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Apple From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the fruit. For the technology company, see Apple Inc.. For other uses, see Apple (disambiguation). "Apple tree" redirects here. For other uses, see Apple tree (disambiguation). Page semi-protectedThis is a good article. Click here for more information. Apple A typical apple Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Rosales Family: Rosaceae Genus: Malus Species: M. domestica Binomial name Malus domestica Borkh., 1803 Synonyms Malus communis Desf. Malus pumila auct.[1] Pyrus malus L.[2] The apple is the pomaceous fruit of the apple tree, species Malus domestica in t he rose family (Rosaceae). It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits, and the most widely known of the many members of genus Malus that are used by hu mans. Apples grow on small, deciduous trees. The tree originated in Central Asia , where its wild ancestor, Malus sieversii, is still found today. Apples have be en grown for thousands of years in Asia and Europe, and were brought to North Am erica by European colonists. Apples have been present in the mythology and relig ions of many cultures, including Norse, Greek and Christian traditions. In 2010, the fruit's genome was decoded, leading to new understandings of disease contro l and selective breeding in apple production. There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples, resulting in a range of des ired characteristics. Different cultivars are bred for various tastes and uses, including cooking, fresh eating and cider production. Domestic apples are genera lly propagated by grafting, although wild apples grow readily from seed. Trees a re prone to a number of fungal, bacterial and pest problems, which can be contro lled by a number of organic and non-organic means. About 69 million tonnes of apples were grown worldwide in 2010, and China produc ed almost half of this total. The United States is the second-leading producer, with more than 6% of world production. Turkey is third, followed by Italy, India and Poland. Apples are often eaten raw, but can also be found in many prepared foods (especially desserts) and drinks. Many beneficial health effects are thoug ht to result from eating apples; however, two forms of allergies are seen to var ious proteins found in the fruit. Contents [hide] 1 Botanical information 1.1 Wild ancestors 1.2 Genome 2 History 3 Cultural aspects 3.1 Germanic paganism 3.2 Greek mythology 3.3 The forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden

4 Cultivars 5 Cultivation 5.1 Breeding 5.2 Pollination 5.3 Maturation and harvest 5.4 Storage 5.5 Pests and diseases 6 Production 7 Human consumption 7.1 Popular uses 7.2 Organic production 7.3 Allergy 7.4 Toxicity of seeds 8 Nutrition 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Botanical information

Blossoms, fruits, and leaves of the apple tree (Malus domestica) The apple forms a tree that is small and deciduous, generally standing 6 to 15 f eet (1.8 to 4.6 m) tall in cultivation and up to 30 feet (9.1 m) in the wild. Wh en cultivated, the size, shape and branch density is determined by rootstock sel ection and trimming method. The leaves are alternately arranged dark green-color ed simple ovals with serrated margins and slightly downy undersides.[3] Blossoms are produced in spring simultaneously with the budding of the leaves, a nd are produced on spurs and some long shoots. The 3 to 4 centimetres (1.2 to 1. 6 in) flowers are white with a pink tinge that gradually fades, five petaled, wi th an inflorescence consisting of a cyme with 4-6 flowers. The central flower of the inflorescence is called the "king bloom"; it opens first, and can develop a larger fruit.[3][4] The fruit matures in autumn, and varieties exist with a wide range of sizes. Com mercial growers aim to produce an apple that is 2.75 to 3.25 inches (7.0 to 8.3 cm) in diameter, due to market preference. Some consumers, especially those in J apan, prefer a larger apple, while apples below 2.25 inches (5.7 cm) are general ly used for making juice and have little fresh market value. The skin of ripe ap ples is generally red, yellow, green or pink, although many bi- or tri-colored v arieties may be found.[5] The skin may also be wholly or partly russeted i.e. ro ugh and brown. The skin is covered in a protective layer of epicuticular wax,[6] The flesh is generally pale yellowish-white, [5] though pink or yellow flesh is also known. Wild ancestors Main article: Malus sieversii The original wild ancestor of Malus domestica was Malus sieversii, found growing wild in the mountains of Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajik istan, and Xinjiang, China.[3][7] Cultivation of the species, most likely beginn ing on the forested flanks of the Tian Shan mountains, progressed over a long pe riod of time and permitted secondary introgression of genes from other species i nto the open-pollinated seeds. Significant exchange with Malus sylvestris, the c rabapple, resulted in current populations of apples to be more related to crabap ples than to the more morphologically similar progenitor Malus sieversii. In str ains without recent admixture the contribution of the latter predominates.[8][9] [10] Genome In 2010, an Italian-led consortium announced they had decoded the complete genom e of the apple in collaboration with horticultural genomicists at Washington Sta te University,[11] using the Golden delicious variety.[12] It had about 57,000 g enes, the highest number of any plant genome studied to date[13] and more genes

than the human genome (about 30,000).[14] This new understanding of the apple ge nome will help scientists in identifying genes and gene variants that contribute to resistance to disease and drought, and other desirable characteristics. Unde rstanding the genes behind these characteristics will allow scientists to perfor m more knowledgeable selective breeding. Decoding the genome also provided proof that Malus sieversii was the wild ancestor of the domestic apple an issue that ha d been long-debated in the scientific community.[15] History

