K L UNIVERSITY FRESHMAN ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Social Issues, Human Population and the Environment:

Achievement of Sustainable development Sustainable development: "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". - The World Commission on Environment and Development, Brundtland Commission 1987. Sustainable development requires economic development, environmental development, and human development that must meet the needs of the present without compromising sustenance of the future. The primary objective of the Sustainable Development is to reduce the absolute poverty of the world's poor through providing lasting and secure livelihoods that minimize resource depletion, environmental degradation, cultural disruption and social instability. UN Conference on Environment and development (UNCED) Earth Summit 1992 at Rio de Jeneiro, Brazil. 5 significant agreements in Agenda -21 about all global problems. Key aspects of the Sustainable development: a. Inter generation equality: Stopping over-exploitation of resources, reduce waste discharge and emissions and maintain ecological balance b. Intra generation equality: Minimizing wealth gaps within and between nations. Our technology will be useful for producing drought tolerant varieties for uncertain climate and new vaccines for infectious diseases, clean fuel for domestic and industrial use. Measures for Sustainable development: Using appropriate technology: (Concept is known as Design with nature) Locally adaptable Eco-friendly Resource efficient Culturally suitable Involves Local resources Local labour Indigenous technology Cost effective and sustainable Reduce, Reuse and Recycle approach Prompting environmental education and awareness Resource utilization as per carrying capacity Indian context of Sustainable development: Framing well planned strategy for our developmental activity while increasing our economic growth. Established National council of environmental planning and coordination (NCCP) 1972, Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)- 1985

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URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY No lighting and ventilation in houses and industries Transportation means from residence to workplace Usage of large no of electrical gadgets Large amount of waste generation For control and prevention of air and water pollutants require more energy Less no of buses for over crowded population No proper drainage system Tree cutting for road widening More traffic and pollution from industries and vehicles Individual vehiclesmore no of cars for status More economic standards hence dont care about Conservation of water Electricity Petroleum Products

Water conservation rain water harvesting watershed management. Water Consumption in India Average water consumption around the world is about 53 liters per head per day. In India, we expect to soon have only about 20 liters available per head per day. We have had droughts for a long time, and now with global climate change, things will become even more difficult. The glaciers are receding from the Himalayan Mountains. They are about one fifth the size they were about 60 years ago. The waters from the Himalayan glaciers provide water for about 70 percent of all the people in Asia. In India, we have three major rivers - the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra and it is likely that they will drain to small rivers. In most of northern India, there will be no water according to some leading water experts. Right now there are floods. The flood area has increased from 25 million hectares to 60 million hectares in the last 30 years. That is an indication that the water is draining away, and these will become dry areas. This is expected to happen in less than 30 years. India needs to invest in water infrastructure at all levels from large multipurpose water projects to small community watershed management and rainwater harvesting projects Water Issues in India According to the recent report on Water in India from India-Report, http://www.indiareports.com/summary/water.aspx ,the various issues related to Water Management in India are given below: * River Pollution: All of Indias fourteen major river systems are heavily polluted, mostly from the 50 million cubic metres of untreated sewage discharged into them each year * Water Conflicts: Severe water shortages have already led to a growing number of conflicts across the country. Nearly 90% of Indias territory is drained by inter -state rivers. The lack of clear allocation rules and uncertainty about water sharing has led to major disputes between states. * Ground Water Pollution: The primary reasons are industrial pollution and extensive farming leading to agrochemical pollution of the groundwater. In case of industries, it is due

