind while others move ahead rapidly. The discontent and apprehension of backward ethnic communities for their survival and prospect for development as distinct community even within their historical homeland have found natural outlets of protest in ethnic mobilization and movements for changing the balance of development in their favour. The Bodos, the largest tribal group in Assam, have been agitating for a separate state of their own on the north back of rive Brahmaputra by dividing the existing state of Assam. The ethnic Bodos who share a common homeland with Assamese and other tribes lag behind in various spheres of life. Their discontent and urge for political recognition of their identity have graduated to a mass movement for separate Bodoland. A section of them started militant movement with secessionist agenda that led to unprecedented violence and bloodbath. A tripartite accord was signed with Bodo leaders in February 1993 paving the ground for formation of Bodoland Autonomous Council subsequently reconstituted as Bodoland Territorial Council under the sixth schedule of the constitution. This paper focuses on Bodo movement for separate homeland in Assam and the response of the state to satisfy the ethnic and developmental aspirations of mobilized communities suffering from a sense of neglect, deprivation and underdevelopment.
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* Department of Political Science, University of Kalyani. Email; dilipkundu@ymail.com

Abstract
Interrogating the Socio-Political Movements in North-Eastern States and Northern-part of West Bengal: Interpreting Inadequacies of Economics
Anjan Chakrabarti*
If being a proud Indian national, if being a person once rooted in West Bengal, if being a person proudly carrying the Bengali chauvinism, overtly or covertly, then how would he or she peep in his or her daily life being spent, willingly or unwillingly in any one of the NorthEastern states or in Darjeeling hills? Will he or she move away from the grand narratives of modernity and 'Indian Nation State', in spite of the fact that the concept of 'nation' is a western notion and an important attribute of 'modernity' and will he or she start to disbelief the concept 'pluralistic society'? It is known to us that the hegemonic British notion argues for that during British rule political unity of India was made possible, if otherwise, the Indian nation was a 'myth, a geographical abstraction, consisting of irreconcilable fragments of caste, communities, religions, languages and regions'. Contrary to this idea, the nationalist school of thought reiterated that the definition of India as a nation of 'unity in diversity' was emerged during the struggle for freedom. It was further added that the concept of Rashtra or Desh (Nation-Country) was an integral part of the cultural and Indian political heritage. Unfortunately, however, we made a very messy inheritance in 1947 with partition, communal riots, and a few self governing territories in parts of North-East India and group of princely states with their apprehensions and unwillingness to join in Indian Union. Further, in the process of nation building, linguistic reorganization of India took place and also shook the idea of so called 'nation-state' and 'pluralism' or 'pluralistic society'. 'India' as an identity and as a nation has been contested every now and then and possibly it will continue to be so. Demands for separate states or various kinds of territorial/regional autonomy based on identity, ethnicity, and cultural specificity have been on the rise and in most of the cases those movements tend to be violent. What is more concerning, some of the states of North-east region even want to secede from India. Demand for 'positive discrimination' keeps on mounting. The northern part of North Bengal may have been a point of reference. Referring the historical facts and figures (which may not be always correct), the movements based on identity and ethnicity, demand for separate states like Grokhaland, Kamtapur, greater Cooch Behar, movements for sixth schedule status for the adivasis of terai and dooars regions have assumed national importance. The response of the state, in most of the cases, is fraught with ambiguity and
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Abstract
takes recourse to the concept of 'economic backwardness' to give a plausible answer to these movements. In this paper, attempts have been made to show that economics as a discipline has no theoretical framework (Marx to market) to address the problem of ethnicity, identity, language or cultural based movements. 'Economic backwardness' or achieving high economic growth hardly justifies these movements because economic affluence may accentuate identity or ethnicity based movements. The presence or absence of market may have an implicit or explicit role either to fuel or to abate these types of movements, which requires a through probe. This is what has been attempted in this exercise. Finally, occasional use of coercive forces, doling out of funds, and providing autonomy without accountability are the ad-hoc measures often used by the state to settle the unsettled culturo-social and politico-economic issues rooted in the Indian soil based on the notion of the abortive post-colonial Indian nationhood. This paper intends to reaffirm that without settling the aforementioned unsettled issues, the Indian state, till date, has been following the policy of adhocism thereby creating the breeding ground for revolution of rising expectation which would ultimately lead to an ever non-ending process of conflict resolution. Resultantly, the grand Indian nation state would certainly suffer from hyperparanoia and a dreamer for 'pluralistic society' will continue to be interrogated in his or her daily life amidst the quagmire of movements based on identity and ethnicity.
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* Assistant Professor of Economics, St. Joseph's College (University Section), e-mail: anjaneco@gmail.com

Abstract
LARR Bill 2011: Development, Displacement and Deprivation

Sonam Sherpa*
Face of development is witnessed with the fast economic growth in the last two decades which has increased demand for land from many sources, such as infrastructure, industry, resource extraction and urbanization, including real estate. Displacement on the other hand, is another side of the same coin in the present understanding of development. Most decision makers see development as economic growth and infrastructure building. They assume that physical improvement help the country as a whole to compete with the developed nations but do not ask questions like whose development at whose cost? Do the benefits of the infrastructure and of economic growth reach the common masses? Do those who pay its price get its benefits? One has to deal with these issues because studies as well as field experience point to the impoverishment and marginalization of persons whom project is built in the name of national development displacement or deprive of sustenance without physical relocation. In fact the present R&R policy which is totally money-centered approach has unable to give justice to the victims of so called 'national development'. So far the practice in most of the government has been to coerce people to give up their lands by using legal powers of eminent domain, and in some cases even through the use of force. Thus the model followed has been, 'Let some people lose out so that others may gain'. Unfortunately the losers tend to be the poorest with little skills, often tribal who are unable to negotiate with the market forces and cope with the consequences of their forced expulsion from land, and end up with much worse off than before. The present paper unravels the complex relationship between the development and displacement in the light of present LARR bill 2011.
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Salesian College Sonada, Email: Sherpa_eco@yahoo.co.in
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Abstract
Poor Economy to Political Society: Changing Imaginary of Postcolonial Political in India

