Perceptions of power transmission lines among local residents: A case study from Finland

Soini, K., Pouta, E., Salmiovirta, M., Uusitalo, M., Kivinen, T.

for correspondence:
Eija Pouta MTT Agrifood Research Finland Economic research Luutnantintie 13 00410 Helsinki Finland tel. +358-9- 56080 fax. +358-9-56086264 eija.pouta@mtt.fi www.mtt.fi

Perceptions of power transmission lines among local residents: A case study from Finland

Abstract Power transmission lines are an essential part of urban and rural landscapes, a built infrastructure that is simply needed for human activities. Transmission lines are often perceived as a form of landscape damage, but there has been relatively little research on how these perceptions are constructed. This article first identifies and describes the factors that are assumed to contribute to local residents perceptions of power transmission lines as a part of their everyday landscape. Then, the article analyses how transmission lines are perceived in comparison to other landscape elements and examines whether in their present location they are perceived as landscape damage. Finally, by exploiting the latent class method, the article examines the heterogeneity in the perceptions of power transmission lines. The focus is on the effect of land ownership, knowledge concerning power lines and general environmental attitudes on the perceptions of power transmission lines among local residents. The empirical data, which include the perceptions of both landowners and other residents, were collected via a survey conducted in Nurmijrvi, a typical agricultural area in Southern Finland. The results indicated that although transmission lines were perceived negatively by most of the respondents, there were also positive attitudes. Moreover, the latent class approach revealed variation within the perceptions, which has important implications for planning and decision making associated with transmission lines, as well as other constructions related to energy production and transmission.

Introduction Power transmission lines1 are an essential part of urban and rural landscapes, a built infrastructure that is simply needed for human activities. They usually imply a relatively strong contrast to their surroundings, and for this reason they are visually striking objects in the landscape. Furthermore, many people feel insecure because of the electro-magnetic field that transmission lines produce. Primarily due to these reasons, transmission lines are often perceived as a form of landscape damage, particularly by residents living in areas where new transmission lines are planned for construction. However, transmission lines in many cases have a long history and they are an established part of the cultural landscape. Thus, the negative reputation of the lines can be challenged and information is needed on the various factors underlying perceptions of them. Local residents perceptions of transmission lines have been documented, although in many cases only in technical reports related to the EIA and SIA processes that are required when new lines are planned for construction2. Scientific research has primarily focused on preference studies concerning the various pylon or tower designs and perceptions of these lines before and after construction (see Priestley & Evans 1996 for review). Regarding social acceptance of transmission lines, local residents are important stakeholders. Transmission lines are part of their living environment, and the construction of new power lines, in particular, may not only affect the quality of their living environment, but also the value of their dwellings and land. However, information is still lacking on how residents perceive existing transmission lines in their everyday landscape, which might differ from views concerning the actual construction of new power lines or upgrading of existing ones. It is widely known that factors such as individual background, socio-demographics, values and attitudes affect environmental perceptions and preferences. This is also the case in landscape preferences. Personality (Abello & Bernaldez 1986), education (Kent 1993) and environmental orientation (Kaltenborn & Bjerke 2002), among other factors, have been found to have an effect on landscape preference. Besides the visual aspects, it can be assumed that transmission lines have other meanings to people that affect the acceptance of the lines in the environment. As local residents differ in their background, it can be assumed that wide variety also exists in attitudes and perceptions. In any area, local residents may not be a homogeneous group but a variety of people representing different landscape perceptions and preferences. Latent class analysis (e.g. Bartholomew & Knott 1999) has proved to be an appropriate methodology for studying the heterogeneity of landscape preferences. Morey et al. (2008), for example, have examined heterogeneous classes of citizens based on their landscape preservation perceptions. However, as far as we are aware, perceptions of possible landscape damage, such as transmission lines, have not been investigated using this method. The first objective of this study was to identify and describe the factors that are assumed to contribute to the perceptions of local residents concerning transmission lines as a part of their everyday landscape experience. The second objective was to analyse how transmission lines are perceived in comparison to other landscape elements and further to define whether transmission lines in their current location are perceived as a form of landscape disturbance or damage. We also aimed to determine how perceptions of existing transmission lines differ
This article focuses on power transmission lines, but we will also refer to these in the text using the shorter form transmission lines. 2 In Finland, when constructing a new power line, an environmental impact assessment (EIA) including Social Impact Assessment (SIA), needs to be conducted if the voltage is 220V or over and the transmission line is over 15 km in length. (Finnish Law on EIA 1999/268, 6). Usually, an EIA is an open process involving citizens, environmental authorities, the transmission line company and a private consult.
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from those towards new potential lines. The third objective was to analyse the heterogeneity in the perceptions of transmission lines by examining whether homogenous classes of residents exist with the aid of the latent class method. Various factors could explain the probability of respondents belonging to these classes. We were particularly interested how the perceptions of transmission lines are effected by land ownership, knowledge concerning power lines and general environmental attitudes. The empirical data were collected from both landowners and other residents via a survey conducted in Nurmijrvi, a typical agricultural area in the Southern Finland. The landscape in this area varies in terms of the density of transmission lines and provides a good opportunity to analyse the landscape perceptions related to them. The power transmission lines as landscape elements Transmission lines in the Finnish landscape Transmission lines have been a part of the Finnish landscape since the beginning of the 20th century. The first lines were low-voltage lines of 20, 30 and 70 kV. In the 1930s, transmission lines of 110 kV and 120 kV were constructed, and the first high tension transmission line of 400 kV was built in the mid-1950s (Seppl & Hallila 2004, 15). Currently, the national transmission grid consists of about 14 000 kilometres of overhead high tension lines of 110, 220 and 400 kV, and it is owned by one grid company, Fingrid Oyj. In addition, Finland has about 350 000 kilometres of other lower voltage transmission lines. Technically, it is possible to transmit electrical power underground, but the construction costs for underground cables are many times greater than for overhead lines3. Thus, overhead lines will continue to be the main way of organizing electricity transmission in the future.