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to lack of treatment of effluents that are pumped into rivers and streams leading to groundwater pollution. * Poor management, crumbling infrastructure and depleting resources: By 2020, Indias demand for water will exceed all sources of supply. Indias past investments in large water infrastructure have yielded spectacular results with enormous gains in food security and in the reduction of poverty. However, much of this infrastructure is now crumbling. Faced with poor water supply services, farmers and urban dwellers alike have resorted to helping themselves by pumping out groundwater through tube wells. Today, 70% of Indias irrigation needs and 80% of its domestic water supplies come from groundwater. A number of areas are already in crisis situations: among these are the most populated and economically productive parts of the country. * Corruption: About one in 10 households paid bribes to regularize their water connection * Inadequate storage capacity: Developed, arid countries (United States, Australia) have built over 5000 cubic metres of water storage per capita. Middle-income countries like South Africa, Mexico, Morocco and China can store about 1000 cubic metres per capita. Indias dams can store only 200 cubic metres per person. India can store only about 30 days of rainfall, compared to 900 days in major river basins in arid areas of developed countries. * Aquifer Depletion: Already about 15% of Indias food is being produced using non renewable, mined, groundwater. There is clearly an urgent need for action. First, India needs a lot more water infrastructure. Compared to other semi-arid countries, India can store relatively small quantities of its fickle rainfall. New infrastructure needs to be built, from large multipurpose water projects to small community watershed management and rainwater harvesting projects. Water conservation Water conservation refers to reducing the usage of water and recycling of waste water for different purposes like cleaning , manufacturing , agriculture etc 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Decreasing run-off losses Reducing evaporation losses Storing water in soil Reducing irrigation losses Re-use of water Prevention of wastage of water Pricing to the water Conservation of Water resources in our daily life. a. Use only as much water as you require. Close the taps well after use. While brushing or other use, do not leave the tap running, open it only when you require it. See that there are no leaking taps. b. Use a washing machine that does not consume too much water. Do not leave the taps running while washing dishes and clothes. c. Install small shower heads to reduce the flow of the water. Water in which the vegetables & fruits have been washed - use to water the flowers & plants. d. At the end of the day if you have water left in your water bottle do not throw it away, pour it over some plants.

Rain Water Harvesting The process of collecting, conveying & storing water from rainfall in an area for beneficial use. a.Storage of rain water on surface for future use b.Recharge to ground water

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Pits Trenches Dug wells Hand pumps Recharge wells Recharge shafts Lateral shafts with bore wells Spreading techniques

Storage in tanks, reservoirs, underground storage Roof Rain Water Harvesting Land based Rain Water Harvesting Watershed based Rain Water harvesting For Urban & Industrial Environment Roof & Land based RWH

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Advantages: 1. An ideal solution to water problems in areas having inadequate water resources 2. The ground water level will rise 3. Mitigates the effects of drought & achieves drought proofings 4. Provides high quality water, soft and low in minerals 5. Reduces the runoff which chokes the storm water drains 6. Flooding of roads and low land areas are reduces 7. Quality of ground water improves 8. In saline or coastal areas & Islands, rain water provides good quality water 9. Soil erosion will be reduced 10. Saving of energy per well for lifting of ground water. (A one meter rise in water level saves about 0.40 KWH of electricity). 11. Provides self-sufficiency to water supply. 12. The rooftop rain water harvesting is less expensive & easy to construct, operate and maintain. 13. In desert, this method is only a good relief. Water Shed management The process of creating and implementing plans, programs, and projects to sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the plant, animal, and human communities within a watershed boundary. A watershed is an area of land from which surface water drains into a single outlet like a stream or a river or a lake. The rain water flows from the ridges, along the slopes, into the nallas and finally collects in the village ponds. This entire area with one common drainage is called a watershed. Water conservation interventions includes contour trenches, gully plugging, vegetative and field bunding, percolation tanks. Positive Impacts 1. Assured availability of water 2. Improved water quality and hygiene 3. More land availability and productivity 4. Increased employment 5. Improved morale 6. Better water management 7. Less disease 8. Better quality of life 9. Better ecological balance Components of Watershed The three main components in watershed management are Land management Water management and Biomass management.

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Land management Land characteristics like terrain, slope, formation, depth, texture, moisture, infiltration rate and soil capability are the major determinants of land management activities in a watershed.

