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Moh-zi was by far the most outstanding and influential religious thinker in ancient China.

He advocated that people should love and benefit one another according to the Will of Heaven, and that those in power should also strive to do the same. Part of what that entails is to govern righteously as well as not to wage war. In this following, I shall seek to expose the main thread of reasoning that runs through the ethical, political, and religious aspects of Moh-zis thought.

The Religious Humanism of Moh-zi


An excerpt from The Six Patriarchs of Chinese Humanism Author: Peter M.K. Chan
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As other intellectuals of the Warring State Period (475 221 BC), Moh-zi (ca.479-438 BC) was also trying to get the attention of those in power as to how peace and social order could really be brought about. Unlike Confucius, however, he did not believe that the having of moral awareness alone on the part of those who govern would be sufficient. Enlightened authoritarian rule by way of righteous law and religious sanction are also required. In this respect, we can say that Moh-zi and Confucius were competitors. The Book of Moh-zi, upon which this presentation is based, is a collection of seventy-one essays contributed by Moh-zi and his followers. One thing that is peculiar about this book is that each of the central tenets of Mohism is clearly highlighted by three consecutive and somewhat repetitive essays bearing one and the same title. They include major themes such as mutual love, Will of Heaven, condemnation of war, elevating the worthy, conforming with the superior, frugality of expenditure, ghosts and spiritual beings, against Confucianism and fatalism, and so on. In the following, I shall trace the main thread of reasoning that runs through the ethical, political, and religious

aspects of Moh-zis thought, (1) Mutual Love and Benefit For what Moh-zi had come to see, the misfortunes and calamities of the world are brought about by wars between states, conflicts between family clans, and animosity between individuals. As he put it, it is due to the fact that big states are attacking those that are tiny, large family clans are usurping those that are small, the strong are looting the weak, the many are oppressing (or violent toward) the few, the cunning are deceiving the ignorant, and the honored are looking down on the destituted. ( Book of Moh-zi, Chapter 16) It is also due to the fact that kings are not benevolent, ministers are not loyal, fathers are not caring, and sons are not filial. All of these are harmful to the world. (
Ibid.)

For what he had also come to see, all these troubles are ultimately accountable for by the fact that people do not love one another. As people in the world do not love one another, the strong will oppress the weak, the rich will insult the poor, the honored will look down on the destituted, and the cunning will deceive the ignorant. ( Ibid.) Further, as feudal lords know only to love their own states, they would not hesitate to attack other states. As heads of families know only to love their own clans, they would not hesitate to usurp other family clans. And as people know only to benefit themselves, they would not hesitate to inflict injury upon one another. (
Ibid. Chapter 15) It should thus be seen that all

calamities, feuds, hatred, and animosity in the world are brought about by the lack of mutual love. (

The culprit, as he saw, was egocentricity and mutual discrimination.


Ibid.)

As to what could really be done, Moh-zis answer is that world order and stability could only be brought about when mutual discrimination is replaced by mutual love. ( Ibid.) It is to regard other states as one would regard ones own, to regard other family clans as one would regard ones own, and to treat others as one would treat oneself. (
Ibid. Chapter 13) It is to be observed that when feudal lords love one

another, they would not fight in the fields; when heads of family clans love one another, they would not usurp other family clans; and when individuals love one another, they would not injure one another. (
Ibid.)

By the same token, when people love one another, the strong will no longer oppress the weak, the many will no longer take advantage of the few, the rich will no longer insult the poor, the honored will no longer despise the humble, and the cunning will no longer deceive the ignorant. ( Ibid.) Under such circumstances, kings will become benevolent and ministers loyal, father will become caring and sons filial, and brothers will love and co-operate with one another. ( Ibid.) In Moh-zis opinion therefore, this is how calamities, feuds, animosity, and hatred in the world could be prevented from arising. ( Ibid.) He called this proposed solution of his the method of mutual love and benefit. (. Ibid.) As many have come to see, this method of mutual love and benefit is simply too idealistic to be embraced. As there is no reason to believe that anyone would go so far as to abandon his own interests so as to care for others as he would care for his own, it is also doubtful that the ruler of one state is likely to abandon the interest of his state for the sake of another state.