Dhritiman Chakraborty*
The massive development plans that the union govt. took up following the liberalization in 90s of the last century to boost the sagging economy did pay up dividends, at least in the first st decade of the 21 century, in the form of tremendous spurt in GDP, in sprawling the domestic market and the restoration of faith in the economic viability of the nation. This almost ascending narrative of a resurgent Indian Shining story would have permanently sealed any antagonizing voice had the incident of Narmoda Bachao Andolan (NBA) not surfaced and this otherwise perfectly coming of age narrative not blotched up with such concerns for appalling humanitarian loss of this so called inclusive paradigm of developmentalism. The Story since then has been increasingly resisted. This present paper would reflect on the frontier that has emerged out of it, the confrontation between the Statist force hell-bent in implementing policies of neo-liberalism and the deprived lot that resisted such approach. There is no gainsaying that this resistant voice in post-Nandigram, post-Singur scenario has impelled the State to listen to their grievances. There is another story of dissidence and success which has resurfaced again and again from Kudankulam to Singhbhum in Orissa to Nandigram in West Bengal. This paper is an attempt to consolidate this emergent imaginary of political in the Indian context with a special focus on the anti-FDI in mining agitations in Orissa. Question is: what is the future of these agitations that are celebrated as the 'World of the Third', or the 'Politics of the Bare Self' or, very oppositely, denounced as 'chaotic democracy' and disruptive forces. Are these politics decisive in widening the space for negotiation and communicative reasoning by allowing the marginal a stake in the whole idea of 'development'? Or, as Kalyan Sanyal in Rethinking Postcolonial Development indicates, the Sate is inscribing a new calculus for an unhindered passage of neo-capital through such protests. This calculus is gradually hegemonised with ideological apparatuses to render the 'growth story' as the only legitimate choice. Therefore the argument is modulated and readjusted by this hegemonic strand that the withdrawal of any multinational company (say in the case of Tata plant in Singur or the recent Mittal project in Orissa) inversely impacted in necessitating the need for such developmental agenda in the absence of any alternative economic strategy. This paper on the whole will take stock of this changing role of the State and the gradual consolidation of that political imaginary as a reaction to that change. A special case study of the anti-POSCO mobilization would inform this study.
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* Scholar, CSSSC, Kolkata. Email; dhrtmn87@gmail.com

Abstract
Land Reforms in West Bengal: A Case Study of Siliguri Subdivision

Udai Kumar Shaw *
The agrarian structure varies greatly across India, and the progress of land reforms has also been uneven across the states. On the whole, however, it can be said that the agrarian structure, although it has changed substantially from colonial times to the present, remains highly unequal. This structure puts constraints on agricultural productivity. Land reforms are necessary not only to boost agricultural growth but also to eradicate poverty in rural areas and bring about social justice. Due to its immense scale and importance the land reforms are an interesting area of research. In the present context I will try to understand the impact of land reforms in the state of West Bengal. The land reforms have differential impact on the rural society. The impact of land reforms bears significant differences in the various sub-regions within West Bengal. In the northern West Bengal the refugee population is more benefited by the land reforms than that of the indigenous population. The government of West Bengal distributed the vested land mainly among the east Bengal refugees. Thus, the indigenous communities of northern Bengal like Rajabansis, Meches and Adivasis experienced landlessness in increasing degree. Interestingly in the region, both the jotedar and the bargadar belonged to the same community like Rajabansi or Mech. The surplus land of the indigenous communities were acquired by the government under the prevailing ceiling laws and distributed among the east Bengal refugees. The Marxist government of West Bengal branded the Rajbansi jotedars and other landed magnates as the class enemies. Thus while the landlords of the indigenous communities experienced land alienation; the landless people of the indigenous communities do not get benefited either. This experience of land alienation fuelled the separatist tendencies in the region. It is to be noted that the indigenous communities of the region, who experienced land alienation belonged to the Schedule Caste and Schedule Tribe communities.
* Department of History, Salesian College, Sonada. Email: udaishawkr@gmail.com
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Abstract
The Limitation of Land Reforms and Understanding the Historical Roots of Poverty in South Asia: A Case of the Study of the Working of Operation Barga in North Bengal
Durga Ku Sahu * The nationalist historians have tirelessly advocated the point that the prevalence of British
colonial rule for almost two centuries is primarily responsible for the problem of mass poverty in India. On the other hand the neo-liberal historians or the apologists of imperialism accused the internal structure of Indian society and economy as main contributory force behind the incidence of mass poverty in India; and thus even after sixty years of independence the pace of poverty eradication is miserably slow. However both of these theories led to an unhistorical explanation of the perpetuation of poverty. The significance of studying poverty as a process is however increasingly realized in the recent years. In fact, poverty, in South Asia, is a consequence of structural underdevelopment which is type of a development characterized by extreme sectoral imbalance and an incapacity of the economy to gear its resources to the development of domestic market and the economic needs of the indigenous population. These structural weaknesses emerged as a result of the interaction between the indigenous socio-economic structure and British imperialism. The post-colonial Indian state achieved only a, limited success in eradicating the structural weaknesses. Certainly, the independent Indian state has to be criticized on grounds of social inequality and failure to affect in a meaningful manner the lives and standard of living of the bottom 40 to 50 per cent of the Indian people. The purpose of my seminar paper is to analyse the working of the Operation Barga in West Bengal with a special emphasis on North Bengal. In this enterprise I would show that the Operation Barga (operation sharecropper) suffered from some structural weaknesses which gradually made the land reform exercise weaker. Operation Barga was aimed at reducing the inequalities in the access to land resources. But, it is pertinent to ask that whether the colonial rule or the Indian social and economic structure is responsible for this economic inequality in the Bengali countryside. Ruling over a country did not necessarily mean the uprooting of its long-standing practices. Rather, the successful assimilation of a country's customs and traditions represented a comprehensive act of appropriation. Thus, both the colonial rule and Indian socio-economic structure was responsible for the rural inequality. The gaining of independence only abolished foreign rule, but the peculiar pattern of agrarian relations makes it difficult to legislate and execute fundamental and revolutionary land reforms. * Department of History, Salesian College, Sonada, Email; durgakusahu@gmail.com
38

