Appendix 5

Comparisons between installing 220kV underground transmission cables and installing other longitudinal infrastructure for example, high pressure gas or water pipe lines; underground distribution cables and communication cables
Installation requirements and provision for maintenance & repairs differ significantly between those for extra high voltage (220kV) underground transmission cables and lower voltage underground distribution cables; underground communication cables and high pressure gas or water pipe lines. There are also variations in easement requirements and easement conditions In simple terms: Metallic or polymeric (plastic) gas or water pipes are transported to site and laid in manageable sections (and manageable weights) and welded, or otherwise connected together, as trench excavation progresses. Trenches are narrow and, other than a bedding comprised of sand (to protect the outer surface of pipes) there are no special trench excavation or back-filling requirements. Similar installation conditions to those for gas & water pipes may apply for lower voltage underground distribution cables and communications cables (whether electric or fibre optic). These are often laid in ducts. Trenches are narrow (the width of a small back-hoe bucket) and other than for sand bedding there are no special trench excavation or back-filling requirements.

In the case of extra high voltage underground power cables (including 220kV) there are factors that impose significant differences in installation & maintenance requirements to those for water or gas pipes or lower voltage circuits namely:

1. Dissipation of heat generated by underground cables.

As underground cables transmit energy (in this case from the wind farm to the main grid) the cables generate heat which, if not efficiently dissipated, will cause the cables to over-heat and eventually fail. (This was precisely one of the contributing factors that led to the cable failures and eventual black-outs in Auckland in 1998) Soil samples taken from site in the Limestone Downs Orton area are estimated to have a high thermal resistivity meaning the soil will impose a barrier to heat wanting to escape from the cables to the surface. This shall be confirmed by thermal resistivity test on site & in laboratory prior to proceeding with the project. Well accepted practice, world wide, is to improve this situation by bedding and covering the cables with a controlled medium comprised of a weak mix of sand and cement. (Refer diagram below) Vast quantities of this mix (equivalent to excavated spoil) would be required adding substantial costs and transport difficulties in acquiring, delivering, placing & compacting it over the entire cable route.

Typical cable installation in trench with cables in flat formation

2. Installing and jointing cables

Cables of this size and voltage are not manufactured in New Zealand. Each cable drum, containing around 700metres of cable and weighing up to 20 Tones, would require to be transported from Auckland on multi-wheeled vehicle to sites at 700 m intervals, there to be craned off, winched/pulled into position (in the cable trench), then to be bedded & covered with protective concrete cable covers and special backfill and then to be jointed in a controlled environment in what is known as a joint bay comprising a tented enclosure of the size, and with features, as shown below. The duration of works associated with Joint bays (construction and cable jointing) could be as long as 3 to 4 weeks.

Joint bay (4m x 12m) in roadway

Interior of joint bay prior to jointing (Would exceed width of Baker Rd. in places)

3. Managing cable sheath losses

At transmission voltages, including 220kV, special bonding techniques termed cross bonding provide the only practical means to mitigate losses in outer metallic sheaths of underground power cables. (For technical explanation refer to Appendix 6) Cross bonding systems include surge arrestors and other equipment mounted in underground link boxes that require testing at regular intervals (usually annually). For that purpose that equipment is located within pits as shown below which, for

ready access and safety to testing staff, are located away from trafficable roads in footpaths see below.

Link box U/G concrete pit

Baker, Wairamarama and Matakitaki Rds. would present considerable challenges in that they are very narrow and in many cases bounded by steep drops on one side and steep inclines on the other where they are carved into mountain sides see Photos No 4 & 5 in Attachment No.1 to Consolidated report. In these situations there would be no alternative but to install link pits together with joint bays and pits for optic fibre cables (if fibres were to be part of the cable installation) in road ways.