The broad category of land management interventions can be as follows; Structural Measures Vegetative Measures Production Measures Protection Measures Water management Water characteristics like inflows (precipitation, surface water inflow, ground water inflow) water use (evaporation, evapotrasnpiration, irrigation, drinking water) outflows (surface water outflow, ground water out flow) storage (surface storage, ground water storage, root zone storage) are the principal factors to be taken care of in sustainable water management.

The broad interventions for water management are listed below; Rain Water Harvesting Ground Water Recharge Maintenance of Water Balance Preventing Water Pollution Economic use of water Biomass management Major intervention areas for biomass management are indicated below; Eco-preservation Biomass Regeneration Forest Management & Conservation Plant Protection & Social Forestry Increased Productivity of Animals Income & Employment Generation Activities Coordination of Health & Sanitation Benefits: 1.Improve water quality by breaking down, removing, using or retaining nutrients, organic waste and sediment carried to the wetland with runoff from the watershed. 2. Reduce severity of floods downstream by retaining water and releasing it during drier periods. 3. Protect stream banks and shore lines from erosion. 4. Recharge groundwater, potentially reducing water shortages during dry spells. 5.Provide food and other productssuch as commercial fish and shellfishfor human use. 6. Provide fish and wildlifeincluding numerous rare and endangered speciesfood habitat, breeding grounds, and resting areas. 7.Increase opportunities for recreationbird watching, waterfowl hunting, photographyand outdoor education.

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Environmental Impact Assessment

The EIA process in India consists the following phases 1. Project Proposal : Any proponent embarking on any major development project shall notify IAA in writing by the submission of a project proposal in order for it to move to the next stage which is screening. 2. Screening : Screening is done to see whether a project requires environmental clearance as per the statutory notifications. 3. Scoping and consideration of alternatives: Scoping is a process of detailing the terms of reference of EIA. It has to be done by the consultant in consultation with the project proponent and guidance, if need be, from Impact Assessment Agency. Quantifiable impacts are to be assessed on the basis of magnitude, prevalence, frequency and duration and non-quantifiable impacts (such as aesthetic or recreational value), significance is commonly determined through the socio-economic criteria. After the areas, where the project could have significant impact, are identified, the baseline status of these should be monitored and then the likely changes in these on account of the construction and operation of the proposed project should be predicted 4. Base line data collection: The site-specific primary data should be monitored for the identified parameters and supplemented by secondary data if available. 5. Impact prediction and Assessment of Alternatives: For every project, possible alternatives should be identified and environmental attributes compared. Alternatives should cover both project location and process technologies. Alternatives should then be ranked for selection of the best environmental optimum economic benefits to the community at large. Once alternatives have been reviewed, a mitigation plan should be drawn up for the selected option and is supplemented with an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to guide the proponent towards environmental improvements. 6. EIA Report : An EIA report should provide clear information to the decisionmaker on the different environmental scenarios without the project, with the project and with project alternatives. 7. Public hearing : After the completion of EIA report the law requires that the public must be informed and consulted on a proposed development after the completion of EIA report. 8. Decision-making : Decision making process involve consultation between the project proponent (assisted by a consultant) and the impact assessment authority (assisted by an expert group if necessary). The decision on environmental clearance is arrived at through a number of steps including evaluation of EIA and EMP. 9. Monitoring the clearance conditions: Monitoring has to be done during both construction and operation phases of a project. It is done not just to ensure that the commitments made are complied with but also to observe whether the predictions made in the EIA reports are correct or not.