Wild Malus sieversii apple in Kazakhstan The center of diversity of the genus Malus is in eastern Turkey. The apple tree was perhaps the earliest tree to be cultivated,[16] and its fruits have been imp roved through selection over thousands of years. Alexander the Great is credited with finding dwarfed apples in Kazakhstan in Asia in 328 BCE;[3] those he broug ht back to Macedonia might have been the progenitors of dwarfing root stocks. Wi nter apples, picked in late autumn and stored just above freezing, have been an important food in Asia and Europe for millennia.[16] Apples were brought to North America by colonists in the 17th century,[3] and th e first apple orchard on the North American continent was planted in Boston by R everend William Blaxton in 1625.[17] The only apples native to North America are crab apples, which were once called "common apples".[18] Apple varieties brough t as seed from Europe were spread along Native American trade routes, as well as being cultivated on Colonial farms. An 1845 United States apples nursery catalo gue sold 350 of the "best" varieties, showing the proliferation of new North Ame rican varieties by the early 19th century.[18] In the 20th century, irrigation p rojects in Washington state began and allowed the development of the multibillio n dollar fruit industry, of which the apple is the leading product.[3] Until the 20th century, farmers stored apples in frostproof cellars during the w inter for their own use or for sale. Improved transportation of fresh apples by train and road replaced the necessity for storage.[19][20] In the 21st century, long-term storage again came into popularity, as "controlled atmosphere" facilit ies were used to keep apples fresh year-round. Controlled atmosphere facilities use high humidity and low oxygen and carbon dioxide levels to maintain fruit fre shness.[21] Cultural aspects Main article: Apple (symbolism) "Brita as Iduna" (1901) by Carl Larsson Germanic paganism In Norse mythology, the goddess Iunn is portrayed in the Prose Edda (written in t he 13th century by Snorri Sturluson) as providing apples to the gods that give t hem eternal youthfulness. English scholar H. R. Ellis Davidson links apples to r eligious practices in Germanic paganism, from which Norse paganism developed. Sh e points out that buckets of apples were found in the Oseberg ship burial site i n Norway, and that fruit and nuts (Iunn having been described as being transforme d into a nut in Skldskaparml) have been found in the early graves of the Germanic peoples in England and elsewhere on the continent of Europe, which may have had a symbolic meaning, and that nuts are still a recognized symbol of fertility in southwest England.[22] Davidson notes a connection between apples and the Vanir, a tribe of gods associ ated with fertility in Norse mythology, citing an instance of eleven "golden app les" being given to woo the beautiful Gerr by Skrnir, who was acting as messenger for the major Vanir god Freyr in stanzas 19 and 20 of Skrnisml. Davidson also note s a further connection between fertility and apples in Norse mythology in chapte r 2 of the Vlsunga saga when the major goddess Frigg sends King Rerir an apple af ter he prays to Odin for a child, Frigg's messenger (in the guise of a crow) dro

ps the apple in his lap as he sits atop a mound.[23] Rerir's wife's consumption of the apple results in a six-year pregnancy and the Caesarean section birth of their son the hero Vlsung.[24] Further, Davidson points out the "strange" phrase "Apples of Hel" used in an 11t h-century poem by the skald Thorbiorn Brnarson. She states this may imply that th e apple was thought of by Brnarson as the food of the dead. Further, Davidson not es that the potentially Germanic goddess Nehalennia is sometimes depicted with a pples and that parallels exist in early Irish stories. Davidson asserts that whi le cultivation of the apple in Northern Europe extends back to at least the time of the Roman Empire and came to Europe from the Near East, the native varieties of apple trees growing in Northern Europe are small and bitter. Davidson conclu des that in the figure of Iunn "we must have a dim reflection of an old symbol: t hat of the guardian goddess of the life-giving fruit of the other world."[22] Greek mythology Heracles with the apple of Hesperides Apples appear in many religious traditions, often as a mystical or forbidden fru it. One of the problems identifying apples in religion, mythology and folktales is that the word "apple" was used as a generic term for all (foreign) fruit, oth er than berries, including nuts, as late as the 17th century.[25] For instance, in Greek mythology, the Greek hero Heracles, as a part of his Twelve Labours, wa s required to travel to the Garden of the Hesperides and pick the golden apples off the Tree of Life growing at its center.[26][27][28] The Greek goddess of discord, Eris, became disgruntled after she was excluded fr om the wedding of Peleus and Thetis.[29] In retaliation, she tossed a golden app le inscribed ?a???st? (Kalliste, sometimes transliterated Kallisti, 'For the mos t beautiful one'), into the wedding party. Three goddesses claimed the apple: He ra, Athena, and Aphrodite. Paris of Troy was appointed to select the recipient. After being bribed by both Hera and Athena, Aphrodite tempted him with the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen of Sparta. He awarded the apple to Aphrodite , thus indirectly causing the Trojan War. The apple was thus considered, in ancient Greece, to be sacred to Aphrodite, and to throw an apple at someone was to symbolically declare one's love; and simila rly, to catch it was to symbolically show one's acceptance of that love.[30] An epigram claiming authorship by Plato states: I throw the apple at you, and if you are willing to love me, take it and share y our girlhood with me; but if your thoughts are what I pray they are not, even th en take it, and consider how short-lived is beauty. Plato, Epigram VII[31] Atalanta, also of Greek mythology, raced all her suitors in an attempt to avoid marriage. She outran all but Hippomenes (also known as Melanion, a name possibly derived from melon the Greek word for both "apple" and fruit in general),[27] w ho defeated her by cunning, not speed. Hippomenes knew that he could not win in a fair race, so he used three golden apples (gifts of Aphrodite, the goddess of love) to distract Atalanta. It took all three apples and all of his speed, but H ippomenes was finally successful, winning the race and Atalanta's hand.[26] The forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden Adam and Eve Showcasing the apple as a symbol of sin. Albrecht Drer, 1507 Though the forbidden fruit of Eden in the Book of Genesis is not identified, pop ular Christian tradition has held that it was an apple that Eve coaxed Adam to s hare with her.[32] The origin of the popular identification with a fruit unknown in the Middle East in biblical times is found in confusion between the Latin wo rds malum (an apple) and malum (an evil), each of which is normally written malu m.[33] The tree of the forbidden fruit is called "the tree of the knowledge of g ood and evil" in Genesis 2:17, and the Latin for "good and evil" is bonum et mal