Appendix 6

Current rating and electrical losses of high voltage power cable systems
1. Cable Rating Influencing Factors
The current rating of high voltage (HV) underground (U/G) power cable circuits is, primarily, influenced by the environmental factors and cable losses. Both factors are fully considered for determination of cable type and installation particulars by taking into consideration the economic aspects related to the cost of materials, installation of cable and accessories, running cost (whole life cost), capitalised cost of losses and ancillary equipment such as bonding, condition monitoring systems and compensating equipment. a. Environmental Factors The most specific factors which have a greater impact on cable current rating or loading capacity are as follows: Air and soil maximum ambient temperature Soil thermal resistivity (TR) under the most severe climatic conditions in respect to water (humidity) content b. Installation Particulars Extra high voltage (EHV) power cable circuits (including 220kV) are manufactured in form of single-core cables which could be installed in trefoil or flat formations.

The installation option is selected to correlate the cable type /conductor size with the environmental parameters to get the required cable carrying capacity.

Fig1: Typical installation configuration of single-core power cables in trefoil formation

This type of cable configuration has the advantage of minimising the sheath circulating currents induced by the magnetic flux linking the cable conductors and metallic sheath or copper wire screens. This configuration is generally used for cables of lower voltages (33 to 132kV) and of smaller conductor sizes However, for EHV cable systems the trefoil formation is not appropriate for heat dissipation because there is an appreciable mutual heating effect of the three cables. The cumulated heat in cables and cable trench has the effect of reducing the cable rating and accelerating the cable ageing In order to improve the natural heat dissipation from around the cable circuits the three single-core cables could be installed in flat formation (Fig2). This configuration allows for a significant increase of current rating of EHV cable circuits.

Fig. 2: Typical installation configuration of single-core power cables in flat formation In Fig. 2 are shown the CMS (condition monitoring system) and communication cables installed between the 220kV single-core power cables. In addition, to the centre power cable is attached the DTS (distributed temperature sensing) optical fibre cable. Both the DTS and CMS are designed to continuously monitor the cable and environment temperatures and to perform other supervisory functions as well The installation of cables in flat formation requires special bonding solutions of cable metallic sheaths to reduce/eliminate the circulating currents. Nevertheless, in case of unfavourable environmental conditions related to soil thermal characteristics or of ambient temperature the sole application of flat configured cables and of special bonding system may not provide the expect result and as a consequence the following techniques should be employed to achieve the required current rating:

Replace a certain amount of soil adjacent to the excavated cable trench with aggregates or imported soils of suitable thermal resistivity.

Use of specialised bedding and backfilling materials such as: Sand/cement mix of 14: 1, 20:1 or of other proportions Fluidised backfill Blended sands or crushed rock of variable gain sizes

All ducts and micro tunnels be filled with bentonite and respectively light concrete

Artificial cooling Particular installation configurations of single-core cables or of cable circuits within a given cable corridor

Special bonding system of cable metallic sheaths designed to reduce the electric losses

Install double cable circuits in a single or adjacent trenches or other applicable site conditions

2. Electrical Losses
Under service conditions, regardless of magnitude of transported the power cables are subjected to electrical losses manifested as heat in insulation and metallic components. Based on the location were they are generated and the generation cause the electrical losses could be qualified as current and voltage-dependent losses. The current-depending losses are generated in cable conductors, metallic sheath or/and metallic wires designed to carry fault currents For a simplified cable system (land cable circuit) the three main cable component responsible for electrical losses are the conductor(s), the insulation and the metallic sheaths or/and the metallic wire screens.

2.1 Conductor Losses Conductors losses are ohmic losses, i.e. heat (Watt/meter) generated by the current flowing in the cable conductor(s) and are calculated with the following formula: Wc = I2 Ra.c I = current flowing in the conductor (A) Ra.c = A.C. electrical resistance () of conductor at given temperature ( C) The A.C. electrical resistance () is dependent, in addition to the D.C resistance (Rd.c) on skin (ys) and the proximity (yp) effects which are responsible for the uneven distribution of load current across the conductor cross sectional area, so the Ra.c resistance could be defined as: Ra.c = Rd.c (1 + ys + yp) Rd.c = Ro [1 + 20 ( 20)] Ro = D.C electrical resistance at 20 C 20 = Constant mass temperature coefficient at 20 C per Kelvin = maximum operating temperature ( C) Skin effect (ys ) is attributed to the variation of conductor self-inductance which is greater to the centre of the conductor than to its periphery and as a consequence the current flow is maximum at the conductor surface and minimum at the conductor core This phenomenon is one cause of increased A.C. resistance of conductors. Proximity effect (yp) is generated by the magnetic field produced by the currents flowing in parallel cable conductors of another cable circuit or other parallel current carrying conductors. The associated magnetic field embraces that conductor and at the same time it encircles the parallel conductors in close proximity.