The costs of underground lines depend on factors such as the voltage level and the topography of the landscape. Navrud et al. (2008) have assessed the costs of underground lines in Norway to be from 2.5 to 10 times greater than overhead lines, whereas Fingrid Oyj has assessed the costs to be even 50 times greater (Fingrid Oyj 2000).

Figure 1. Current power transmission line network in Finland. In the following the possible perceptions of overhead power lines among residents are examined. Transmission lines as a visual landscape Transmission lines consist of pylons or towers, horizontalwires and a corridor of 20-50 m in width. Various qualities affect the visual impacts of transmission lines on the surrounding landscape: the size, colour, material and design of the towers and their scale and positioning in relation to the topography and type of surrounding landscape (topography, vegetation and infrastructure). Due to their height and massive appearance, the transmission lines refer to five important elements for mental maps and way finding identified by Kevin Lynch (1960) paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks. A distinction has to be made between rural and urban landscapes: transmission lines constitute a stronger contrast in the less built and more natural landscape of rural areas than in urban areas. On the other hand, in the open arable landscape the impact of transmission lines differs considerably from that in forested areas, where forest clearing along corridors is usually necessary when constructing transmission lines. Although transmission lines are in most cases considered as landscape damage, in some cases they can be seen as visually interesting and even artistic, and may attract photographers. In recent years, transmission companies have put efforts into the design of the towers in order 5