Abstract
Technological Intervention for Profit Maximization in Vegetable Cultivation-An Emerging Need for Rural Upliftment
Dr. Ranjit Chatterjee* Dr. Prabhat Kr. Pal**
Vegetable cultivation is a profitable venture compared to rice/wheat cultivation in terms of biomass production, economic return and labour engagement. However there exists a common notion in rural areas that vegetable cultivation and agriculture in general is a non profitable business. Farming communities are gradually shifting towards non agricultural occupation. Only the aged farmers and women are engaged in crop cultivation for their livelihood. Failure in adopting the changes in agricultural practices with passage of time is one of the prime reasons for non profitability of agriculture and vegetable cultivation in particular. Crop diversification, cultivation of off season vegetables, use of portray for quality seedling production, cultivation of vegetables in shadenet/polyhouse, on farm recycling of organic wastes for steady nutrient supply, techniques for better nutrient management, use of bioresources to minimize chemical hazards, adoption of improved post harvest practices to reduce crop loss after harvest and innovation marketing are the few developments that can immensely change the present scenario of vegetable cultivation. In the present work we have demonstrated some newly developed technologies in vegetable sectors that will bring profitability, prosperity and economic development in rural household.
* Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar. Email: ranchat22@rediffmail.com ** Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari
39

Abstract
Value Addition in Spices- A Profitable Business for Upliftment of Rural Livelihood in Terai Tract of West Bengal
Partha Choudhuri*
India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices in the world. North Bengal, specially terai tract of west Bengal is a potential area for growing number of spices like chilli, turmeric, ginger, garlic and black pepper. Poor or lack of management practices has made the farmers reluctant to carry on their age old cultivation practice. But as these spices need some sort of processing or value addition, selling of these spices in raw or under processed form fetches very minimum return to the rural farmers. Buyers are interested to procure the processed products of these daily needed spices in attractive packet or pouch marketed by different companies. However home scale processing and selling of value added products like turmeric powder, ginger paste, ginger preserve, black pepper powder, drying and polishing of berries, garlic paste ,etc. will help the rural spice growers in bringing a lucrative return. Formations of self help group or farmers club will be a right choice for easy selling and marketing of these horticultural commodities and which will in turn change the present scenario of spice cultivation.
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* Lecturer in Senior Scale, Department of Vegetable and Spice Crops, Faculty of Horticulture. Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, email: partha2909@rediffmail.com

Abstract
Burmese Grape (Baccaurea sapida Muell. Arg.) - An Underutilized Fruit Crop of North Bengal
Nilesh Bhowmick*
Minor fruit crops may play a vital role for creating diversity in our daily fruit consumption habit. Burmese grape (Baccaurea sapida), locally known as 'Latka', or 'Latkan' or 'Lotko' or 'Notko' is grown as homestead condition of northern districts of West Bengal, mainly in Cooch Behar, Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling districts. It is a mild acidic fruit and mainly used as fresh fruit consumption. The ripe fruit is profusely used by the local people for ritual purpose during the Holy Chariot Procession of Lord Jagannath. Apart from these, attempt has been made for preparation of value added products like juice and jelly. It is a slow growing, dioecious, short to medium height, evergreen, shade loving plant. It flowers in this locality during the summer months and fruits are mature and available in the rainy season. Bearing habit of Burmese grape is adventitious or cauliflory in nature. The fruit are oval to round in shape and turns yellow or yellowish brown in ripen condition. The type of fruit is berry and edible portion is aril which is covered by leathery rind. It fetches an average market price of Rs. 40-45/kg in local market. As the crop prefer to some extent shade or semi shade condition so the plants may be grown successfully under backyard homestead condition. Growing of Burmese grape plant as backyard plantation may provide some additional income from homestead condition of the farming family in this region. However, dioecious nature, mild biennial cropping pattern, acidity of fruits and unavailability of improved types/cultivars are the major drawbacks for its popularization and cultivation.
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* Assistant Professor, Dept. of Pomology & Post Harvest Technology, Faculty of Horticulture, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Email: nileshbhowmick@gmail.com

Abstract
A Socio-Economic Analysis of Labour Migration from Bankura during 1881-1910

Ranjan Kr Mandal*
This paper is dealing with the labour migration from Bankura, a part of south-western Bengal, to the other parts of Bengal and Assam during 1881-1910. The regional context of labour history has been discussed in the works of many social scientists in different times. Those studies are mainly based on aspects of labour movement and organizations. The questions of the nature and the extent of labour history and associated explanations arise from the in depth studies of those literature. This paper is based on available primary and secondary sources to explore how the labours intended to migrate into two prominent locations of Bengal with different economic characters from Bankura. A similar trend of migration of labours to the Tea Gardens of Assam from Bankura has been discussed in detail also in this paper. The significance of this study is exploring the force behind the migrations and its varying spatial distribution. The results of this outward migration flow have been discussed in detail in this study with the courses of labourers exploitation, deprivation and discontent in the light of historical perspectives. This study dealt with the micro-regional issue of Bankura, which is a new effort in the historical macro regional context of the similar studies. The findings of the study identified the major causes behind such migration, those are, higher wage rate in new areas, unemployment in the labourers hearth, frequent occurrence of drought and famine, social and economic exploitations of the labours as well as sexual harassment to the women labours by local money lenders, misguidance, illiteracy etc.
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* Assistant Professor of History, Michael Madhusudan Memorial College, Durgapur. Email; ranjanmondal@gmail.com