The effect is explained by the fact that when two conductors carrying alternating current are parallel and in close proximity, the current densities on the inner area (side facing each other) are smaller than the current density flowing in the outer area (remote side) of the conductors due to the difference in magnetic flux densities cutting the conductors cross area. So, the A.C. conductor resistance is defined by the D.C resistance and the skin and proximity factors as indicated by the following formula: Ra.c = Rd.c (1 + ys + yp) The calculation of skin (ys) and proximity (yp) effect factors is based on the empirical formula given in the IEC 60287 Standard The proximity effect factor (yp) is determined by the cable D.C. resistance, system frequency, cable spacing and cable diameter while the ys is influenced only by conductor d.c resistance and system frequency: ys = (R , f) yp = (dc , R, s , f) The skin and proximity effects could be ignored for small conductors carrying low currents, however for high rating cables requiring large conductors these effects are significant and it is essential to include design feature to compensate their effect.

The Milliken or Segmental conductors, which consist of several individually or alternated insulated sector shaped strands, provide the desired solution (Fig. 3).
Cable conductor (Milliken) Cable Insulation

Fig. 3: Milliken Cable Conductor (Fluidfilled Cable System) The modern technologies apply a layer of enamel or Cu oxide on individual wires forming the sector shaped strands. The economic justification of this type of conductor is validated when using cables of minimum 800mm2

2.2

Dielectric and Charging Current Losses

A power cable is a large capacitor of certain capacitance characterised by dielectric constant () and electrical resistance. The two parameters and the magnitude and frequency of applied voltage determine the magnitude of charging current and dielectric losses. Both, the charging current and dielectric losses are voltage-dependent and they are generated in cable insulation at any time the cable is connected to the grid. The charging currents are generated by the cable itself and produce a certain amount of losses which, in combination with the system reactive power generate losses reducing the flow of active/real power (MW).

The charging current charges and discharges the cable (capacitor) 50 times per second. While the charging current is a reactive current the dielectric losses are determined by real power currents. The reactive power transported by the cable is independent of cable system; it is a parameter determined by the system configuration and the elements designed to compensate the reactive power flow The charging (IC) and resistive (IR) currents flowing through the cable insulation are calculated with the following equations: IC= C Uo (charging current) IR = Uo/R (leakage current), While the dielectric losses are calculate from the equation: Wd = Uo Ic tan, or Wd = CUo2 tan Where:

18 ln Di dc C = cable capacitance = 2 = system frequency Uo = phase voltage tan = dielectric power factor R = insulation resistance = dielectric constant Di = insulation diameter dc = conductor diameter
For high and extra-high voltage cables the dielectric losses (Wd) could be relatively high and may have significant contribution to in determination of cable ratings The cable dimensions and the insulation dielectric constant are the basic factors responsible for the size of capacitance. [C = /18ln (D insulation /d conductor)] while the tan is dependent on frequency, temperature and the applied voltage and is being influenced by the following factors:

c=

10

Leakage current flowing across the resistive component of cable (capacitor) insulation is very much influenced by the quality-cleanliness of insulating materials. The leakage current is an ionic conduction due to the presence of free electrons flowing in the direction of electric field.

Dielectric hysteresis losses caused by the interaction of alternating electrical field with the molecular structure of cable insulation; a sort of mechanical work aiming to orientate the bipolar microscopic molecules of insulation, or of contaminants, in the direction of electrical field. As the field direction changes 50 times/sec, the cumulative impact of hysteresis effect could be significant and, in fact, it is the major contributor to dielectric losses.

Ionisation and low energy discharges inside the insulation.