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ACID RAIN
Oxides of sulfur and nitrogen originating from industrial operations and fossil fuel combustions are the major sources of acid forming gases. Acid forming gases are oxidized over several days by which time they travel several thousand kilometers. In the atmosphere these gases are ultimately converted into sulfuric and nitric acids. Hydrogen chloride emission forms hydrochloric acid. These acids cause acidic rain. Acid rain is only one component of acidic deposition. Acidic deposition is the total of wet acidic deposition (acid rain) and dry deposition. Rain water is turned acidic when its pH falls below 5.6.In fact clean or natural rain water has a pH of 5.6 at 200c because of formation of carbonic acid due to dissolution of CO 2 in water. The Adirondack Lakes located in the state of New York are known to receive acid rains. The strong acids like sulphuric acid (H 2SO 4) and nitric acid (HNO 3) dissolved or formed in rain water dissociate or release hydrogen ions near by increasing the acidity in rain drops. Generally sulphuric acid forms a major fraction of acid rain, followed by nitric acid and a very small fraction of other acids. However, in urban areas Calcium (Ca2+), Magnesium (Mg2+) and ammonium (NH 4+) ions help to neutralize the rain drops shifting and overall H+ towards basic scale. The overall pH is due to the net effect of carbonic acid, sulfuric, nitric acid and other acidic constituents or any neutralizers such as ammonia. In the absence of rain, dry deposition of acid may occur. Acid forming gases like oxides of sulphur and nitrogen and acid aerosols get deposited on the surface of water bodies, vegetation, soil and other materials. On moist surfaces or in liquids these acid forming gases can dissolve and form acids similar to that formed in acid rain. If the oxidizers are present on the liquid surfaces then these gases undergo oxidation to form acids. Fine particles or acid droplets can act as nuclei for water to condense to form rain droplets. By such process sulfuric acid is incorporated into the droplets. In the clouds additional SO 2 and NO2 contact the droplets and get absorbed which can be oxidized by the dissolved hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) or other oxidizers. In the droplets falling from the clouds additional acidic gases and aerosol particles get incorporated, further decreasing their Ph. A unit decrease in pH value 10 times increase in acidity. Average pH in rainfall over eastern United States from April 1979 to March 1980 was less than 5.0.In India acid rain is recorded from certain places; Effects of acid rains Acid rain causes no of harmful effects below ph 5.1the effects are visible in the aquatic system even at ph less than 5.5. It causes deterioration of buildingsespicially made of marbles eg.Taj mahal. Crystals of calcium and magnesium sulphate are formed as a result of corrosion caused by acid rains. It dameges the stone statues .princeless stone stuates in greece and italy have been partially disolved by acid rains. It damages the metals and car finishes. Aquatic life especially fish are badly affected by lake acidification.

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 Aquatic animals suffer from toxicity of metals such as aluminium, mercury, manganese, zinc and lead which leaks from the surrounding rocks due to acid rains. It results in reproductivity faliure and killing of fish. Many lakes of sweden,norway,canada have become fish less due to acid rains. It damages foliage and weakens trees. It makes trees more susceptible to stress like cold temperature,drought,etc.Many insect and fungi are mare tolerant to acidic conditions and hence they can attack the susceptible trees and cause diseases. Control of acid rains Emission of SO2 and NO2 from industries and power plants should be reduced by using pollution control pollution control equipments. Limiting of lakes and soil should be done to correct the adverse effects of acid rain. A coating to protect layer of inert polymer should be given in the interior of water of water pipes of drinking water.

GLOBALWARMING
Troposphere, the lowermost layer of the atmosphere, traps heat by a natural process due to the presence of certain gases. This effect is called GREEN HOUSE EFFECT. It is similar to the warming effect observed in the atmosphere depends mostly on the conc. of HEAT TRAPPING or GREENHOUSE gases and the length of time they stay in the atmosphere. The major greenhouse gases are Carbon Dioxide, Ozone, Methane, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Nitrous Oxide and water vapour. The average global temperature rise to the tune of 15 degrees. In the absence of greenhouse gases this temperature would have been -180C. Therefore, greenhouse effect contributes a temperature rise to 330C. Heat trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere keeps the planet warm enough to allow us and other species to exit. The two predominant greenhouse gases are water vapours, which is controlled mostly by the global carbon cycle. While the levels of water vapour in the troposphere have relatively remained constant, the levels of carbon dioxide have increased. GREENHOUSE GASES The phenomenon that worries the environmental scientists is that due to anthropogenic activities there is an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the air that absorb infra-red light containing heat and results in the reradiation of even more or the outing thermal infra-red energy, there by increased the average surface temperature beyond 15degree. The phenomenon is referred to as the ENHANCED GREENHOUSE GASES to distinguish its effect from the one that has been operating naturally for millennia. CARBON DIOXIDE It contributes about 55% to global warming from greenhouse gases produced by