Abstract
Status of Primary Education in Major States in India

Dr.Madhusudan JV* Kh. Jitenkumar Singh** Jeetendra Yadav***
Achieving universal primary education by certain target time period is one of the goals for human development in education. The study of trends in schooling using the education data from a large scale household survey gives scenario of schooling in India and also will be instructive in highlighting the challenges in achieving the set targets. Keeping this in mind, the paper aims to estimate the trends in primary school attendance and enrollment and to estimate the gender differences in primary school attendance, to estimate the trends in drop out rates and to study the 'determents of school attendance' among the major states in India. The education data from three rounds of National Family Health Survey pertaining to years 1992-93, 1998-2000 and 2005-2006 is used. Variables considered are 'dropout ratios', 'gross enrollment ratios', 'net enrollment ratios'. Individual factors considered are age, sex, religion, caste and place of residence. Household factors are standard of living index, availability of electricity, type of house, sex of the household head. The analysis uses the cross tabulation and logistic regression to estimate the effect of predictor variables on educational attainment. The results indicate a distinct variation in school attendance across all the sample states. Situation of schooling has seen positive trend between NFHS I and NFHS II, however a declining trend is observed between NFHS II and NFHS III. Similar trend is observed with regards to gender differentials in schooling. In case of dropout rates a declining trend is observed between NFHS I and NFHS II, however an increasing trend is observed between NFHS II and NFHS III. According to the NFHS III, age and sex of the children, caste and religion, SLI, availability of electricity at household, and type of household remain as important determinants of schooling.
*Assistant Professor, Department of Education, North-East Hill University, Tura Campus, E-mail: madhusudanjv@yahoo.co.in ** Scientist-B, NIMS, ICMR, New Delhi *** Research Assistant, NIMS ICMR, New Delhi
43

Abstract
Urban Dynamics and Public Toilets In Darjeeling Town

Dr. Anup Shekhar Chakraborty*
The paper examines 'Public toilets' in the Municipal vicinity of Darjeeling town. As an architectural form, 'public toilets' speak to modern concerns about hygiene, comfort, decency, privacy and modesty. As technologies of concealment toilets make waste disappear and they provide a literal and moral escape from the unacceptable. First the paper attempts to look into the dynamics of the historical process of the making of the township as an urban space. The growth and development of the Darjeeling Municipality post 1850s has witnessed a strange waste disposal system which is in real merely 'waste relocation' rather than disposal in the proper sense of the term. Second the paper in general accentuates civic amenities such as 'public toilets' in Darjeeling town and the associated problems and challenges of maintenance and management. Third, the paper attempts to unravel the challenges and realities of public toilets vis-a-vis the pressures a steady flow of sizeable tourist/ mobile population. 'Public toilets' in Darjeeling town are marked by the absence or the lack of cleanliness and as such are agreeably defined as 'dirty spaces', filled with the risk of contamination. Beyond the depiction of 'public toilets' as 'dirty spaces', they are spaces and structures that 'exclude' in degrees between and among men and women of varying age groups in terms of accessibility, design etc. Equipped with a mixed methodology the study attempts to overcome limitations of official records by combining data collected by way of intensive interviews with relevant members and thereby unravel the urban dynamics in Darjeeling.
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* Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, St. Joseph's College, Darjeeling. Email; anup_105@rediffmail.com

Abstract
Health Provisions in Jungle Mahal: A Saga of Deprivation From Colonial to Post Colonial Era
Sanjoy Mukherjee*
Development, deprivation and discontent are essentially intertwined. The pattern of Indian development is infused with myriad types of divisions and discrimination such as interstate, inter-region socio-economic-cultural-politico-religious distinctions. We have awful history of deprivation and deception of development. Coupled with this, the role of power politics is very vital. The state power with its administrative dexterity has been playing an important role in the developmental process. There is an aggressive elite culture which wants to suppress the so called subaltern people. It is a form of hegemony politics. Junglemahal, literally a forest stretch, first appeared in 1805 as a district on British administrative parlance covering many present day western districts of West Bengal. With the craving of Manbhum district the status of Junglemahal was changed in 1833; the move was motivated by the British imperialistic interest of suppressing the Bhumij revolt. Presently and broadly Junglemahal spreads over West Bengal, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Chhatisgarh etc. And this chain area has been facing severe threat from militant activists posing a serious challenge to the stability, peace and security of the country. The Junglemahal area is mostly inhabited by tribal or subaltern people with other group of communities who have hardly been served or favoured with proper and adequate socio-economic attention and amenities; they do not truly float on the mainstream of national life. They are continuously demanding for their basic needs like food, clothes and shelters along with health right from the colonial period. From the perspective of health those submerged people have been left to the lurch. Is the deprivation a legacy of British rule? What is the real health scenario in Junglemahal at present? Does the deprivation in the health texture meted out during colonial rule still persist? If so, is this deprivation is one of the roots of violence and separatist movements in that region? Are the people of that area in a position to demand and secure health provisions as their right? This paper attempts an analytical comparative study of the role of the then colonial government and present central and state governments regarding extension and securing health provisions for this region. This paper explores the causes behind the discontent of the distraught people of Junglemahal especially in the field of health and offers an account of development deficits of health both during colonial and post colonial rule. It's a historical and to some extent a political discourse. Deprivation in the field of health together with other form of exploitation and abjectness tend to have fomented and fostered discontent including sociopolitical movements. It seems that the unrest of the people of Junglemahal is caused by the deficits of development both in colonial and post colonial era, in which health has been one important issue.
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* Selection Grade Lecturer in History, Saldiha College, Bankura. Email; Sanjoy_m@yahoo.com,