to make the transmission lines more attractive and acceptable (Kuitunen 2007). In addition, due to increased environmental awareness and regulations, the companies are striving towards more environmentally sound construction materials (see e.g. Blackett et al. 2008). Transmission lines as an economic landscape Power lines can be considered as an economic landscape, as they transmit electrical power needed for human activities. The consumption of electricity is expected to increase in the future, both globally and also in Finland4. The construction and management of transmission lines employs people (Rsnen 1990), and labour is also needed for the reconstruction of lines and their servicing. For example, in Finland the corridors have to be cleared of trees every 5-7 years. Construction and reconstruction work offers opportunities for local entrepreneurs. The corridors also provide other opportunities for a rural livelihood and recreation. In Finland, the Nordic everyman' s right, the traditional right of open access, makes it possible to use the corridors for recreation and as a resource, for example when picking berries and mushrooms, and for hiking and skiing. However, permission is needed from the landowner and grid company to establish a recreation route or road in the corridors, similarly to game management and Christmas trees plantations. It should also be noted that power transmission lines restrict agriculture and forestry, mainly by reducing the total arable area or hindering work with machinery. Landowners are compensated for the use of their land by the transmission line company. Effects of transmission lines on health and landscape ecology The health effects of the electro-magnetic field generated by transmission lines on humans and domestic animals have been examined by medical scientists (e.g. Algers et al. 1986; Liden 1996; Hillert et al. 1997; Berqvist et al. 1998). Their studies have shown that the electro-magnetic field of the lines does not exceed the recommended limits of exposure (see also European Council 1999). Moreover, although the transmission lines may have physiological effects, they are not necessarily negative ones. On the other hand, psychological health should also be considered: if the transmission lines cause fear and a feeling of insecurity, they can be considered to have negative effects on psychological health. Priestley and Evans (1996) found that transmission lines cause health and safety concerns, especially among those people who do not utilize the area around them for recreation purposes or live nearby. Transmission lines have many effects on landscape ecology, including alteration of the surrounding ecosystem (Luken 2001; Clarke & White 2008). In the forest landscape the corridors create new biotopes, which in some cases establish a habitat for species that have traditionally existed in biotopes shaped by traditional agriculture. If managed with an emphasis on the soil type and vegetation, they can be considered as neo-traditional biotopes with benefits for ecological systems (Livsmilj I kraftanledningen 2001; Kuussaari et al. 2003; Hiltula et al. 2005; Helil 2008)5. On the other hand, the corridors may in some cases cause negative fragmentation of forest areas by rendering forest patches unsuitable for those plant and animal species requiring large forest interior habitats (Luken et al. 1991).
In Finland, electricity consumption totalled 90 TWh in 2007, and will continue to increase, although not as much as in the past decades. It has been estimated that consumption will reach 109 TWh by 2020 and 115 TWh by 2030 (Confederation of Finnish Industries & Finnish Energy Industries 2007). 5 Juniper, which is a very typical tree growing in transmission line corridors, is often perceived by rural residents as a biodiversity indicator species in the agricultural landscape (Soini & Aakkula 2007).
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Similarly, transmission lines have both positive and negative effects on avian species. Wooden pylons may offer places for some species to make holes or nests, but the transmission lines can cause mortalities among large avian species, particularly from collision with wires and electrocution on poles (for a review, see Jalkotzy et al. 1997). Although the total number of these mortalities is relatively low compared to road kills (Janss and Ferrer 1998), even low mortality levels can have significant effects on threatened populations. However, the collision risks for various avian populations seem to be place-specific, depending on the habitats surrounding the transmission lines (see Bevanger & Broseth 2001; Koskimies et al. 2008, Pyry 2008). The use of wire markers as well as careful siting of new transmission lines, taking bird habitats and behaviour into consideration (Deng & Frederick 2001), may help to reduce collisions (Hyzy 2004). Transmission lines as a cultural landscape Cultural and symbolic aspects can also be recognized. In some places, transmission lines might contribute to the identity of place, both in a positive and a negative sense. Especially at the beginning of the 20th century, transmission lines, similar to any industrial landscape, were considered as symbols of progress and development. Electricity was a necessity for the development of rural and urban livelihoods, industrial growth and improvements in the standard of living (Imatran Voima 1990; Nilsson 1992). Nowadays, transmission lines are a basic infrastructure of modern societies and they can no longer be seen as such a symbol. In fact, for many people they represent ecological destruction. All the perceptions identified above can be organized according to the cultural model of landscape qualities introduced by Stephenson (2007) (see Figure 1). It is suggested that the perceptions of transmission lines arise from the landscape forms, practices and relationships between the transmission lines and the perceiver. In this study we were particularly interested how land ownership, knowledge concerning power lines and environmental attitudes relate to the perceptions of transmission lines.

Individual perceptions
land ownership knowledge environmental orientation

location size form design

Forms in contrast to the surrounding landscape

noise employment energy transmission forest fragmentation economic losses new biotopes landmark, orientation new forms of livelihoods electro-magnetic exposure difficulties for farming and forestry recreation

Practices and processes

identity of place progress, economic growth biodiversity enhancement / destruction environmental health and safety public space

Effects, relationships

Figure 1. Summary of the various factors affecting perceptions of transmission lines. In this research we are particularly interested in how land ownership, knowledge and environmental orientation affect the perceptions. Data and methods Case area The case study area was selected from Southern Finland such that there was variation within the area with respect to power line density and the surrounding landscape, and also with respect to the population living in the area. The case study area consisted of the villages of Lepsm, Perttula and Nummenp. Historically, the villages already existed in the 15th century. The first written documents date from 16th century, as do the earliest maps from the area. The first arable fields were cleared at this time. Active enlargement of the arable area took place between 1870 and 1890, and again in the 1920s. The number of farms increased between 1920 and 1930, and again in the 1940s. Ever since, the number of farms has been decreasing but the arable area has remained the same. Today, the area belongs to the urban fringe around the Helsinki metropolitan area. The villages have been desirable areas for those seeking a rural lifestyle with expectations concerning the scenery and tranquillity, and have therefore attracted new inhabitants to settle into the sparsely situated single family houses. The population consists of local farmers and newcomers, i.e. rural settlers. The geomorphology of the study area consists of low-lying clay-type areas at a height of 40 m above sea level. These areas are mostly arable fields. Forests are located on less fertile gravelly slopes and rocky hilltops with the highest points at 110 m above sea level (Figure 2). Fields and forests together form a small-scale overlapping mosaic, which is typical for the Finnish agricultural landscape. Some small mires are located in the area as well as a lake in the southeast corner of the case study area. Larger unified open fields can be found to the 8