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human activity. Industrial countries account for about 76% of annual emissions. The main sources are fossil fuel burning 67% and deforestation, other forms of land clearing and burning 33%. CO2 stays in the atmosphere for about 500 years. CO2 concentration in the atmosphere was 355ppm in 1990 that is increasing at the rate of 1.5ppm every year. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) These are believed to be responsible for 24% of the human contribution of greenhouse gases. They also deplete ozone in the stratosphere. The main sources of CFCs include leaking air conditioners and refrigerators, evaporation. CFCs take 10-15 years to reach the stratosphere and generally trap 1500 to 7000 times more heat per molecule than CO2 while they are in the troposphere. This heating effect in the troposphere may be partially offset by the cooling caused when CFCs deplete ozone during their 65 to 110 years stay in the stratosphere. Atmospheric concentration of CFC is 0.00225ppm that is increases at a rate of 0.5% annually. IMPACTS OF ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT: Global Temperature Increase Rise in sea level Effects of human health Effects on agriculture

Ozone layer Depletion

For the last 450 billion years the earth has had a natural sunscreen in the atmosphere called the ozone layer. This layer filters out harmful ultraviolet radiations from the sunlight and thus protects various life forms on the earth. Ozone is a form of oxygen. The molecule of oxygen contains two atoms whereas that of ozone contains three (O3). In the stratosphere layer, ozone is continuously being created by the adsorption of short wave length ultraviolet radiations. Ultra violet radiations less than 242 nanometers decomposes molecular oxygen into atomic oxygen (o) by photolytic decomposition. Chapmans reactions: O + hv O + O The atomic oxygen rapidly reacts with molecular oxygen to form ozone. O + O O + M Ozone thus formed distributes itself in the stratosphere and absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiations and is continually being converted back to molecular oxygen. O + hv O + O absorption of UV rays results in heating of the stratosphere. The net resultant of the above reaction is an equilibrium concentration of ozone .Ozone concentration in about 24km of the stratosphere i.e from 16km to 40km away from the earth is about 10ppm. This equilibrium is distributed by reactive atoms of chlorine, bromine which destroys ozone molecule and result in thinning of ozone layer generally called ozone hole. The amount of atmospheric ozone is measured by Dobson Spectrometer and is expressed in Dobson units(DU).One Du is equivalent to a 0.01 mm thickness of