um.[34] Renaissance painters may also have been influenced by the story of the golden ap ples in the Garden of Hesperides. As a result, in the story of Adam and Eve, the apple became a symbol for knowledge, immortality, temptation, the fall of man i nto sin, and sin itself. The larynx in the human throat has been called Adam's a pple because of a notion that it was caused by the forbidden fruit remaining in the throat of Adam.[32] The apple as symbol of sexual seduction has been used to imply sexuality between men, possibly in an ironic vein.[32] Cultivars

Red and Green apples in India Main article: List of apple cultivars There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples.[35] Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock. [36] Different cultivars are available for temperate and subtropical climates. T he UK's National Fruit Collection, which is the responsibility of the Department of Environment Food and Rural Affairs, has a collection of over 2,000 accession s in Kent.[37] The University of Reading, which is responsible for developing th e UK national collection database, provides access to search the national collec tion. The University of Reading's work is part of the European Cooperative Progr amme for Plant Genetic Resources of which there are 38 countries participating i n the Malus/Pyrus work group.[38] The UK's national fruit collection database contains a wealth of information on the characteristics and origin of many apples, including alternative names for w hat is essentially the same 'genetic' apple variety. Most of these cultivars are bred for eating fresh (dessert apples), though some are cultivated specifically for cooking (cooking apples) or producing cider. Cider apples are typically too tart and astringent to eat fresh, but they give the beverage a rich flavour tha t dessert apples cannot.[39] Commercially popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Other desired qualities in modern commercial apple breeding are a colourful skin, absence of russeting, ease of shipping, lengthy storage ability, high yields, disease resistance, com mon apple shape, and developed flavour.[36] Modern apples are generally sweeter than older cultivars, as popular tastes in apples have varied over time. Most No rth Americans and Europeans favour sweet, subacid apples, but tart apples have a strong minority following.[40] Extremely sweet apples with barely any acid flav our are popular in Asia[40] and especially India.[39] Old cultivars are often oddly shaped, russeted, and have a variety of textures a nd colours. Some find them to have a better flavour than modern cultivars,[41] b ut may have other problems which make them commercially unviable from low yield, disease susceptibility, or poor tolerance for storage or transport. A few old c ultivars are still produced on a large scale, but many have been preserved by ho me gardeners and farmers that sell directly to local markets. Many unusual and l ocally important cultivars with their own unique taste and appearance exist; app le conservation campaigns have sprung up around the world to preserve such local cultivars from extinction. In the United Kingdom, old cultivars such as 'Cox's Orange Pippin' and 'Egremont Russet' are still commercially important even thoug h by modern standards they are low yielding and susceptible to disease.[3] Cultivation Breeding See also: Fruit tree propagation and Malling series Apple pot In the wild, apples grow readily from seeds. However, like most perennial fruits , apples are ordinarily propagated asexually by grafting. This is because seedli ng apples are an example of "extreme heterozygotes", in that rather than inherit