south of Nummenp village (area A), west of Perttula village (area B)6 and north of Lepsm village (area C). Rykk village extends to the northern part of the case area. Three transmission lines, one 110 kV and two 400 kV lines, cross the area. Two of these lines were built in the 1980s and one was built in the 1940s but renewed in the 1990s. These transmission lines particularly cross fields in Perttula and Nummep and only slightly touch Lepsm village. The transmission lines create a visual nodal point between the field areas A and B (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Case study area in Nurmijrvi, Southern Finland.

Nummenp and Perttula together form the Perttula postal code area, which was used to locate respondents.

Survey data The study data were collected via a mail survey. The survey was first tested in a pilot study and then developed further. The final survey was sent in March 2008 to all households in the study area and its surrounding postal areas. Altogether, these comprised 2172 households, including both landowners and residents without land ownership in the area. To facilitate a high response rate, a reminder postcard was sent to after one week, and finally the survey was mailed again to the same households (Dillman 1978). The mail survey yielded a total of 630 observations from the sample. This amounts to 29% of the total number of mailed questionnaires. The summary statistics of the sample are presented in Table 1. Although the sample was from a semirural area in an urban sprawl in Southern Finland, it represented the population of Finland quite well in terms of age and gender. However, the proportion of people with a higher than average income and education was larger in the sample than in the population of Finland. Table 1. Summary statistics of the sample, the population of the municipality of Nurmijrvi and the Finnish population (Tilastokeskus 2008a, Tilastokeskus 2008b).
N 583 583 583 583 590 590 591 539 Sample 39 v. 4.1% 50.7% 45.2% 54.6% 45.4% 49.2% 57 300 Nurmijrvi inhabitants 36 v. 14.9% 31.6% 29.4% 50.2% 49.8% 29.6% Finnish population 41 v. 18.8% 26.3% 38.0% 51.0% 49.0% 25.8% 44 065

Age, mean 15-29 years % 30-49 years % over 50 years % Female % Male % Higher education % Household income, mean

Questionnaire The questionnaire included sets of questions on the following themes: respondents activities in the area, various landscape elements and their importance to the landscape or place identity, landscape changes and threats, and perceptions of the agricultural environment. There was also a set of questions that focused only on power transmission lines. Finally, questions on the socioeconomic background of the respondents were asked. The questions relating to transmission lines were included in a set that evaluated various landscape elements and landscape changes. On a seven-point scale from -3 to 3, power lines could be compared with other landscape elements and with the changes that took place in these elements. Twenty elements were included, comprising natural as well as man-made elements (Figure 3). In the set of items measuring landscape changes, the building of new transmission lines was evaluated together with sixteen other landscape changes to facilitate the comparison (Figure 4). Furthermore, knowledge concerning transmission lines was tested with six statements. Respondents indicated whether they considered these statements to be true or false. The statements covered following topics: the possibility to walk in power line areas, habitats for meadow species, the safety of eating berries and mushrooms from power line areas, clearing of power line areas, the use of public participation in power line planning and possibilities to 10

grow Christmas trees in power line areas. The statements with correct responses were summed up to derive a measure of the knowledge of the respondents concerning power lines. A separate set of 16 questions focused on the salient perceptions related to transmission lines (Figure 5). The items were developed based on previous literature, public discussions in newspapers and on experiences collected in participatory planning processes organised by the power line company (Fingrid Oyj). Respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with the statements on a five-point Likert scale. Besides verbal questions, symbol mapping was used to gain additional information about landscape perceptions. The method reveals landscape experiences and emotions, which are often subconscious (Tuan 1975, Cosgrove 1999, Soini 2001), by targeting and locating them. The method was carried out in this study to provide an additional perspective to the perception of transmission lines among other landscape elements. A symbol mapping task was included in the questionnaire by asking the residents to mark the places, views or landscapes that they found beautiful, visually disturbing or considered as the centre of the area on the map included in the questionnaire. People were asked to place 1-3 symbols per type. The placing of symbols for disturbances was further analysed using the ArcGis program by visual layering. The symbols were regrouped according to their locations. Some symbols were placed on top of power lines or close by in open landscapes or places without other infrastructure except for a road or a few individual houses. These symbols formed one group. Since power lines are visually dominant in such places, the symbols could be considered as visual disturbances by the respondents. The rest of the symbols represented other causes of visual disturbance.