Abstract
Health Sector Reforms: Concepts, Market based Reforms and Inequality in India
Dr.Sidhartha Sankar Laha*
Reform means positive change. But health sector reform implies more than just any improvement in health or health care. Health sector reform is defined as sustained, purposeful change to improve the efficiency, equity and effectiveness of the health sector. Any change is not reform. Changes that affect at least two of the elements namely; health financing, expenditure, organization regulation and consumer behaviour justify to be called as health sector reforms. In this paper an attempt has been made to analyse the impact of economic reforms on public health expenditure of centre and states combined, all states and each of 15 major states. Health sector reforms in India were a direct outcome of the economic reforms post 1991. The relationship between health and development is mutually reinforcing- while health contributes to economic development, economic development, in turn, tends to improve the health status of the population in a country. India as a nation has been growing economically at a rapid pace particularly after the advent of New Economic Policy of 1991. However, this rapid economic development has not been accompanied by social development particularly health sector development. Health sector has been accorded very low priority in terms of allocation of resources. Public expenditure on health is less than 1 per cent of GDP in India. For the purpose public health expenditure is measured in per capita terms, as a share of total expenditure, as a hare of GDP/NSDP. Thirty years of times period from 1976-77 to 2005-2006 have been selected and that has been divided in two parts-15 years of pre reform period( 1976-77 to 1990-91 ) and 15 years of post reform period(from 1991-92 to 2005-2005). We have considered health expenditure as expenditure on a) Medical and public health, Water supply and Sanitation and b) Family welfare. This paper focuses on the current status of the Indian healthcare industry, the challenges faced plus the comparison of few selected Indian states based on health indicators. The paper finds that economic reforms did affect negatively on public health expenditure of centre and states combined, and all states. While in case of central government it affected positively. In case of major 15 states- public health expenditure as a share of total expenditure and a share of NSDP has decreased, while in growth rates of per capita public health expenditure seven out of fifteen states show an increase during the reform period. The paper suggests that huge investment is necessary for the development of the Indian healthcare industry.
46
* Assistant Professor of Economics, Tufanganj Mahavidyalaya. Email: sidharthasankar09@gmail.com

Abstract
Education and Social Development in Colonial Bankura: A History of Deprivation Vis--vis Discontent
Abirlal Banerjee *
Social development means qualitative changes in the structure and framework of a society that helps the society to better realize its aims and objectives. Development can be broadly defined in a manner applicable to all societies' in all historical periods as an upward ascending movement featuring greater levels of energy, efficiency, quality, productivity, complexity, comprehension, creativity, mastery, enjoyment and accomplishment. Development is a process of social change, and the basic mechanism driving social change is increasing awareness leading to a better life. One of the most powerful means of propagating and sustaining new developments in a society is the advancement in the educational structure. Education transmits society's collective knowledge from one generation to the next. It equips each new generation to face future opportunities. The present paper intends to investigate the problems in the process of social development in colonial Bankura, especially, problems and crisis in the field of education, which created a sense of social deprivation and discontentment. Bankura, a peripheral region in the South- West frontier Bengal, is surrounded by thick forest in the Western and Southern portion of the District and is inhabited by a good number of aboriginal tribes along with other cast people. During the Colonial rule, Bankura was repeatedly highlighted for its socio-economic backwardness, frequent famines, and epidemics. Socio-economic developmental projects for the District had failed to achieve success in the face of Colonial indifference. Education, which is one of the most important components for social development, faced various problems such as acute financial crisis, infrastructural debility, gender discrimination and feeble educational condition of tribal people. On the one hand all these socio-economic hindrances under the colonial sway gave birth to some alternative endeavour of development of the native society, and on the other, build up a feeling of deprivation and discontentment against such underdevelopment. Within this history of deprivation, one can trace the origin of socio-political grievances and the slow growth rate of economic progress in the entire South-West frontier of the present day Bengal.
* Asst. Professor of History, Barjora College, Bankura. Email; abirlal.ban@gmail.com
47

Abstract
Medicinal Plants, Rural Health and Development

Dr. R. P. Mukhopadhyay*
Since the time immemorial, plants with medicinal properties, have been used by man as a cheap, reliable, valuable and safe natural source of medicine. In Rigveda(5000 B C) ,Yajurveda and Atharbaveda(4500-2500 BC) 67, 90 and 290 plants respectively have been mentioned. In Charak Samhita and Susrut Samhita medicinal properties and uses of1100 and 1200 plants respectively have been well documented. Indian Meteria Medica has given an account of 3500 medicinal plants. Through observation, experimentation and application it has been established that herbal remedies are not only cost effective but also free from any serious side effects. An assessment indicated that 70%-80% of the people worldwide rely chiefly on herbal medicines. Village elders, farmers and tribals have deep knowledge about the use of the medicinal plants for curing various diseases. To them the plant world is the nature-gifted 'dispsensary'. In our country there are about 15% of the 20,000 medicinal plants living worldwide. Research activities are going on in many parts of the country to find out compounds from plants of medicinal value so that the rural people can use them at affordable cost. Considering the above mentioned facts, studies were carried out to assess the dependence of the people of Tufanganj Subdivision on herbal medicine. It was observed that though there was abundance of various medicines to them, people preferred to use herbal medicines to cure cold, fever, respiratory problems, bronchitis, hypertension, loss of memory, female diseases, dysentery and disorder in digestive system, worm, jaundice, management of hyperglycemia, ophthalmic problems, skin diseases etc. People also reported that the medicinal plants were not easily available in comparison to 20-30 years back. This may be due to their indiscriminate use and illegal trade.So, sufficient attention of the appropriate authority should be paid for proper preservation, cultivation and supply of the medicinal plants or their products to the rural people to reduce their expenses as well as for improving their health. The healthy rural mass only can be the true workforce and participate in the development by way of their wholehearted involvement in respective areas.
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* Department of Botany, Tufanganj Mahavidyalaya. Email; rpm84@rediffmail.com