ing DNA from their parents to create a new apple with those characteristics, the y are instead significantly different from their parents.[42] Triploid varieties have an additional reproductive barrier in that 3 sets of chromosomes cannot be divided evenly during meiosis, yielding unequal segregation of the chromosomes (aneuploids). Even in the case when a triploid plant can produce a seed (apples are an example), it occurs infrequently, and seedlings rarely survive.[43] Because apples do not breed true when planted as seeds, grafting is generally us ed to produce new apple trees. The rootstock used for the bottom of the graft ca n be selected to produce trees of a large variety of sizes, as well as changing the winter hardiness, insect and disease resistance, and soil preference of the resulting tree. Dwarf rootstocks can be used to produce very small trees (less t han 10 feet (3.0 m) high at maturity), which bear fruit earlier in their life cy cle than full size trees.[44] Dwarf rootstocks for apple trees can be traced as far back as 300 BC, to the area of Persia and Asia Minor. Alexander the Great se nt samples of dwarf apple trees to Aristotle's Lyceum. Dwarf rootstocks became c ommon by the 15th century, and later went through several cycles of popularity a nd decline throughout the world.[45] The majority of the rootstocks used today t o control size in apples were developed in England in the early 1900s. The East Malling Research Station conducted extensive research into rootstocks, and today their rootstocks are given an "M" prefix to designate their origin. Rootstocks marked with an "MM" prefix are Malling-series varieties later crossed with trees of the Northern Spy variety in Merton, England.[46] Most new apple cultivars originate as seedlings, which either arise by chance or are bred by deliberately crossing cultivars with promising characteristics.[47] The words 'seedling', 'pippin', and 'kernel' in the name of an apple cultivar s uggest that it originated as a seedling. Apples can also form bud sports (mutati ons on a single branch). Some bud sports turn out to be improved strains of the parent cultivar. Some differ sufficiently from the parent tree to be considered new cultivars.[48] Since the 1930s, the Excelsior Experiment Station at the University of Minnesota has introduced a steady progression of important apples that are widely grown, both commercially and by local orchardists, throughout Minnesota and Wisconsin. Its most important contributions have included 'Haralson' (which is the most wid ely cultivated apple in Minnesota), 'Wealthy', 'Honeygold', and 'Honeycrisp'. Apples have been acclimatized in Ecuador at very high altitudes, where they prov ide crops twice per year because of constant temperate conditions year-round.[49 ] Pollination See also: Fruit tree pollination Apple blossom from an old Ayrshire variety Orchard mason bee on apple bloom, British Columbia, Canada Apples are self-incompatible; they must cross-pollinate to develop fruit. During the flowering each season, apple growers often utilize pollinators to carry pol len. Honey bees are most commonly used. Orchard mason bees are also used as supp lemental pollinators in commercial orchards. Bumblebee queens are sometimes pres ent in orchards, but not usually in enough quantity to be significant pollinator s.[48] There are four to seven pollination groups in apples, depending on climate: Early flowering, 1 to 3 May in England (Gravenstein, Red Astrachan) Group A Group B 4 to 7 May (Idared, McIntosh) Group C Mid-season flowering, 8 to 11 May (Granny Smith, Cox's Orange Pippin) Group D Mid/late season flowering, 12 to 15 May (Golden Delicious, Calville blan c d'hiver) Group E Late flowering, 16 to 18 May (Braeburn, Reinette d'Orlans) Group F 19 to 23 May (Suntan) Group H 24 to 28 May (Court-Pendu Gris) (also called Court-Pendu plat)

One cultivar can be pollinated by a compatible cultivar from the same group or c lose (A with A, or A with B, but not A with C or D).[50] Varieties are sometimes classified by the day of peak bloom in the average 30-da y blossom period, with pollenizers selected from varieties within a 6-day overla p period. Maturation and harvest See also: Fruit picking and Fruit tree pruning Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock. Some cultivars, if left unpruned, will grow very large, which allows them to bear much more fruit, but makes harvesting very difficult. Depending on the tree density (number of trees planted per unit surface area), m ature trees typically bear 40 200 kilograms (88 440 lb) of apples each year, though productivity can be close to zero in poor years. Apples are harvested using thre e-point ladders that are designed to fit amongst the branches. Trees grafted on dwarfing rootstocks will bear about 10 80 kilograms (22 180 lb) of fruit per year.[4 8] Crops ripen at different times of the year according to the variety of apple. Va rieties that yield their crop in the summer include Gala, Golden Supreme, McInto sh, Transparent, Primate, Sweet Bough, and Duchess; fall producers include Fuji, Jonagold, Golden Delicious, Red Delicious, Chenango, Gravenstein, Wealthy, McIn tosh, Snow, and Blenheim; winter producers include Winesap, Granny Smith, King, Wagener, Swayzie, Greening, and Tolman Sweet.[18] Storage Commercially, apples can be stored for some months in controlled-atmosphere cham bers to delay ethylene-induced ripening. Apples are commonly stored in chambers with higher concentrations of carbon dioxide and high air filtration. This preve nts ethylene concentrations from rising to higher amounts and preventing ripenin g from occurring too quickly. Ripening continues when the fruit is removed from storage.[51] For home storage, most varieties of apple can be held for approxima tely two weeks when kept at the coolest part of the refrigerator (i.e. below 5 C) . Some types, including the Granny Smith and Fuji, can be stored up to a year wi thout significant degradation.[52][53] Pests and diseases Leaves with significant insect damage Main article: List of apple diseases See also: List of Lepidoptera that feed on Malus Apple trees are susceptible to a number of fungal and bacterial diseases and ins ect pests. Many commercial orchards pursue an aggressive program of chemical spr ays to maintain high fruit quality, tree health, and high yields. A trend in orc hard management is the use of organic methods. These ban the use of some pestici des, though some older pesticides are allowed. Organic methods include, for inst ance, introducing its natural predator to reduce the population of a particular pest. A wide range of pests and diseases can affect the plant; three of the more commo n diseases/pests are mildew, aphids and apple scab. Mildew: which is characterized by light grey powdery patches appearing on the le aves, shoots and flowers, normally in spring. The flowers will turn a creamy yel low colour and will not develop correctly. This can be treated in a manner not d issimilar from treating Botrytis; eliminating the conditions which caused the di sease in the first place and burning the infected plants are among the recommend ed actions to take.[54] Aphids: There are five species of aphids commonly found on apples: apple grain a phid, rosy apple aphid, apple aphid, spirea aphid and the woolly apple aphid. Th e aphid species can be identified by their colour, the time of year when they ar e present and by differences in the cornicles, which are small paired projection s from the rear of aphids.[54] Aphids feed on foliage using needle-like mouth pa rts to suck out plant juices. When present in high numbers, certain species redu ce tree growth and vigor.[55]