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pure ozone at the density it would possess if it were brought to ground level pressure. Normally is 250 DU where as sub polar region it is on an average 450DU. It is because of the stratospheric winds which transport ozone from tropical towards Polar Regions. 1. UV- radiations affect DNA and the photosynthetic chemicals. Any change in DNA can result in mutation and cases of skin cancer. 2. Absorption of UV rays by the lens and cornea of eye will result in increase incidents of cataract. 3. Melanin producing cells of epidermis will be destroyed by UV-rays resulting in immuno-suppression. fair people will be at a greater risk of UV exposure 4. Phytoplankton are sensitive to UV exposure. ozone depletion will result in decrease in their population there by affecting the population of zooplankton, fish, marine animals, infect whole aquatic chain. 5. Yield of vital crops like corn, rice ,soya bean, cotton, bean, pea, sorghum and wheat will decrease. 6. Degradation of paints, plastics, and other polymer materials will result in economic loss due to effects of UV radiation resulting from ozone depletion. THE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ACT, 2002 The Biological Diversity Act 2002 is a law meant to achieve three main objectives: The conservation of biodiversity; The sustainable use of biological resources; Equity in sharing benefits from such use of resources. Its key provisions aimed at achieving the above are: 1. Prohibition on transfer of Indian genetic material outside the country, without specific approval of the Indian Government; 2. Prohibition on anyone claiming an Intellectual Property Right (IPR), such as a patent, over biodiversity or related knowledge, without permission of the Indian Government; 3. Regulation of collection and use of biodiversity by Indian nationals, while exempting local communities from such restrictions; 4. Measures for sharing of benefits from the use of biodiversity, including transfer of technology, monetary returns, joint Research & Development, joint IPR ownership, etc.; 5. Measures to conserve and sustainably use biological resources, including habitat and species protection, environmental impact assessments (EIAs) of projects, integration of biodiversity into the plans, programmes, and policies of various departments/sectors; 6. Provisions for local communities to have a say in the use of their resources and knowledge, and to charge fees for this; 7. Protection of indigenous or traditional knowledge, through appropriate laws or other measures such as registration of such knowledge; 8. Regulation of the use of genetically modified organisms; 9. Setting up of National, State, and Local Biodiversity Funds, to be used to support conservation and benefit-sharing;

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10. Setting up of Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC) at local village level, State Biodiversity Boards (SBB) at state level, and a National Biodiversity Authority (NBA). While some of the above provisions are progressive, there remain important weaknesses, including the following: 1. It exempts those plants that are registered under the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights (PVPFR) Act, 2001. This Act provides corporations and scientists who are breeding new varieties of crops, to gain intellectual property rights (see more on the relationship between the Biodiversity and Plant Varieties laws, below). Such an exemption means that the progressive provisions listed above, many of which are absent from the PVPFR Act, would not apply to plant varieties registered under PVPFR Act. 2. It does not provide citizens the power to directly approach the courts; such power is restricted to an appeal in the High Court against any order by the NBA or the SBB. 3. It is unnecessarily soft on Indian corporate and other entities, requiring only "prior intimation" to a SBB for the commercial use of bioresources, rather than permission from the NBA as in the case of foreigners. This is unjustified, given that Indians (especially industrial corporations) are not necessarily any more responsible towards the environment or towards local communities, also some Indian companies could just be local fronts for foreign enterprises. 4. It does not fully empower local communities, to protect their resources and knowledge from being misused, or to generate benefits (except charging collection fees). It has very weak or no representation of local community members on the State Biodiversity Boards or National Biodiversity Authority. 5. The power of declaring a Biodiversity Heritage Sites lies with the state government (Article 37 of the Act): It is important that the heritage sites should be designated only after consultation and moreover consent of the affected communities. Further, these should be in the control/management of local communities, and the provision for compensation made in the State Biodiversity Fund (see Section 32) be applied only where there is a mutually agreed to dislocation/curbing of rights. Else we will have the people-parks conflict recurring in another form, as decisions for which areas need to be conserved would be topdown. Several organisations and people feel that the basic framework of the Act is problematic, since it accepts intellectual property rights on biodiversity, could be used to further commercialise biodiversity, and does not truly empower communities. Others feel that the Act provides some potential for checking biopiracy, achieving conservation, and facilitating community action. They stress that a combination of strong rules, and amendments related to the above points, would help strengthen this potential.

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Please refer Bharucha Text book for the following topics

Resettlement and rehabilitation of people Environmental ethics: nuclear accidents nuclear holocaust case studies. Environmental Legislation and objectives of 1. Environment Protection Act, 2. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 3.Water (Prevention and control of Pollution) Act, 4. Wildlife protection Act, 5. Forest conservation Act, 6. Biodiversity Act Public awareness Human Population: Population growth variation among nations Population explosion Family welfare programme Environment and human health Human rights Value education HIV / AIDS Women and child welfare Role of information technology in environment and human health .

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