The question is therefore this. How could this method of mutual love and benefit ever come to terms with the egoistic nature of man? Well, according to Moh-zi, the egocentricity of the human kind is exactly what his method is trying to enlighten. It should be observed that in the realm of human interactions, those who love and benefit others are loved and benefited by others, and those who hate and injure others are hated and injured by others. ( Ibid. Chapter 15) That is to say, it is only by caring for the other could one evade animosity and enhance benefits for oneself. As he put it: to care (or do something) for others is also to care for oneself. ( Ibid. Chapter 16) Under this light, or so he would point out, his method of mutual love and benefit is actually a prudent win-win formula that is quite consonant with the egoistic nature of man.
Comment: For Confucius, if readers recall, to love and care for others is the duty of a kingly person. It is something that one should do in the interest of humanity. Thus, as far as Confucians are concerned, for Mohzi to have argued that the reason why anyone should care for another is the fact those who love and benefit others will be loved and benefited by others, and that to care for others is also to care for oneself is quite akin to the utilitarian logic of an inferior man.

Now, said Moh-zi, neither should it be assumed that his method of mutual love and benefit is really too difficult for any government to administer either. It is difficult only when rulers and their officials have refused to administer and practice it. ( Ibid. Chapter 15) It should not be forgotten that formerly, when Duke Wen of Tsen wanted officers to wear coarse cloths, all his ministers would put on simple clothes When King Ling of Cho wanted people to have slender waists, all his ministers would limit themselves to only one meal a day -- they would even exhale before they tied their belts. Within a year, everyone in his court looked dark and gloomy. What that shows is that when the

ruler wants something, all his ministers would certainly comply. ( .


Ibid. 15)

What that shows, according to Moh-zi, is that when the method of mutual love and benefit is legislated into law, attentive ears and keen eyes will respond to serve one another, limbs will be quickened to work for one another, and those who know the method will also instruct one another. Under such circumstances, the aged and widowed will find nurture for the rest of their lives, while the very young and orphaned will have someone to depend upon so as to grow up. (
Ibid. Chapter 16)

(2) The Will of Heaven () Further, said Moh-zi, as it is also generally recognized, it is the business those who are humane to devote themselves toward bringing about benefits by doing away with what is harmful to the world. ( Ibid.) Doing that, or so he further proclaimed, is in accordance with the Will of Heaven ( or the Intention of Heaven) That being the case, it is incumbent upon all intellectuals and kingly persons today who desire humaneness and righteousness to follow the Will of Heaven. ( Ibid. Chapter 28) As to what exactly is meant by following the Will of Heaven, his answer is that it is to love the people of the world without distinctions. (
Ibid.)

As to how he knew that Heaven loves the people, Moh-zis answer is that if Heaven did not love the people in the world, why should Heaven dish out misfortunes to those who kill one another? (

Besides, since Heavens operation is both comprehensive and selfless, .... it must be Its wish that human beings would love and benefit one another, and that they would not hate and harm one another. (
Ibid. Chapter 26) Ibid. Chapter 4)

For what is also known, those who love and benefit others in accordance with the Will of Heaven are rewarded by Heaven, and those who go against the Will of Heaven by hating and hurting one another are punished by Heaven. (
Ibid. Chapter 27) This is why the ancient Sage-kings, who

knew about the blessing of Heaven and ghosts, had to stay away from incurring their displeasure by enhancing benefits for the world, and do away with what is harmful to it. (
Ibid. Chapter 26)

Moreover, according to Moh-zi, Heaven was also known to have made the following proclamation regarding the Sage-kings. For reason that they love those whom I love and benefit those whom I benefit, they shall be honored as Son of Heaven ( or emperor) and possess the wealth of the world. Their descendents would perpetuate their heritage and praise their virtuous deeds for ten thousand generations -- as people in the world have praised them until this day, calling them Sagekings. (....
.... Ibid.) It all goes to show that Heaven desires righteousness and dislikes unrighteousness. ( Ibid. Chapter 28)

As to how he knew that this is so, his answer is that with righteousness, the world lives; without it, the world dies. With righteousness, the world becomes rich; without it, the world becomes poor. It is also with righteousness that the world becomes orderly; without it, the world becomes chaotic. This is

how I know that Heaven desires righteousness, and hates unrighteousness. ( Ibid, Chapter 26) In short, or so he further proclaimed, the Will of Heaven is the foundation of righteousness. (Ibid. Chapter
28)

Comment: Mark this as the religious part of Moh-zis argument for his method of mutual love and benefit. It should be observed that in his saying that it must be Heavens wish that human beings would love and benefit one another, what Moh-zi did was to shore up his method of mutual love and benefit further by invoking the Will of Heaven. Furthermore, when he also said that those who love and benefit others in accordance with the Will of Heaven are rewarded by Heaven, there is no longer any reason to doubt that the teaching of Moh-zi is both religious and utilitarian. And it was upon the strength of his utilitarian and religious conviction that he launched his campaign against war.