2.3

Sheath Losses

Sheath losses are current-dependent losses and are generated by the induced currents when load current flows in cable conductors. The sheath currents in single-core cables are induced by transformer effect; i.e. by the magnetic field of alternating current flowing in cable conductor which induces voltages in cable sheath or other parallel conductors. The sheath induced electromotive forces (emf) generate two types of losses: circulating current losses (1) and eddy current losses (1), so the total losses in cable metallic sheath are: 1 = 1 + 1 The eddy currents circulating radially and longitudinally of cable sheaths are generated on similar principles of skin and proximity effects mentioned in relation to the conductor Rac resistance; i.e. they are induced by the conductor currents,

sheath circulating currents and by currents circulating in close proximity current carrying conductors.

Cable sheath

Eddy currents in cable sheath

Fig. 4:

Magnetic field of a three-phase single-core cable circuit

They are generated in cable sheath irrespective of bonding system of single core cables or of three-core cables The eddy currents are generally of smaller magnitude when comparing with circuit (circulating) currents of solidly bonded cable sheaths and may be neglects except in the case of large segmental conductors and are calculated in accordance with formulae given in the IEC60287, which for simplification of this document is not presented. Circulating currents are generated in cable sheath if the sheaths form a closed loop when bonded together at the remote ends or intermediate points along the cable route. These losses are named sheath circulating current losses and they are determined by the magnitude of current in cable conductor, frequency, mean diameter, the resistance of cable sheath and the distance between single-core cables; i.e. the mutual inductance, calculated with the following equation:

Is = Es / (Rs2+ Xm2)1/2 Es = I Xm Xm = M x10-3 M = 0.2 ln (2S/dm) Where, I = conductor current Xm = inductive reactance per phase including the self inductance of the conductor and the mutual inductance with other conductors. M = mutual inductance between conductor and sheath s = Cable spacing dm = sheath mean diameter (m) Is = circulating current Rs = Sheath resistance The actual calculation of circulating currents need to take into consideration the magnetic influence of the conductor currents in all three single core cables (conductors and sheaths), the mutual impedance between cable and sheath and between all three cables. In addition, for multiple cable circuits the aspect is further complicated by the magnetic interference of circuits in close proximity. As a consequence the calculation magnitude of induced voltages and circulating currents is done by using specialised computer routines as indicated in the IEC60287. The cable system and the interconnecting network represented by distributed parameters (Impedances) and the hypothetical electrical occurrences (power frequency or fast transients). The general model is quite complicated and requires some computer programming and use of specialised software. The impact of circulating currents is included in the cable rating equations as a proportional quantity of sheath currents and sheath resistance to the conductor current and conductor resistance in form of:

R =I R I
1 S 2 C

(Eddy currents not included), quantity which is defined as

[Sheath Loss factor = 1] and is expressed as a proportional quantity of the total conductor losses. The general equation for calculation of current rating (100% load factor) is:

By computing this equation it can be defined , the cable conductor maximum permissible temperature rise above the ambient in the following form: = (I2R + Wd) T1 + [I2R (1 + 1) + Wd] nT2 + [I2R (1+ 1 + 2) + Wd) n (T3 + T4) However in the case of a simplified cable circuit consisting of three single-core cables provided with metallic sheath and no metallic armour (2 = 0 and T3 =0) and ignoring the environmental thermal resistance (T4) the temperature rise between conductor and cable outer surface is given with the following equation: = I2R [T1+ T2 (1 + 1)] + Wd (T1/2 +T2) Where: = temperature rise above ambient temperature I = conductor current R = A.C conductor resistance Wd = dielectric losses T1, T2 = thermal resistances of cable insulation and anticorrosion jacket of cable. It is seen that the Loss Factor or power loss factor 1 as generated by the circulating currents in cable metallic sheath is impacting on the heat crossing the anticorrosion jacket and soil thermal resistance before being dissipated in air. 2.4 Special Bonding Systems Single core distribution power cables are normally installed with cable metallic sheaths or metallic copper screens solidly bonded to earth at both ends. However, in cases of high and extra high voltage single-core cables installed in flat formation the circulating currents could be as high as the current in cable conductors, i.e. several hundred Amps especially if the cable sheaths would be solidly bonded to earth at both ends. In order to minimise the sheath circulating currents the single-core cables are very often laid in close touching trefoil formation. However, as the three cables