Abstract
An Enquiry into the Public Expenditure on health with reference to NRHM- A Study In Coochbehar
Dr Chanchal Kumar Mandal*
It is widely acknowledged that health is wealth and a pre-requisite along with food, shelter. In the context of human development it is one of the important components that increases the capability of a person. Empowerment of people comes through this capability. It is the responsibility of the state to provide access to health all along with education. In our country public expenditure on health is abysmally low than what is required since independence. It can be evidenced that India ranked 119 on the human development index in health achievement according to human development report (2010).The Bhore committee's report stated that per capita private expenditure on health is Rs 2.50 compared to state per capita Rs.36.The main source of financing healthcare is out of pocket expenditure. Undoubtedly Indian health care system is privatised. The situation was set to improve when Govt of India launched National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) in 2005, with an objective of spending expenditure on health to 3 percent of GDP and realizing goal of healthcare to all. NRHM seeks to provide basic healthcare to rural people covering women, underserved. Financial assistance in the form of tied and untied fund is flowing to the primary health centres. untied fund is meant for improvement in health care infrastructure whereas tied fund is for specific programme. Janani suraksha Yojana ( JSY) is a specific and the financial incentive programme under this scheme. Under this backdrops the study aims at examining the expenditure pattern of the untied fund allocated for and the tied fund reaching to the beneficiaries. For the said purpose coochbehar-1 block has been taken. Data from primary survey in addition to secondary sources has been analysed. The study reveals that the spending of entire untied fund for infrastructure development is an impossible task due to flaw within this scheme. Less than 60 percent fund could have been utilized. Success is observed to some extent regarding the spending for JSY. In the light of the deficiencies few suggestions have been submitted.
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*Associate Professor of Commerce, University B.T Evening College, Cooch Behar. Email; mandal.chanchal@rediffmail.com

Abstract
Rural (Unqualified) Medical Practitioners (RMPs) of Western Dooars : Role, Referral and Recognition
Subhasis Bhattacharya*
Healthcare is fundamentally different from usual commodities like food, clothing and shelter. Health goods are not homogeneous in nature, as a result the market clearing situation at some part does not imply that absence of imperfection in others. Performance of the health sector is a very important indicator of human development index of a society. Productivity factor of a society is severely affected by the poor health condition. For development a healthy population with productive workforce is the minimum precondition. Arrow (1963) first identified some features of health seeking behaviour in terms of demand for healthcare. The features are demand for medical care is unsteady, irregular and unpredictable in nature. For efficient functioning of the health system continuous health training for newly recruited doctors, nurses and clerical staff is very much essential. The role of unqualified rural medical practitioners (RMPs) in the entire system of healthcare delivery and utilization is the significant objective of this study. They are village doctor practicing modern medicine without any formal training. In this regard the understanding of their referral system and weakness which are the most important causes to improve the health status of the people, especially the poor, by reducing mortality, morbidity and disability. This will focus light on the causes of bypassing the local health facilities and congestion in the upper tier hospitals. The study has been conducted in different blocks of Western Dooars. The study based on a survey based interview and common group discussion (CGD) with the RMPs of different blocks of Jalpaiguri district. The focus of the study was on their back ground, background of their patients, knowledge about various diseases and treatment procedures and referral behaviour. The rural health of this region depend upon the RMPs to a great extent and the overwhelming dominance of the RMPs can be observed easily if we observe the human face of this region. Several studies in India observe the role of the RMPs as the main pillar of the health support system and the RMPs are also identified as the torch bearer of the medical support over the decades. Health economist of national forum are observed that it is the time to recognise the work of the RMPs with some formal training. The present study in this light is an attempt to evaluate the role of the RMPs of in a backward region like Western Dooars.
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* Department of Economics, Cooch Behar College. Email; suva69eco@gmail.com

Abstract
Utilization of Untied Fund under National Rural Health Mission- A study in Siliguri Mahakuma Parishad
Mamata Prasad*
Over the years health-centers in a rural setup have been facing the difficulties in managing the aspect of lack of drugs, disinfectants, un-cleanliness, and lack of funds for an emergent referral etc. The situation is further worsened due to damage of old building which need repair. Activities at these centers including organizing small meetings and orientation session require an expenditure of contingent nature which was hardly available. In order to overcome these problems National Rural Health Mission, a flagship programme of Government of India has provisioned to allot untied grant to Community Health Centre (CHC), Primary Health Centre/Block Health Center (PHC/BHC), Sub-Centre (SC) and Village Health and Sanitation Committee (VHSC) for their well functioning. Clear guidelines have been issued to these Centers regarding utilization of the fund. Under this backdrop the study aims to look at the different aspects of utilization of untied fund provided to health centers and Village Health and Sanitation Committee. For the purpose of the study two blocks under Siliguri Mahakuma Parishad have been selected. Health functionaries at different levels have been interviewed. The records relating to the maintenance of fund at the different levels of health center have been studied and analyzed. The study reveals that guidelines for utilization of untied fund are not clear to the personnel concerned though the concept of untied fund is perceived to be a very good one at all levels The decision about expenditure of untied fund of PHC/CHC are taken in the meeting of Rogi Kalyan Samity (RKS) where members from other sectors such as PRI (Panchyati Raj Institution), education, revenue department etc. remains absent.. Most of the Medical Officer In charges (MOICs) are ignorant about availability of untied fund. SHCs (Sub health centers) are able to spend maximum 80 percent of the Untied Fund. The non availability of the other signatory of the joint accounts is a major problems of more than half of ANM. In the light of the deficiencies the author submits some suggestion for its effective fund management
*Assistant Professor in Commerce, University BT and Evening College, Cooch Behar
51