(3) Condemnation of War In light of the above, said Moh-zi, it is to be observed that in a world such as ours, all countries big and small are the cities of Heaven; and those who live in the world, young and old as well as noble and common, are the subjects of Heaven.
( Ibid. Chapter 4) What that means is that if killing one man is

unrighteous and deserves the death penalty, it should further entail that killing ten men is ten times more unrighteous deserving ten death penalties, and killing one hundred men is one hundred times more unrighteous, deserving one hundred death penalties. (
Ibid. Chapter 17) As a matter of fact, Heaven will bring misfortune to anyone who kills an innocent man (Ibid. Chapter 27)

Under this light, it should also be seen that if a large state

or city today were to attack those that are small, it will not be blessed by Heaven even if one were to pray for it. Instead, it will surely be met with calamities. (
Ibid. Chapter 27) That is to say, those who do not agree with Heaven will

invite unending calamities for their state: such as extreme heat and cold, irregularity of snow and rain, stunted growth of crops, death of husbandry, illness and epidemics, as well as hurricanes and flooding rain. (
Ibid. Chapter 4) This has to be so because

war exhausts natural resources and affect peoples livelihood in innumerable ways. It is contrary to the interest of the people. (
Ibid. Chapter 19)

Unfortunately, said Moh-zi, rulers who take delight in aggressive wars do not know that war is inhumane and unrighteous, and the lords of their neighboring states also do not know that wars are inhumane and unrighteous. This is why military aggressions had to perpetuate without end from generation to generation. (
Ibid. Chapter 28)

For what has also come to be known, when those in command mobilized their armies to invade neighboring states. husbands and wives were not able to see each other, people did not feel safe in their homes, and would die either of sickness or for lack of food. . And those who die during attack on cities and in the battlefields are beyond numeration.
( Ibid. Chapter 20)

And that is not all. Those who govern have also employed other ways of reducing the population (of their state). They overworked the people and imposed heavy burdens by levying taxes. When resources become insufficient, people died of hunger and cold in innumerable numbers. (

Ibid. Chapter 20)

In the view of Moh-zi therefore, rulers today who desire humaneness and righteousness should consider and act on the basis of righteousness. ( Ibid. Chapter 27) They should follow the Way (of Heaven) and benefit the people by observing the fundamentals of humaneness and righteousness. ( Ibid.) Those who obey the Will of Heaven should govern righteously. To rule by force is to go against the Will of Heaven. (Ibid.) His advise to all those in power is therefore this. Abstain and be vigilant, do what Heaven desires, and do away with what Heaven does not desire. ( Ibid. Chapter 26) Emulate and act according to the Way of Heaven, desire what Heaven desires, and refrain from doing what Heaven does not desire. Heaven desires righteousness and dislikes those who are unrighteous. (
Ibid. Chapter 4) The Will of Heaven is not to be treated lightly. ( Ibid. Chapter 27) No one is able to escape if he offends Heaven. (Ibid. Chapter 28)

Comment: This is the crux of what I mean by the religious humanism of Moh-zi. His anthropomorphic view of Heaven as having Will and Desire as well as capable of rewarding and punishing people was of course axiomatic to the popular metaphysical understanding of his day. What was new about his teaching, attention should also be called, is his insistence that Heaven loves the people, and that it is the Will of Heaven that people should love and benefit one another; and that as such, it is incumbent upon those in power to do the same. Implicit to his reasoning is belief in the equality of all men in the eyes of Heaven. Such a view, if I may further point out, was also shared by religious thinkers in other ancient religious cultures.

==================================================== Peter M.K. Chan is the author of The Mystery of Mind published 2003, and Soul, God, and Morality published 2004. Recently, he has also competed another work titled The Six Patriarchs of Chinese Humanism (copyrighted available in ebooks, but not yet in print). For details regarding the above, please visit http://sites.google.com/site/pmkchan/home http://sites.google.com/site/patriarchsofchinesephilosophy/home http://www.lulu.com/spotlight/petermkchan

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