have a considerable heating effect upon one another the heat dissipation is very poor. In order to increase the rate of heat dissipation the obvious solution would be to increase the spacing between cables, regardless if installed in trefoil or flat formations, aspect which in return would have a direct effect of an increased magnitude of circulating currents. A proper balance of cable spacing must be identified to optimise the two effects; circulating currents and heat dissipation. The solid bonding system does not have a limitation impact on cable systems of MV of up to 33kV but with larger conductor sizes and higher voltages the impact is significant and alternative sheath bondedind systems need to be used. For particular cases of short HV cable circuits (few hundred metres) the technique of sheath special bonding systems involves earthing the single-core cable sheaths at one point only and insulating all other points of the sheath from earth, so that the circulating sheath losses are eliminated and the single-core cables can be spaced apart to reduce their mutual heating effect without increasing sheath losses. Some of the most common Single-point Bonding arrangements are as shown in Fig. 5

1 (m)

0 1 (m) b) Sheaths earthed at the immediate point (midLEG

0 1 (m)

a) Sheaths earthed at one end only

c) Sheaths earthed at both ends and sectionalised at the immediate point

Fig. 5: Diagrammatic representation of single-point bonding systems of cable metallic sheaths or screens and of induced voltages

For long cable connections, where the cable circuits consist of a series of individual cable sections sequentially jointed, the cable sheaths are connected in different configurations including the so called cross bonding system (Fig.6) In this system the corresponding route length is divided in multiples of three length of ca Each major transposition section is formed of three individual sections of equal length and installed at equal and uniform spacing. This solution is expected to provide balanced induced voltages at a vectorial angle of 120 of no resultant circulating current when phasorial summation was applied.

Fig. 6: Cross-bonding system without cable transposition at each joint bay However, this is not the case, because when single-core cables are installed in flat formation the voltages induced in the cable sheaths of outer cables are higher than the induced voltage in the middle cable and the vectorial (phasor) summation is not zero. As a consequence it is not possible to eliminate the circulating currents in a cable circuit where only the cable sheaths are crossbonded. The imbalanced phasorial voltage (Fig.7) is generating a residual voltage which, in return would generate circulating currents.

Smaller induced voltage than in the 1st or 3rd minor section

Imbalanced difference

Fig. 7: Imbalanced induced voltages in a major transposition section with un-transposed minor cable sections

When the cable sheaths of transposed cables occupying the same position in circuit configuration are straight connected the vectorial summation of induced voltage would be zero if the system would be of balanced parameters: currents, spacing and length (Fig.8). So, it is obvious that in order to significantly reduce or to eliminate the circulating current losses the cable and cable sheaths must be transposed at every joint bay position and the sheaths cross-connected with phase rotation in opposition to that of cable transposition (Fig.8). This would facilitate a direct serial connection of the cable sheaths of the three cable sections occupying the same position in cable trench along a major transposition section.

A R

C R

Fig. 8: Typical diagram of cross-bonding system with cable transposition

By connecting in series the cable sheath of the three phases (120 phasor displacement) the circulating currents could be eliminated; the phasor sum of induced voltages could be zero if the geometrical data of cable circuit is uniform along the three cable sections.

UB

B U OA

U AB B U BC

UA O=C

UC O C

Fig. 9: Balanced induced voltage along three consecutive cable sheaths occupying the same position in cable trench However, it is evident that in practice the circulating currents can not be totally eliminated. There would be all sorts of site limiting conditions to install the cable sections at equal spacing and equal length and as consequence a loss factor - 1 in range of 3% for direct buried cable circuits and 5% for cable in ducts are considered realistic figures (IEC 60287). Even larger losses may be tolerated based on client acceptance of higher losses balanced against capital expenditure.