Abstract
Initiatives and Implementation: Social Securities of the Tea Plantation Labourers of Jalpaiguri District
Biplab Chakraborty*
Tea Plantation labourers are those who pushed and pulled from different parts of tribal populated areas of central India to produce tea in Jalpaiguri districts of West Bengal. But that successful industry had always been denied the basic rights of the labourers in the preindependence era. But after sixty seven years of independence the situation has remained as before. Even central and state governments have passed Statutory Acts and Rules to protect the basic rights of the plantation labourers but the implementation is being far from the satisfactory level. Among the statutory benefits, health facility is the pivot one; because workers are working in hazardous condition in the field with a tough target from early morning to evening as well as tea plantations are far from the urban health infrastructure with a very poor communication facility. So without proper health facilities as prescribed in Plantation Labour Act-1951, life of the tea plantation labourers is always in threat. This paper deals with the problem of the social security, especially about the health security of the plantation labourers of Jalpaiguri. The paper would consists of four parts, in the first part we shall try to focus on historical background of tea plantation in Jalpaiguri district, in the second part we explore the statutory provisions and it's implementations to protect plantation labourers in the pre-independence era, in the third we shall probe the government initiatives to protect plantation labourers in the post- independence era with the help of large number of literatures, and finally we shall try to focus on availability of health facilities in the tea plantations and it's utilization with the help of few literatures and field observations.
52
* Decentralized Planning Facilitation Coordinator, Dakshin Dinajpur Zilla Parishad, Email: biplabeco@gmail.com

Abstract
Gender Discrimination in Education Among the Fishing Community in Puducherry Region

I. Sivakumar* Dr. Usha VT **
* Ph.D. Research Scholar, Centre for Women's Studies, Pondicherry University, Email; isiva05@gmail.com. ** Associate Professor, Centre for Women's Studies, Pondicherry University,
Education forms a high priority as an integral part of country's development progress. Traditional nature of gender has kept women away from formal education. Education at the higher level provides an integrated way of life, wisdom and knowledge. In the early stages, whenever women had access to education, they enjoyed the equality of status as well but then followed a long phase of degeneration and determination with distinct stages of rise and fall in the status of women in India. The education status in Puducherry is high in comparison to the rest of India, next only to Kerala which has the highest literacy rate in India, but the condition of the fishing villages need to be examined and understood. Fishing community does not get proper education, in particular women in the community. Gender discrimination is wide-spread in all the selected areas, mainly due to marginalized caste and poverty. There are also gender-based stereotypes regarding work and activities; as well as gender gap in work load, economic activity, health care, food and nutrition, education which are male dominated and socially hierarchical. The lack of gender awareness and inadequate of education programmes is the main reason for the gender inequality in the fishing community. The region exhibits extreme economic diversity and many countries are constrained by what they can spend on their education system. The availability and accessibility of schools also affect the provision of education for girls. The lack of schools, teachers and teaching materials all contribute to the low enrollment of girls in schools and other educational institutions. The women particularly in fishing villages cannot easily improve their educational status. The lack of qualified female teachers is also a constraint because a direct connection has not been drawn between the presence of female teachers in schools and the enrollment of girls and the social requirement of early marriage takes priority over a girl's education. Prevailing sex-role stereotypes place a lower value on educating girls than boys and in many communities, especially rural and fishing communities little value is placed on the education of girls. Mixed-sex class rooms and male teachers add to the parents distrust. The general pattern, which is co-education at territory levels and from the perspective of Government, singlesex secondary schools cannot be emphasis since there may be chances of the greater burden on education budgets. So, most of the girls are also more likely to drop out of school in fishing community as well as in rural areas. 53

Abstract
The Forgotten People and Their Struggle: the Railway Workers Strike of 1974 and the State
Sanghamitra Choudhury *
Freedom from two hundred years of colonial bondage roused immense hopes, desires and aspiration among all sections of people in India. At the same time it had created a dilemma for the state. At the eve of independence, the incident of partition in August 1947 brought many changes in political economy of the country. The paradox of Indian State and policies is its weak-strong nature and the paradox of Indian economy is its rich-poor quality. Industrialization brought many changes in the economic spheres of the country but could not bring any change or develop in the life of the working class. The irony of the Indian industrial working mass is that though comprised of a large section of country's population, they never able to influence the Indian planners. Indian Railways is the single largest nationalized undertaking with a separate ministry and railway workers are a significant component of the organized working class in India. But the men involved, were failed to obtain any favorable treatment for them. Labor unrest or th struggle or strikes in Indian Railways occurred since second half of the 19 century. The twenty days long strike by the railway men ranging from almost two million in May 1974 must be the most valiant and vibrant of the strikes by the workers. To some labor historians this struggle had challenged the might of the Indian State. The interrelationships amongst the workers, unions and state illustrated the political and industrial scenario of the country during the decade prior to the strike of 1974 and also during the strike days of May 1974. The strike was successful in mobilizing a huge number of labors throughout the country. But the State was adamant from the very beginning and not at all interested in settling the issue through negotiation. The Government had unleashed a heavy repression to crush the movement. This paper will try to identify the reasons of discontentment of the working class in India specially the grievances of railway workers which led them to go for an indefinite general strike. It will try to locate the position of the all shades of trade unions active in the railway front at that time. This study wants to analyze the reactions and attitude of the State. It will try to explain the consequences of the strike and striking people. It will also focus its attention to the people who fought a historic battle in pursuit of justice and what they got ultimately.
* Assistant Professor of Political Science, Tufanganj Mahavidyalaya, Email: sanghamitrachoudhury320@gmail.com
54