Statistical methods: latent class analysis The respondents perceptions of power lines were analysed using latent class analysis to reveal whether homogeneous classes existed among the respondents. The idea of latent class analysis is that behind the observed variables there may exist a number of unobserved variables that may indicate a number of subpopulations, each having their own distribution of observed variables (Bartholomew & Knott 1999). In this analysis, the assumption was that underlying the power line perception measures there are latent classes of respondents that perceive power lines differently. The goal was to classify people according to their statements and individual characteristics. The estimation objective was to identify response probabilities, i.e. probabilities that an individual in a particular class will give a particular response, and unconditional class probabilities, i.e. the probability of an individual belonging to a class given his or her individual characteristics that best explain the observed responses to the measurement items. For example, in our case, an unconditional class probability is the probability that an individual living close to power lines belongs to a specific perception class. The unconditional probability is not dependent on the responses to perception measures. In this manner, individuals who have similar characteristics also have an equal unconditional probability of belonging to a particular latent class. After estimating unconditional probabilities, the conditional probabilities that an individual belongs to a class are calculated based on their responses to power line perceptions measures. By using established notations, the conditional probability that individual i belongs to group c could be represented by Pr(c:zi|xi). The probability is a function of the respondents characteristics zi and responses to the perception measures, xi. The probability that an 11

individual belonging to class c answers level s to question q, class model.

ln L =
N i

gs|c,

is the basis of the latent

ln

C c =1

Pr (c : z i )
q =1

28

(
S s =1

qs c

X iqs

The probabilities are estimated by maximizing the likelihood function in the state of incomplete prior information of class membership or response probabilities (Arcidiacono and Jones 2003). In the estimation, unobserved information is replaced with its expected value and thereafter the maximum likelihood estimation is carried out as if this information were correct. The estimation results could then be used to update the original expectations. This process is continued until the change in the log-likelihood function becomes very small. The estimation is carried out by assuming one class, then two classes, three classes and so on. In each step the explanatory power of the model is assessed to decide on the optimal number of classes. For this purpose we used BIC and AIC information criteria, which are log-likelihood scores with correction factors for the number of observations and number of parameters. The accuracy of LCA does not depend on meeting assumptions of linearity of measures or equal spacing within the measurement scale. In the following the latent classes of residents living in the case area are described with their perceptions and socio-demographic, behavioural and attitudinal characteristics. The results from the symbolic mapping, i.e. the numbers of disturbances, were also compared between the latent classes.

Results
The first objective was to analyse how power lines were perceived compared to other landscape elements, i.e. whether they were considered as landscape disturbances or damage, or as positive elements belonging to the agricultural landscape. Altogether, 64% of the respondents considered transmission lines as negative landscape elements and 10% as positive elements. One fourth of the respondents were neutral towards power lines in the landscape. Out of the list of 20 landscape elements provided to the respondents, only three elements were considered to negatively affect the landscape. These elements were transmission lines, telemasts and unmanaged farmland (Figure 3). All other elements were considered to have a positive effect, regardless of whether they were man-made or natural. In the comparison of mean scores, transmission lines differed significantly (p< 0.001) in a negative direction from all other landscape elements. In the comparison of means, even telemasts were perceived significantly more positively than transmission lines. Bringing new landscape elements to the area, i.e. landscape change, was more often considered as negative than the pre-existence of landscape elements. Out of sixteen possible landscape changes, only three were perceived as positive (Figure 4). These elements of change were recreational paths, dispersed housing and increasing efficiency of agriculture. In the comparison of means, the construction of transmission lines received the third most negative score after the overgrowth of rivers and lakes and decrease in biodiversity. The differences were significant between the mean scores for transmission lines and those for all other landscape changes, except the difference between power lines and declining agriculture.