Apple scab: Apple scab causes leaves to develop olive-brown spots with a velvety texture that later turn brown and become cork-like in texture. The disease also affects the fruit, which also develops similar brown spots with velvety or cork -like textures. Apple scab is spread through fungus growing in old apple leaves on the ground and spreads during warm spring weather to infect the new year's gr owth.[56] Among the most serious disease problems are fireblight, a bacterial disease; and Gymnosporangium rust, and black spot, two fungal diseases.[55] Codling moths an d apple maggots are two other pests which affect apple trees. Young apple trees are also prone to mammal pests like mice and deer, which feed on the soft bark o f the trees, especially in winter.[56] Production

Worldwide apple production About 69 million tonnes of apples were grown worldwide in 2010, with China produ cing almost half of this total. The United States is the second-leading producer , with more than 6% of world production. The largest exporters of apples in 2009 were China, the U.S., Poland, Italy, Chile, and France while the biggest import ers in the same year were Russia, Germany, the UK and the Netherlands.[57] In the United States, more than 60% of all the apples sold commercially are grow n in Washington state.[58] Imported apples from New Zealand and other more tempe rate areas are competing with US production and increasing each year.[59] Most of Australia's apple production is for domestic consumption. Imports from N ew Zealand have been disallowed under quarantine regulations for fireblight sinc e 1921.[60] Top ten apple producers in 2010 Country Production (tonnes) Footnote People's Republic of China 33 265 186 United States 4 212 330 Turkey 2 600 000 Italy 2 204 970 India 2 163 400 Im Poland 1 858 970 France 1 711 230 Iran 1 662 430 Brazil 1 275 850 Chile 1 100 000 F World 69 569 612 A No symbol = official figure, F = FAO estimate, Im = FAO data based on imputation methodology, A = May include official, semi-official or estimated data Source: [1] Other countries with a significant production are Russia, Ukraine, Argentina, Ge rmany and Japan. Human consumption See also: Cooking apple and Cider apple Different kinds of apple cultivars in a supermarket An apple core, the remainder of an apple that has been mostly eaten Apples are often eaten raw. The whole fruit including the skin is suitable for h uman consumption except for the seeds, which may affect some consumers. The core is often not eaten and is discarded. Varieties bred for raw consumption are ter med dessert or table apples. Apples can be canned or juiced. They are milled or pressed to produce apple juic e, which may be drunk unfiltered (called apple cider in North America), or filte

red. The juice can be fermented to make cider (called hard cider in North Americ a), ciderkin, and vinegar. Through distillation, various alcoholic beverages can be produced, such as applejack, Calvados,[61] and apfelwein. Apple seed oil[62] and pectin may also be produced. Popular uses Apples are an important ingredient in many desserts, such as apple pie, apple cr umble, apple crisp and apple cake. They are often eaten baked or stewed, and the y can also be dried and eaten or reconstituted (soaked in water, alcohol or some other liquid) for later use. Pured apples are generally known as apple sauce. Ap ples are also made into apple butter and apple jelly. They are also used (cooked ) in meat dishes. In the UK, a toffee apple is a traditional confection made by coating an apple i n hot toffee and allowing it to cool. Similar treats in the US are candy apples (coated in a hard shell of crystallized sugar syrup), and caramel apples, coated with cooled caramel. Apples are eaten with honey at the Jewish New Year of Rosh Hashanah to symbolize a sweet new year.[61] Farms with apple orchards may open them to the public, so consumers may themselv es pick the apples they will purchase.[61] Sliced apples turn brown with exposure to air due to the conversion of natural p henolic substances into melanin upon exposure to oxygen.[63] Different cultivars vary in their propensity to brown after slicing.[64] Sliced fruit can be treate d with acidulated water to prevent this effect.[63] Organic production Organic Jonathan apples sitting in a sink strainer after being washed. Organic apples are commonly produced in the United States.[65] Organic productio n is difficult in Europe, though a few orchards have done so with commercial suc cess,[65] using disease-resistant cultivars. A light coating of kaolin, which fo rms a physical barrier to some pests, also helps prevent apple sun scalding.[48] [65] Allergy One form of apple allergy, often found in northern Europe, is called birch-apple syndrome, and is found in people who are also allergic to birch pollen.[66] All ergic reactions are triggered by a protein in apples that is similar to birch po llen, and people affected by this protein can also develop allergies to other fr uits, nuts, and vegetables. Reactions, which entail oral allergy syndrome (OAS), generally involve itching and inflammation of the mouth and throat,[66] but in rare cases can also include life-threatening anaphylaxis.[67] This reaction only occurs when raw fruit is consumed the allergen is neutralized in the cooking proc ess. The variety of apple, maturity and storage conditions can change the amount of allergen present in individual fruits. Long storage times can increase the a mount of proteins that cause birch-apple syndrome.[66] In other areas, such as the Mediterranean, some individuals have adverse reactio ns to apples because of their similarity to peaches.[66] This form of apple alle rgy also includes OAS, but often has more severe symptoms, such as vomiting, abd ominal pain and urticaria, and can be life-threatening. Individuals with this fo rm of allergy can also develop reactions to other fruits and nuts. Cooking does not break down the protein causing this particular reaction, so affected individ uals can eat neither raw nor cooked apples. Freshly harvested, over-ripe fruits tend to have the highest levels of the protein that causes this reaction.[66] Breeding efforts have yet to produce a hypoallergenic fruit suitable for either of the two forms of apple allergy.[66] Toxicity of seeds The seeds of apples contain small amounts of amygdalin, a sugar and cyanide comp ound known as a cyanogenic glycoside. Ingesting small amounts of apple seeds wil l cause no ill effects, but in extremely large doses can cause adverse reactions . There is only one known case of fatal cyanide poisoning from apple seeds; in t his case the individual chewed and swallowed one cup of seeds. It may take sever