Abstract
Dynamics of Developmental Discontent and the Political Demand for Small States in India
Arnab Dasgupta*
The economic growth has both direct and indirect impact on the development which is, broadly speaking, a social phenomenon. The most tangible effect is felt in the political arena. In the Indian perspective, underdevelopment has ever been a potent political force. Developmental politics and political development have treaded the path hand in hand. In a politicized society such as India, the regional developmental matrix has been lopsided and this has resulted in the development of regional discontent. In most of the cases the economics behind such discontent has been overshadowed by the political and emotional aspects. However, whatever may be the reason of such discontent the outward expression has been the demand for separate statehood and autonomy movements. It has been argued that small states would be more compact and efficient in handling one's own business given the reduced sociological variety. However, in most of the cases, the realization of such demands has failed to visualize a balanced combination of economic autonomy and political accountability. The newly formed small states themselves pose a question to the notion of small state development syndrome. Nevertheless, such demands have been unabated given the continuous process of political bickering in India. The character of regional autonomy/separation movements has undergone an important change and the previously centrifugal forces are now seemed to have become spent force. Still, regional autonomy in the form of small and separate statehood has retained its popular charm. This paper will look into the development of such political discontents and the demands for separate and small statehood in the light of the regional developmental imbalance.
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* Assistant Professor in Political Science, Acharya B.N. Seal College, Cooch Behar. Email; dgarnab2009@gmail.com,

Abstract
Direct Attack on Poverty in India.

Anil Bhuimali*
India lacked most of the basic infrastructure when it became independent after a long colonial exploitation.The traditional industries were destroyed and there was no industrialization at all. Per capita income was very poor and also low was the labour productivity as compared to the rest of the world. Poverty was very high, nearly 70 percent and its trading relation with other countries was completely unfavourable.Under such a palpitating conditions of the economy and society India adopted her planning in 1951with the objectives of increasing the per capita income, raising the standard of living of the people and reducing economic dependency to external sources. These objectives were later translated into a development strategy, the aim of which was to build fast the capital capacity of the basic and infrastructure industries through the increase in the growth of domestic savings and investments.India had two strands of received theory and economic thinking on employment- there was the Keynesian framework emphasizing expansion of effective demand, consumption-led investment and multiplier effects on output and employment and there was the conventional neoclassical approach primarily relying upon the flexibility of wage rates and wage levels as a mechanism for clearing the labour market. Both the approaches were not favoured by the mainstream Indian economists and policy planners. The conventional neoclassical approach was found inadequate, as employment generation on the basis of lowering the already miserably low wages, even if possible, was not acceptable. The Keynesian approach was also found inapplicable for the same as well as some other reasons. It assumed the existence of excess capacity in the form of capital equipment and elastic supply of capital for investment in response to an increase in effective consumption demand. These assumptions were not found valid in the case of an underdeveloped economy like India. Besides, the nature of unemployment in India was different from the involuntary unemployment as visualized by Keynes.Unemployment in India, according to Keynes, was mainly of 'disguised' nature, on account of the predominance of the subsistence agricultural sector. The generation of new employment opportunities at an annual rate of 2.6 to 2.8 percent may be possible in the process of a reasonably high and employment-intensive growth. This by itself however, may not take care of the problem of poverty, a large part of which arises from low productivity, low income and low employment rather than from unemployment, as such. The present paper discusses, in short, the poverty-alleviating programmes India adopted during its planning ,,examines the impact of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme which incorporated almost all the anti-poverty programmes undertaken in India in the lights of employment(persondays) creation, food security, gender equity and empowerment, economic uplift of marginalized communities like the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, other backward communities and the minorities,and what is more, it specifically evaluates the overall assessment of the impact of direct cash transfer through MGNREGA on the poor.
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*Professor of Economics,University of North Bengal,e-mail id:anilbhuimali@rediffmail.com

Abstract
Political Dimension of Poverty : an Analysis of the Conflict Situation in Manipur

Ananya Guha Roy*
The roots of poverty can often be traced to unequal power-relations.The possibility for poor people to participate in and influence the decision-making procedure is therefore very important.However,when a specific blend of factors and circumstances coexist massive poverty with human rights violation,a state that is reluctant or unable to discourage violent behaviour,exploitation of ethnic differances,unfair distribution of resources,transition from one kind of governance to another this can create grievances and feelings of injustice that may lead to armed conflict.So,poverty alone is neither a sufficient nor a necessary condition for armed conflict. Armed conflict causes poverty.For this economic growth is negatively affected.Conflicts destroy every type of capital : human, social, natural, physical, financial and organizational. Conflicts give birth to widespread destruction,loss of life,assets and internal displacement. This present paper is aimed at understanding the relationship between political conflict and poverty in the context of Manipur,where a series of conflicts disrupt the normal life of the people there.The causes of conflict range from inter-ethnic clashes to human rights abuses, political instability and militarization.The issues of livelihood,displacement and poverty are less significant,rather the state has more interest in combining the economic package with army-deployment.This study emphasises the need to recognize togetherness of the imperatives of economic well-being,socio-cultural identity and political participation in addressing the issues involved in ethnic conflicts,displacement and poverty.
*Assistant Professor,Dept of Political Science,Saheed Kshudiram College,Kamakhyaguri,Jalpaiguri, E-mail: ananyaguharoy1982@gmail.com
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National Seminar on "Dynamics of Development and Discontent"

27th - 28th September - 2013, Tufanganj Mahavidyalaya, Tufanganj, Coochbehar .

* Department of Economics, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong, Email: utpalkde@gmail.com

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