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-0.93 -1.17 new associated buildings old associated buildings new houses old houses main roads fieldroads yards and gardens topography river forest/field edges forest areas meadows grazing animals open ditches wetlands buffer zones -0.12 maintained farmland -1.50 -1.00 -0.50

tele masts power lines 0.94 1.65 1.16 2.07 1.18 1.95 2.22 2.60 2.28 2.05 2.26 2.36 2.36 0.74 1.39 1.36 unmaintained farmland 2.51 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00

0.00

Figure 3. Perceptions of landscape elements among local residents in Nurmijrvi, presented as means of scores on a scale from -3 to 3.

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construction of recreation routes on fields -1.60 -2.18 increase in dispersed settlement -0.13 -0.28 -0.18 -1.76 -1.04 -1.60 -2.00 -0.52 -0.09 -1.75 growing efficiency of agriculture -2.50 -2.00 -1.50 -1.00 -0.50 0.00

0.52 exploitation of extractable soil resources overgrowth of lakes and rivers 0.55 spread of urban settlement constraction of traffic routes construction of wind power construction of power lines forest loggings new species decrease in biodiversity forestration of fields bioenergy production on fields declining agriculture 0.45 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00

-0.05 small scale tourism

Figure 4. Perceptions of changes in landscape, means of the scores from scale -3 to 3. Perceptions of building powerlines differ significantly from all other changes than declining agriculture.
Perceptions of transmission lines were measured using 16 statements (Figure 5). The eight statements that were most agreed with were negative perceptions of power lines. The most agreed with positive perceptions were that power lines are a necessary and justified element in the landscape and also that it is possible to get used to them. The respondents disagreed most strongly with the statements that those who suffer from power lines are well compensated and that power line areas offer recreational opportunities.

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Power lines...
cause an uncomfortable feeling deface the landscape make the living env. more unpleasant are more distracting the wider they are are harmful to human health reduce the land value hinder agriculture and forestry disturb birds are necessary and justified in the landscape are landmarks are more distracting the higher they are are possible to get used to cause a disturbing noise are part of this scenery like other built env. offer recreational opportunities those who suffer are well compensated 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50

1 fully disagree...5 totally agree

Figure 5. Means of the perceptions of power transmission lines on a scale from one to five.
The 16 statements on the effects of transmission lines were used in latent class analysis to identify heterogeneous latent classes of residents who perceive power lines differently. Based on AIC and BIC information criteria, five classes formed the optimal classification of the residents based on their power line perceptions. However, the difference in criteria compared to the four-class model was very small, and the fifth class was not helpful from an interpretation point of view as it divided the two negative classes into three negative classes. The classes were named as very negative, rather negative, indifferent and positive (Table 2). The dominant class was that having a rather negative perception, and comprised 45% of the population. As 23% of respondents belonged to very negative group, altogether 68% of the respondents held negative perceptions. Of the remaining respondents, 27% were indifferent and 4% were classified as having a positive perception toward power lines.

Table 2. Latent classes based on perceptions of power transmission lines..

Cluster Size % Very negative 23 Rather negative 45 Indifferent 27 Positive 4

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All 16 measured perceptions were significant parameters in classifying respondents (Table 3). Table 4 shows the profile of latent classes with the means for perceptions. For each item, the p-value of the Wald test is shown to be less than 0.05, indicating that the null hypothesis stating that all of the effects associated with that item are zero could be rejected with a 95% confidence level. Thus, each item contributed in a significant way towards the ability of the model to discriminate between the classes. The R values indicate how much of the variance of each item is explained by the four-class model. The means of the negative perceptions, such as transmission lines deface the landscape, cause an uncomfortable feeling or make the living environment more unpleasant, were typically highest in the very negative class and second highest among those in the rather negative class. Compared to other items, the variance of these negative perceptions was also most highly explained with the four clusters. Positive perceptions, such as transmission lines being a part of the scenery, the ability to use the corridors recreationally and the lines being a necessary and justified element in the landscape, received the highest values in the positive class.

Table 3. Perceptions of power transmission lines in clusters.

Clusters Very Rather Indif- Ponegative negative ferent sitive Mean of the perceptions of powerlines (1-5) 2.3 4.1 3.7 3.1 3.8 1.7 2.5 3.1 4.7 1.5 2.7 3.8 1.8 5.0 4.1 2.9 1.7 4.9 4.1 2.7 2.0 4.5 3.7 2.8 1.4 4.9 4.1 3.1 1.2 4.4 3.5 2.6 1.5 4.8 4.0 3.1 4.8 1.8 3.1 3.9 2.2 4.6 3.8 3.2 1.7 4.3 3.5 3.1 3.5 1.6 2.4 2.8 4.3 2.9 3.6 3.8 4.9 2.4 3.5 4.1 1.5 3.8 3.2 2.6