al hours before the poison takes effect, as cyanogenic glycosides must be hydrol yzed before the cyanide ion is released.[68] Nutrition Apples, with skin (edible parts) Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 218 kJ (52 kcal) Carbohydrates 13.81 g - Sugars 10.39 - Dietary fiber 2.4 g Fat 0.17 g Protein 0.26 g Water 85.56 g Vitamin A equiv. 3 g (0%) - beta-carotene 27 g (0%) - lutein and zeaxanthin 29 g Thiamine (vit. B1) 0.017 mg (1%) Riboflavin (vit. B2) 0.026 mg (2%) Niacin (vit. B3) 0.091 mg (1%) Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.061 mg (1%) Vitamin B6 0.041 mg (3%) Folate (vit. B9) 3 g (1%) Vitamin C 4.6 mg (6%) Vitamin E 0.18 mg (1%) Vitamin K 2.2 g (2%) Calcium 6 mg (1%) Iron 0.12 mg (1%) Magnesium 5 mg (1%) Manganese 0.035 mg (2%) Phosphorus 11 mg (2%) Potassium 107 mg (2%) Sodium 1 mg (0%) Zinc 0.04 mg (0%) Fluoride 3.3 g Link to USDA Database entry Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database The proverb "An apple a day keeps the doctor away.", addressing the health effec ts of the fruit, dates from 19th century Wales.[69] Preliminary research suggest s that apples may reduce the risk of colon cancer, prostate cancer and lung canc er.[70] Apple peels contain ursolic acid which, in rat studies, increases skelet al muscle and brown fat, and decreases white fat, obesity, glucose intolerance, and fatty liver disease.[71] According to the United States Department of Agricu lture, a typical apple serving weighs 242 grams and contains 126 calories with s ignificant dietary fiber and vitamin C content.[72] Apple peels are a source of various phytochemicals with unknown nutritional valu e[63] and possible antioxidant activity in vitro.[73] The predominant phenolic p hytochemicals in apples are quercetin, epicatechin, and procyanidin B2.[74] Apple juice concentrate has been found in mice to increase the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.[75] Other studies have shown an "alleviation of oxidative damage and cognitive decline" in mice after the administration of app le juice.[76] Fruit flies fed an apple extract lived 10% longer than other flies fed a normal diet.[77] References Jump up ^ "Malus pumila auct.". Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) o nline database. Retrieved 2012-01-04. Jump up ^ "Pyrus malus L.". Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) onlin e database. Retrieved 2012-01-29.