The sheath currents and the induced voltages vary as a function of bonding system, as follows: i. Solid-bonded cable sheaths (earthing at both ends) The circulating currents consume the induced voltages and as a consequence the entire cable sheath is at ground potential. The generated heat reduces the cable rating ii. Single-point bonding The cable sheaths are subjected to a standing voltage varying between earth potential at grounding point and maximum induced magnitude at isolated (remote or mid-point) end of cable section iii. Cross-bonding The maximum induced voltage in respect to earth depends on the position of each minor transposition section within the major transposition section. At the ends of major transposition sections the cable sheaths are at earth potential while at all other points along the cable the voltage is proportional to cable length in respect to earthing points or, for the median (2nd) minor section, of measuring point in respect to the other two minor sections. The maximum induced voltage amplitude is generally accepted as 150V. In special circumstances it could be as high as 250V provided that the bonding system of cable circuit is properly designed to satisfy the insulation coordination and safety requirements. Nevertheless there are examples of cable installations where the induced standing voltage could be as high as 400V. The special bonding system requires that the metallic sheaths and cable accessories (joints, terminations and connections to CMS condition monitoring system) are electrically insulated with respect to earth (radial direction) and between two adjacent cable sections (longitudinal direction).

The cross-bonding of cable sheaths is made in specially designed boxes, generically denominated Link Boxes where the incoming bonding leads (singlecore or concentric conductor cables) are cross-connected. Concentric bonding leads between link boxes and power cable joints are designed to minimise the surge impedance between cable sheaths and SVL protecting the bonding system. The link boxes are equipped with sheath voltage limiters (SVL) designed to protect the cable outer sheath (anticorrosion jacket), insulating flanges and barriers in cable accessories and all other insulating components of bonding system, against transient voltages propagated along the cable system. The effect of specially bonding systems is visible when comparing the cable rating of cables installed in solid and cross-bonded systems. The current rating of cable system of 132kV and above could be up to 50% higher for specially bonded cable circuits. The rating is influenced by the following three factors: Reduction of circulation currents Increased spacing between single-core cables with direct response of improved heat dissipation Reduction of eddy current losses with the increase of cable spacing

However it is recognised that the specially bonding system increases the capital and running (maintenance) costs of the cable system. The cost of the bonding system for an average 220kV cable system could be in range of 1 to 1.5% of material cost for cable and accessories. Nevertheless these costs are compensated by savings in cable size and the number of accessories dependent of the length of cable sections (bigger cable = shorter length) installed in the system and the maintenance costs could be reduced by acquisition of reliable cable bonding system including cable outer jacket, joints (insulating barriers), bonding leads, link boxes and sheath voltage limiters (SVL).

Sheath Voltage Limiters (SVL)

Post insulators

Fig.10: Cross Bonding Link Box (LB) The periodical maintenance of a reliable bonding system may be performed on a three-year basis and even longer periods, depending on local environment and statistical evaluation of accumulated maintenance data.

3 Conclusions and Observations

The basic factors influencing the current rating capacity of underground (U/G) power cable systems is govern by three major factors: a) Cable construction: conductor size, physical dimensions and quality of materials b) Installation particulars: single-core cable configuration and spacing, bonding of cable metallic sheaths, proximity to other utilities, thermal influencing factors and burial depth c) Environmental parameters: air and soil temperature and thermal characteristics of soil and of bedding and backfilling materials

Note: The a) and b) factors are responsible for the magnitude of electrical losses which, in return, are impacting on current rating of cable system The calculation of losses and current carrying capacity are based on well established international standards (IEC 60287 and IEC 60853) or national standards. However, as the fine details of cable construction are very specific to each cable type produced by each manufacturer, an accurate calculation of losses and of current rating are performed exclusively by cable suppliers using personalised computer programs and softwares In order to verify the accuracy of cable rating and magnitude of losses the cable manufacturers carry out full scale trial experiments simulating hypothetical installation and loading conditions.

4 Bibliograpfy
i. ii. iii. iv. Rating of Electric Power Cables Ampacity Computation for Transmission, Distribution and Industrial Applications. IEEE Press Power Engineering by GEORGE J. ANDERS Electric Cables Handbook BICC Cables, by G.F. MOORE Underground Transmission Systems Power Technologies Inc. (J.A. Williams) & EPRI (RW Samm). IEC 60287 Electric cables Calculation Part 1: Continuous rating equations (100% load factor)and calculation of losses