Importance in the model Wald 67.68 78.23 99.04 120.43 110.83 108.33 113.80 115.18 108.95 121.95 86.50 81.587 86.19 41.56 105.33 76.54 p-value 1.30E-14 7.40E-17 2.50E-21 6.20E-26 7.30E-24 2.50E-23 1.70E-24 8.40E-25 1.80E-23 2.90E-26 1.20E-18 1.40E-17 1.40E-18 5.00E-09 1.10E-22 1.70E-16 R 0.19 0.24 0.48 0.57 0.67 0.38 0.57 0.43 0.50 0.43 0.30 0.25 0.24 0.11 0.35 0.24

Hinder agriculture and forestry Offer recreational opportunities Are part of this scenery like other built env. Deface the landscape Make the living env. more unpleasant Reduce the land value Cause an uncomfortable feeling Are more distracting the higher they are Are more distracting the wider they are Are possible to get use to Are harmful to human health Disturb birds Those who suffer are well compensated Are landmarks Are necessary and justified in the landscape Cause a disturbing noise

In the latent class model the probability of belonging to a class was explained with covariates describing the respondents attitudes, behaviour and socio-demographic factors (Table 4). From several socio-demographic variables, age, forest ownership, and the geographical area of the home were significant in the model. Considering the respondents in various age classes, younger people were less represented in the very negative class. The respondents aged from 30-49 years were more likely to have very negative perception of power lines. In the oldest age class, respondents over 50 had mixed perceptions, as they had a higher probability of belonging to both the very negative and positive classes. Forest ownership increased the probability of rather and very negative perceptions. The area where the respondents lived also 16

had an effect on the probability of class membership, so that respondents living in the Perttula area, where most of the power lines were located, had a higher probability of positive or indifferent perceptions. In addition, respondents from Rykk, which is located rather close to some of the power lines, had a higher probability of positive or indifferent perceptions. In the Lepsm postal code area, where there were no power transmission lines in the landscape, the respondents had a higher probability of having rather or very negative perceptions of power lines. From several behavioural variables measured in the questionnaire, the frequency of car use and of observing nature in the study area were significant in the model. Car use correlated positively with the positive perceptions of transmission lines, and those who had observed nature in the area during their leisure time were more likely to belong to the very negative latent class. These behavioural variables, particularly observing nature, may associate with the more general environmental orientation of respondents, which was also expressed with the agro-environmental attitudes variable. Respondents who considered various agroenvironmental topics, such as water conservation, biodiversity, or abatement of greenhouse gasses as important were more likely to have rather negative and, particularly, very negative perceptions of power lines. Knowledge concerning power lines increased the probability of positive perceptions and decreased the probability of negative perceptions.

Table 4. Cluster membership as a function of covariates.

Clusters Rather negative Indifferent Coefficient 1.2397 4.4511 0.4462 -0.4434 -0.159 -0.161 -0.236 -0.1777 0.0992 0.0963 0.8606 1.7217 -0.2089 -0.7481 -0.6517 -0.9736 0.4531 -0.039 -0.4531 0.039 0.4101 -0.1494 -0.4388 0.0152 0.0286 0.1342 Very negative Positive -6.2051 1.3553 -0.443 -0.1309 0.3537 -2.8524 1.6101 1.2423 0.5898 -0.5898 0.4323 -0.1695 -0.2629 0.5143 -1.3582 0.7631 0.5446 -0.5492 0.2701 -0.653 0.3829 -1.0039 1.0039 -0.6931 0.5931 0.1000 Wald 15.8543 37.1375 23.8361 10.8128 17.6844 12.7316 p-value 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.013 0.000 0.047

Intercept Agro-environmental attitude Knowledge level of powerlines Car use (frequency) Observation of nature (frequency) Age 15-29 30-49 50Forest owner Yes No Postal code Lepsm Perttula Rykk

14.2806 0.003 16.983 0.009

The symbol mapping task was completed by 390 respondents (Table 5). Altogether, 1391 symbols were readable and about 5% of all symbols were described as visual disturbances. Transmission lines were interpreted as the cause of visual disturbance in 19% of all disturbance cases. The majority of disturbance symbols were located in the densely built residential areas (Figure 6). When the results of symbol mapping for the four latent classes were compared, people with positive perceptions differed significantly (according to Pearsons chi2 test) from other groups, as they did not find power lines disturbing according to the map analysis, i.e. they did not have any disturbance symbols in the vicinity of power lines (Figure 6). They also marked fewer other visual disturbances onto the maps as a whole compared to the other groups, although this difference was not significant.