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Jump up ^ Heinrich, Clark (2002). Magic Mushrooms in Religion and Alchemy. Roche ster: Park Street Press. pp. 64 70. ISBN 0-89281-997-9. Jump up ^ Herodotus Histories 6.1.191. Jump up ^ Edmonds, J. M., trans.; rev. John M. Cooper. "Epigrams". Plato: Comple te Works. Ed. John M. Cooper. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997. p 1744, note to VII. Print. Jump up ^ Edmonds, J. M., trans.; rev. John M. Cooper. "Epigrams". Plato: Comple te Works. Ed. John M. Cooper. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997. p 1744. Print. ^ Jump up to: a b c Macrone, Michael; Tom Lulevitch (1998). Brush up your Bible! . Tom Lulevitch. Random House Value. ISBN 0-517-20189-5. OCLC 38270894. Jump up ^ Paul J. Kissling, Genesis (College Press 2004 ISBN 978-0-89900875-2), vol. 1, p. 193 Jump up ^ Hendel, The Book of Genesis: A Biography (Princeton University Press 2 012 ISBN 978-0-69114012-4), p. 114 Jump up ^ Elzebroek, A.T.G.; Wind, K. (2008). Guide to Cultivated Plants. Wallin gford: CAB International. p. 27. ISBN 1-84593-356-7. ^ Jump up to: a b "Apple Malus domestica". Natural England. Archived from the or iginal on 12 May 2008. Retrieved 22 January 2008. Jump up ^ ""National Fruit Collections at Brogdale", Farm Advisory Services Team ". Retrieved 2 December 2012. Jump up ^ ECPGR Malus/Pyrus Working Group Members ^ Jump up to: a b Sue Tarjan (fall 2006). "Autumn Apple Musings" (PDF). News & N otes of the UCSC Farm & Garden, Center for Agroecology & Sustainable Food System s. pp. 1 2. Archived from the original on 11 August 2007. Retrieved 24 January 200 8. ^ Jump up to: a b "World apple situation". Archived from the original on 11 Febr uary 2008. Retrieved 24 January 2008. Jump up ^ Weaver, Sue (June/July 2003). "Crops & Gardening Apples of Antiquity". Hobby Farms magazine (BowTie, Inc). Jump up ^ John Lloyd and John Mitchinson (2006). QI: The Complete First Series Q I Factoids (DVD). 2 entertain. Jump up ^ "NCSU.edu". Ces.ncsu.edu. 24 July 2009. Retrieved 7 November 2010. Jump up ^ William G. Lord and Amy Ouellette (February 2010). "Dwarf Rootstocks f or Apple Trees in the Home Garden" (PDF). University of New Hampshire. Retrieved 2013-09-01. Jump up ^ Esmaeil Fallahi, W. Michael Colt, Bahar Fallahi, Ik-Jo Chun (January-M arch 2002). "The Importance of Apple Rootstocks on Tree Growth, Yield, Fruit Qua lity, Leaf Nutrition, and Photosynthesis with an Emphasis on Fuji " (PDF). Hort Tec hnology 12 (1). Jump up ^ ML Parker (September 1993). "Apple Rootstocks and Tree Spacing". North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Retrieved 2013-09-01. Jump up ^ Ferree, David Curtis; Ian J. Warrington (1999). Apples: Botany, Produc tion and Uses. CABI Publishing. ISBN 0-85199-357-5. OCLC 182530169. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Bob Polomski; Greg Reighard. "Apple". Clemson University. Archived from the original on 28 February 2008. Retrieved 22 January 2008. Jump up ^ "Apples in Ecuador". Acta Hort. Retrieved 17 July 2008. Jump up ^ S. Sansavini (1 July 1986). "The chilling requirement in apple and its role in regulating Time of flowering in spring in cold-Winter Climate". Symposi um on Growth Regulators in Fruit Production (International ed.). Acta Horticultu rae. p. 179. ISBN 978-90-6605-182-9. Jump up ^ "Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CA)". Washington State Apple Advertisi ng Commission. Archived from the original on 11 March 2008. Retrieved 24 January 2008. Jump up ^ "Food Science Australia Fact Sheet: Refrigerated storage of perishable foods". Food Science Australia. February 2005. Retrieved 25 May 2007. Jump up ^ Yepsen, Roger (1994). Apples. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-0 3690-1. ^ Jump up to: a b Lowther, Granville; William Worthington. The Encyclopedia of P ractical Horticulture: A Reference System of Commercial Horticulture, Covering t he Practical and Scientific Phases of Horticulture, with Special Reference to Fr

uits and Vegetables. The Encyclopedia of horticulture corporation. ^ Jump up to: a b Coli, William et al.. "Apple Pest Management Guide". Universit y of Massachusetts Amherst. Archived from the original on 12 February 2008. Retr ieved 3 March 2008. ^ Jump up to: a b Bradley, Fern Marshall; Ellis, Barbara W.; Martin, Deborah L., ed. (2009). The Organic Gardener's Handbook of Natural Pest and Disease Control . Rodale, Inc. pp. 32 34. ISBN 978-1-60529-677-7. Jump up ^ "FAO". Faostat.fao.org. 8 August 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2012. Jump up ^ Desmond, Andrew (1994). The World Apple Market. Haworth Press. pp. 144 1 49. ISBN 1-56022-041-4. OCLC 243470452. Jump up ^ Kristin Churchill. "Chinese apple-juice concentrate exports to United States continue to rise". Great American Publishing. Archived from the original on 16 October 2006. Retrieved 22 January 2008. Jump up ^ Gavin Evans (Tuesday, 9 August 2005). "Fruit ban rankles New Zealand A ustralian apple growers say risk of disease justifies barriers". International H erald Tribune. Retrieved 9 August 2005. ^ Jump up to: a b c "Apples". Washington State Apple Advertising Commission. Arc hived from the original on 20 December 2007. Retrieved 22 January 2008. Jump up ^ Yu, Xiuzhu; Van De Voort, Frederick R.; Li, Zhixi; Yue, Tianli (2007). "Proximate Composition of the Apple Seed and Characterization of Its Oil". Inte rnational Journal of Food Engineering 3 (5). doi:10.2202/1556-3758.1283. ^ Jump up to: a b c Boyer, Jeanelle; Liu, RH (May 2004). "Apple phytochemicals a nd their health benefits". Nutrition journal (Cornell University, Ithaca, New Yo rk 14853-7201 USA: Department of Food Science and Institute of Comparative and E nvironmental Toxicology) 3 (1): 5. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-3-5. PMC 442131. PMID 1 5140261. Jump up ^ The Brown Apple. // The New York Times, 22.11.2010 ^ Jump up to: a b c Ames, Guy (July 2001). "Considerations in organic apple prod uction" (PDF). National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. Retrieved 2 4 January 2008. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "General Information Apple". Informall. Archived from the original on 2012-07-23. Retrieved 17 October 2011. Jump up ^ Landau, Elizabeth, Oral allergy syndrome may explain mysterious reacti ons, 8 April 2009, CNN Health, accessed 17 October 2011 Jump up ^ Lewis S. Nelson; Richard D. Shih; Michael J. Balick (2007). Handbook o f poisonous and injurious plants. Springer. pp. 211 212. ISBN 978-0-387-33817-0. R etrieved 13 April 2013. Jump up ^ Phillips, John Pavin (24 February 1866). "A Pembrokeshire Proverb". No tes and Queries (Oxford University Press). s3-IX (217): 153. Retrieved 11 Februa ry 2009. Jump up ^ For decreased risk of colon, prostate and lung cancer: "Nutrition to R educe Cancer Risk". The Stanford Cancer Center (SCC). Retrieved 18 August 2008. Jump up ^ Kunkel SD, Elmore CJ, Bongers KS, Ebert SM, Fox DK, et al. (2012) Urso lic Acid Increases Skeletal Muscle and Brown Fat and Decreases Diet-Induced Obes ity, Glucose Intolerance and Fatty Liver Disease. PLoS ONE 7(6): e39332. doi:10. 1371/journal.pone.0039332 Jump up ^ "Nutrition Facts, Apples, raw, with skin [Includes USDA commodity food A343]". Nutritiondata.com. Retrieved 2013-01-03. Jump up ^ Lee KW, Lee SJ, Kang NJ, Lee CY, Lee HJ, KW (2004). "Effects of phenol ics in Empire apples on hydrogen peroxide-induced inhibition of gap-junctional i ntercellular communication". Biofactors 21 (1 4): 361 5. doi:10.1002/biof.552210169. ISSN 0951-6433. PMID 15630226. Jump up ^ Lee KW, Kim YJ, Kim DO, Lee HJ, Lee CY, KW (October 2003). "Major phen olics in apple and their contribution to the total antioxidant capacity". J. Agr ic. Food Chem. 51 (22): 6516 6520. doi:10.1021/jf034475w. ISSN 0021-8561. PMID 145 58772. Jump up ^ "Research Shows Benefits Of Apple Juice On Neurotransmitter Affecting Memory". ScienceDaily. 2006-01-08. Retrieved 2013-03-01. Jump up ^ For prevention of dementia: Chan A, Graves V, Shea TB, A (August 2006) . "Apple juice concentrate maintains acetylcholine levels following dietary comp