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Table 5. The visual disturbances by the latent classes based on power line perceptions. Very negative Rather negative Indifferent Positive Total p-value
Respondents Power lines as disturbances Other disturbances All symbols in maps 89 18 83 374 179 37 138 736 104 18 71 214 18 0 12 67 390 73 0.080* 304 0.785** 1391

*Chi squared test: power lines from all disturbances **Chi squared test: other disturbances from all symbols

Figure 6. Comparison of the perceptions of power lines as visual disturbances in Lepsm. The symbols marked by the group of people with positive attitudes are represented on the lefthand map and those with indifferent or negative attitudes on the right-hand map (Maastotietokanta maanmittaustoimisto,). Discussion and conclusions
Our study confirmed the presupposition that transmission lines are generally perceived as negative landscape elements, both as existing and as new landscape elements. However, it is interesting that 10% of the respondents perceived them positively. Transmission lines are primarily considered as a disturbance because of their visual, auditory and possible health effects. On the other hand, positive perceptions were often associated with the perception of power lines as a necessity for modern life, in other words their socio-economic aspects. This is probably because the study area was primarily residential and can be considered as a

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cultural landscape rather than a nature conservation area7. Our results also revealed that the respondents showed a high antipathy towards almost any kind of change in the landscape, as most of the possible changes received a negative evaluation. The latent class method used in this study proved to be a useful tool to highlight that those negative perceptions that are not equally held among the population. Four different groups of residents based on their power line perceptions were revealed in our case study in Nurmijrvi. The heterogeneity of the perceptions has implications for the planning, public communication and participatory approach related to transmission lines, as well as other visually dominating man-made structures in landscape such as wind turbines. Interpretation of the results could, however, be deepened with participatory workshops. As is generally known, a quantitative survey provides limited possibilities to examine the everyday behaviour of residents in the landscape, as well as the meanings they address to the landscape. In particular, those respondents who lived close to power line areas had positive perceptions of them. The symbol mapping of visual disturbances underlined this conclusion. This result most probably relates to adaptation to transmission lines as a part of the landscape as well as a general inclination to accept and even like the landscape elements in their neighbourhood, or home (Tuovinen 1992). Negative perceptions were particularly related to positive environmental attitudes and nature orientation in leisure activities. For this group of residents, information particularly relevant to them, i.e. knowledge of the positive biodiversity effects, might relive the negative perception of transmission lines (Petty et al. 1992). This knowledge should be highlighted in the context of the EIA process related to the construction of new transmission lines and in public communication. This result is interesting from an ecological aesthetics point of view. Ecological aesthetics (see e.g. Gobster et al. 2007) suggests that ecological aspects are included in the aesthetic experience of a landscape and that ecological knowledge is needed for this aesthetic experience. However, in the case of transmission lines the situation is complicated, as they seem to have both negative and positive ecological impacts. The visual impacts of transmission lines are obvious, since they are a dominant feature when people are collecting information on the environment or evaluating its quality (Tuan 1974, Bell 1999). However, the socio-economic aspects of power lines were also represented in respondents perceptions. This study demonstrated that forest owners in particular had negative perceptions of power lines. The same association was not apparent in the case of farmland owners. This indicates that forest owners face the economic drawbacks of transmission lines and suggests the need to develop new alternatives for using power line areas in forestry, such as growing Christmas trees and other special woody species. This study gave a general impression that objective knowledge of the impacts of transmission lines and personal beliefs are two different issues underlying the landscape perceptions of local residents. Negative perceptions of the lines were typically based on beliefs or feelings rather than on knowledge. It might be challenging for transmission companies to change these types of feelings-based attitudes, as those who already hold negative attitudes may be reluctant to search for information and change their attitudes (e.g. Vincent & Fazio 1992). Instead, knowledge-based impressions might be more easily affected by information. This applies to both to the health and environmental effects of transmission lines.

Park (2007) [add to references] has noted that this is not the case with a similar kind of landscape element, i.e. telemasts. Park found that ecological values exceeded the socio-economic values in the case of the National Park District of where?.

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There are high expectations on the policy level that energy production will change towards a more renewable direction. Although this may imply an increase in new transmission lines as new energy production plants are established, energy production might move closer to communities (wind turbines, solar panels and small-scale bioenergy plants), leading to new types of landscape change and negotiations on the landscape effects between various stakeholders. The case of power transmission lines could bring valuable insights to these discussions.

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