romise". Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 9 (3): 287 291. ISSN 1387-2877. PMID 16914 839. Jump up ^ Maher, Theresa. "Antioxidants Found in Apples May Extend Lifespan". Jo urnal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011. PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Ward, Artemas (1911). The Grocer's Encyclopedia. Further reading Books Browning, F. (1999). Apples: The Story of the Fruit of Temptation. North Point P ress. ISBN 978-0-86547-579-3 Mabberley, D.J. / Juniper, B.E. (2009). The Story of the Apple. Timber Press. IS BN 978-1-60469-172-6 Review articles on possible health benefits Gerhauser, C. "Cancer chemopreventive potential of apples, apple juice, and appl e components", Planta Medica (2008),74(13):1608 1624. Hyson, D.A. "A Comprehensive Review of Apples and Apple Components and Their Rel ationship to Human Health", Advances in Nutrition. An International Review Journ al (2011),2(5):408 420. External links Find more about Apple at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions and translations from Wiktionary Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Species directories Malus domestica from Wikispecies Apple at Wikibook Cookbooks Apples at the Open Directory Project Apple Facts from the UK's Institute of Food Research National Fruit Collection (UK) Brogdale Farm (home of the UK's National Fruit Collection) Grand Valley State University digital collections- diary of Ohio fruit farmer Th eodore Peticolas, 1863 [hide] v t e Apple cultivars Dessert and dual purpose apples Adams Pearmain Ambrosia Antonovka Arkansas Black Ashmead's Kernel Aurora Golden Gala Baldwin Ben Davis Blenheim Orange Beauty of Bath Belle de Boskoop Braeburn Brina Cameo Cornish Gilliflower Cortland Cox's Orange Pippin Cripps Pink (Pink L ady) Discovery Egremont Russet Elstar Empire Esopus Spitzenburg Fuji Gala Ginger Gold Golden Orange Golden Delicious Granny Smith Gravenstein Grimes Golden Hara lson Honeycrisp Idared James Grieve Jazz Jersey Black Jonagold Jonathan Karmijn de Sonnaville King Byerd Knobbed Russet Liberty Macoun McIntosh Mutsu Newtown Pi ppin Nicola Opal Papirovka Paula Red Pink Pearl Pinova Ralls Genet Rambo Red Del icious Redlove Era Rhode Island Greening Ribston Pippin Rome Roxbury Russet Rube ns (Civni) Sekai Ichi Spartan Stayman Sturmer Pippin Summerfree SweeTango Taliaf erro Tompkins King Topaz Wealthy York Imperial Zestar Apples.jpg Cooking apples Bramley Calville Blanc d'hiver Flower of Kent Golden Noble Norfolk Biffin Northe rn Spy Cider apples Brown Snout Dabinett Foxwhelp Harrison Cider Apple Kingston Black Redstreak Styr e Categories: ApplesMalusPlants described in 1803Sequenced genomes

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